Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

CHAPTER FOUR: Mechanical Properties

of Materials

1.Introduction
This chapter discussed the basic concepts of stress and strain, we will in this
chapter show how stress can be related to strain by using experimental methods to
determine the stress–strain diagram for a specific material. The behavior described by
this diagram will then be discussed for materials that are commonly used in
engineering. Also, mechanical properties and other tests that are related to the
development of mechanics of materials will be discussed.

2. The Stress–Strain Diagram

We can determine the nominal or engineering stress by dividing the applied
load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area Ao . This calculation assumes
that the stress is constant over the cross section and throughout the gauge length. We
have

Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gauge
reading, or by dividing the change in the specimen’s gauge length, δ , by the
specimen’s original gauge length Lo . Here the strain is assumed to be constant
throughout the region between the gauge points. Thus,

If the corresponding values of σ and ε are plotted so that the vertical axis is the stress
and the horizontal axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–
strain diagram.

The characteristic stress–strain diagram for a steel specimen is shown in Fig. below .
From this curve we can identify four different ways in which the material behaves,
depending on the amount of strain induced in the material.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

Conventional stress-strain diagrams

for ductile material (steel) (not to scale)

Elastic Behavior. Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the
specimen are within the light orange region shown in Fig. above. Here the curve is
actually a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the stress is proportional
to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic. The upper stress
limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit , σpl . If the stress
slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as
shown. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this
point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return back to its original shape.

Yielding. A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown
of the material and cause it to deform permanently . This behavior is called yielding ,
and it is indicated by the rectangular dark orange region of the curve. The stress that
causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point , σY , and the deformation that
occurs is called plastic deformation . Although not shown in Fig.above, for low-carbon
steels or those that are hot rolled, the yield point is often distinguished by two values.
The upper yield point occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease in load-carrying
capacity to a lower yield point ., the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without
any increase in load.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

Strain Hardening. When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by
the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it
reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress , σu . The rise in the curve
in this manner is called strain. hardening , and it is identified in Fig. above as the
region in light green.

Necking. Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area
will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge length;
just after, at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a
localized region of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form in
this region as the specimen elongates further, Fig. a . This region of the curve due to
necking is indicated in dark green in Fig. above . Here the stress–strain diagram tends
to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress , σf , Fig. b.

3. Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on their
stress–strain characteristics.
Ductile Materials. Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it
fractures is called a ductile material . Mild steel, as discussed previously, is a typical
example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these materials
are capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become overloaded, they will
usually exhibit large deformation before failing.
Ductile materials, such as most metals, exhibit both elastic and plastic behavior.
Ductility is usually specified by the percent elongation to failure or by the percent
reduction in the cross-sectional area.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

Here, the specimen’s original gauge length is L0 and its length at fracture is Lf.
A0 is the specimen’s original cross-sectional area and Af is the area of the neck at
fracture.

Besides steel, other metals such as brass, molybdenum, and zinc may also exhibit
ductile stress–strain characteristics similar to steel.

However, constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range. One metal for
which this is the case is aluminum. Actually, this metal often does not have a well-
defined yield point , and consequently it is standard practice to define a yield strength
using a graphical procedure called the offset method . Normally for structural design a
0.2% strain ( 0.002 in./in. ) is chosen, and from this point on the ε axis, a line parallel
to the initial straight-line portion of the stress–strain diagram is drawn. The point
where this line intersects the curve defines the yield strength. Shown Fig. below.

An exception would be natural rubber, which in fact does not even have a
proportional limit, since stress and strain are not linearly related. Instead, as shown in
Fig. below , this material, which is known as a polymer, exhibits nonlinear elastic
behavior. Wood is a material that is often moderately ductile.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

Brittle Materials. Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred
to as brittle materials . Gray cast iron is an example, having a stress–strain diagram in
tension as shown by portion AB of the curve in Fig.below. Here fracture at σf = 22 ksi
(152 MPa) took place initially at microscopic crack and then spread rapidly across the
specimen, causing complete fracture. Since the appearance of initial cracks in a
specimen is quite random, brittle materials do not have a well-defined tensile fracture
stress. A typical failed specimen is shown in Fig.a .
Compared with their behavior in tension, brittle materials, such as gray cast iron,
exhibit a much higher resistance to axial compression, as evidenced by portion AC of
the curve in Fig. below . For this case any cracks or imperfections in the specimen tend
to close up, and as the load increases the material will generally bulge or become barrel
shaped as the strains become larger, Fig.b.

Like gray cast iron, concrete is classified as a brittle material, and it also has a low
strength capacity in tension. The characteristics of its stress–strain diagram depend
primarily on the mix of concrete (water, sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and
temperature of curing. A typical example of a “complete” stress–strain diagram for
concrete is given in Fig. below.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

4. Strain Hardening.
If a specimen of ductile material, such as steel, is loaded into the plastic region and
then unloaded, elastic strain is recovered as the material returns to its equilibrium
state. The plastic strain remains , however, and as a result the material is subjected to a
permanent set . For example, a wire when bent (plastically) will spring back a little
(elastically) when the load is removed. This behavior can be illustrated on the stress–
strain diagram shown in Fig. a .below.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

5.Hooke’s Law
As noted in the previous section, the stress–strain diagrams for most engineering
materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic
region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a proportionate increase in strain.
This fact was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs and is known as
Hooke’s law . It may be expressed mathematically as

Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the Modulus of

elasticity or Young’s modulus .
This equation actually represents the equation of the initial straight-lined portion of the
stress–strain diagram up to the proportional limit. that E can be used only if a material
has linear elastic behavior.

EXAMPLE 1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress–strain diagram shown in Fig. below.
Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield strength based on a 0.2% offset.
Identify on the graph the ultimate stress and the fracture stress.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 2

An aluminum rod, shown in Fig. a , has a circular cross section and is subjected to an
axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–strain diagram is shown in Fig.b,
determine the approximate elongation of the rod when the load is applied. Take Eal =
70 GPa.
 Mechanics of materials By: Ali Muzher

SOLUTION