BASIC

OPERATOR
TRAINING
PROGRAM

Item: 685
NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION
 Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s)
nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage
or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material contained
herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation.
Any opinions expressed by the author(s) are not necessarily those of NADCA.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe nor endorse the product or corporation.

© 2015 by North American Die Casting Association, Arlington Heights, Illinois. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any parts may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
 BASIC OPERATOR
TRAINING PROGRAM

ITEM: 685

2015 Latest Revision

W. Butler
 PREFACE
The training program that you are now beginning is designed to give you formal training in the
die casting process. This knowledge of the process will help you determine when the process is
operating correctly and when it is in trouble and may require corrective action. Along the way, you
will learn about the die cast die, the die cast machines, the various materials and alloys that are
used on a daily basis and how they must all work together to produce an acceptable casting.

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This training program will consist of eleven lessons of varying length.
They are:
1. Introduction to Die Casting and Safety on the Shop Floor
2. Understanding Metal Melting/Handling for Operators
3. Die Casting Machine Components and the Die Casting Cycle
4. How It Works – The Shot End
5. Why Shot Monitors Are Important
6. Die Components and Their Functions
7. Everybody Is Involved In Die Setup
8. Proper Care and Treatment of Dies During Production
9. Recognizing and Controlling Flow Defects
10. Recognizing and Controlling Porosity

11. Eliminating Solder and Flash Defects

Each chapter of this book is designed to support the information presented during the
corresponding lesson of the training program. The first lesson will set the stage for the entire
program. It is designed to tell you about the program, your role in the die casting plant and
industry, and will concentrate on safety in the industrial die casting environment.

The second lesson on metal melting and handling will discuss the alloys that are used for
the production of die castings. The various alloy compositions will be presented and your
responsibilities as an operator will be stressed.

The third lesson on the die casting machine will familiarize you with all of the components of
the die casting machine and their function. In the future, this will help you to identify and locate
components on the machine that may be a source of trouble, and let you readily communicate
about them to your supervisor and a maintenance mechanic.

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 Lesson four will focus on the shot end of the die casting machine. This part of the machine
injects the molten metal into the die at a very high rate of speed. However, this speed is
controlled in such a way as to produce acceptable castings. There is some math involved in this
section and it will be explained in detail.

Lesson five presents an important control system of modern die casting equipment, the shot
monitor. This equipment measures and controls the die casting cycle to insure quality parts and is
a critical piece of equipment for each machine operator to understand.

Lesson six will discuss the die components that are used to produce die castings. All of the
features of this important piece of equipment will be presented so that you will be able to identify
components that may need attention during production.

Lesson seven discusses die setups. There are often frequent die changes in die casting plants and
they represent lost production time. It is important to understand the need for preparation and for
proper procedures to minimize the time lost during die setups.

Lesson eight presents the care of die casting dies during production. The many details involved
in producing good parts time after time are discussed. This will be a critical part of your job as an
operator.

The last three lessons present the most common die casting defects and how they can best
be controlled. Lesson nine discusses flow defects, lesson ten presents controlling porosity in die
castings, and lesson eleven discusses how to eliminate solder and flash defects. It is important that
you be able to quickly identify casting defects and take corrective action or notify your supervisor.

6 OPERATOR TRAINING BOOK

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON 1 - INTRODUCTION TO DIE CASTING & SAFETY ON THE SHOP FLOOR9

LESSON 2 - UNDERSTANDING METAL MELTING/HANDLING FOR OPERATORS37

LESSON 3 - DIE CASTING MACHINES AND CELL AREA EQUIPMENT89

LESSON 4 - HOW IT WORKS - THE SHOT END147

LESSON 5 - WHY SHOT MONITORS ARE IMPORTANT167

LESSON 6 - DIE COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS195

LESSON 7 - EVERYBODY IS INVOLVED IN DIE SETUP231

LESSON 8 - PROPER CARE AND TREATMENT OF DIES DURING PRODUCTION259

LESSON 9 - RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING FLOW DEFECTS289

LESSON 10 - RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING POROSITY307

LESSON 11 - ELIMINATING SOLDER AND FLASH DEFECTS313

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8 OPERATOR TRAINING BOOK
 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIE CASTING
& SAFETY ON THE SHOP FLOOR

OBJECTIVES
1. To learn about the die casting industry

●● To learn the history of die casting

●● To learn where die castings are used
●● To learn the advantages of die castings
●● To learn about the jobs in the die casting industry
●● To learn about the operator training program
●● To learn what each lesson will cover

2. To learn about safety in the die cast environment

●● To learn about the types of safety hazards

●● To learn about personal protection
●● To learn about general machine safety
●● To learn about general die safety
●● To learn about work place safety
●● To learn about plant air safety

PERSPECTIVE
Metalcasting is an ancient industry. Its modern roots include sand casting, investment casting,
lost foam casting, permanent mold casting, centrifugal casting, and die casting. The word
“metalcasting” refers to the entire industry of pouring liquid metal into a mold for the purpose of
achieving a desired shape. Die casting is a particular variation of metalcasting where liquid metal
is forced into a reusable steel mold, or die, very quickly with high pressures.

Sand casting, investment casting, and lost foam casting processes all use gravity to fill the mold.
After the mold is filled, it is destroyed to remove the casting. Mold making is as important part of
these processes as is making the casting. In all these processes, gravity must fill all the casting,
consequently metal flow is slow and walls are much thicker than compared to die casting. The
cycle time is also longer because of the inability of the mold material to remove heat.

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Permanent mold casting could be considered a cousin to die casting. In this process the mold
is reused, not destroyed. The process uses gravity to fill the casting, so flow control is similar
to sand casting. Metal flow is slow. Since the mold is steel, and has comparatively good thermal
conductivity, the release agents used in this process are also insulators. This is necessary, to
keep the casting from freezing periodically, and preventing filling. Machines for this process are
relatively small compared to die cast for similar sized castings.

Figure 1-1 - Permanent mold casting

Centrifugal castings are frequently made by jewelers. This is the choice for low volume castings
with a small amount of pressure. The molds are placed around the circumference of a centrifuge.
As the centrifuge spins, metal is poured in at the center and centrifugal force distributes the
metal to the molds.

Die castings are among the highest volume, mass-produced items manufactured by the
metalworking industry. Die castings are important components in thousands of consumer,
commercial and industrial products, such as automobile equipment, electrical equipment and
ordnance, general hardware, power tools, computers, and other business equipment, instruments,
toys, novelties, and a great many others to numerous to mention. In fact, die castings have
greater utility and are used in more applications than components produced by almost any other
metal forming process.

Die casting is a process involving the injection of molten metal at high pressures (as opposed to
casting by gravity pressure). It is believed to have begun sometime during the middle of the 19th
century. According to records, in 1849, Sturges patented the first manually operated machine for
casting printing type.

Another 20 years passed before the process was extended to casting other shapes. The casting of
printer’s type led to patents, which eventually resulted in development of the linotype machine by
Ottmar Mergenthaller.

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The earliest commercial applications for die castings occurred in 1892 when parts were produced
for phonographs and cash registers. Mass production was further encouraged when the H.H.
Franklin Company began die casting babitt alloy bearings for automobile connecting rods shortly
after the turn of the century.

Various compositions of tin and lead were the first die casting alloys. Their importance and
use declined, however, with the development of zinc alloys just prior to World War I. Magnesium
and copper followed shortly thereafter. During the 1930s, many of the alloys we know today had
become available. Today alloys of aluminum are most widely used followed by alloys of zinc.
Modern science and technology, metallurgical controls and research are making possible still
further refinements resulting in new alloys with increased strength and stability.

Through the years, many significant technological improvements have been made to the basic
die casting process, to die steels and to die construction, as well as in casting capability and
production capacity of the process. The new technology has been tremendously effective in
expanding die casting applications into almost every known market.

The major advantages of die casting are:

●● C
ast parts are net shape or near-net, that is, they are cast to their finished size,
requiring no or minimal machining operations.

Figure 1-2 - Photo of complex near net shape casting

●● A variety of metal and metal alloys can be cast, from aluminum to zinc.

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Figure 1-3 - Photos of Al, Mg, Cu base, and Zn alloy castings

●● Very large and very small castings can be made from automotive engine blocks and
transmissions to miniature gears and pinions.

Figure 1-4(a) - Photo of transmission housing

Figure 1-4(b) - Shielded cable header

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●● I ntricate shapes can be produced both on the inside and outside of the casting,
automotive transmission valve are an example.

Figure 1-5 - Transmission valve casting

All of the industries products are fully recyclable. In fact most of our alloys are made from
recycled materials.

Figure 1-6 - Photo of recycling bins at a secondary smelter

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In 2015 there were approximately 450 die casters in North America, with sales of $8 billion. Die
castings were produced from aluminum, copper, lead, magnesium and zinc alloys as well as various
composite materials. These castings found their end use in cars, machinery, space, appliances,
sporting goods, toys, and many other applications.

In a die casting plant there are many different jobs that must be done. These include the
president or owner, controller, salesman, maintenance mechanic, smelter, material handler just
to name a few. Your job as a die casting machine operator is one of the most important. Just look
around as you work. The metal handler, the trimmer, the inspector, the material handler are all
doing jobs that service and support your activity as a machine operator. It is most important that
the machines run and produce acceptable castings for your customer. If no castings are produced,
many of the other jobs in the plant are irrelevant.

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SELF TEST 1
Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

1. Metal casting processes include:

a. die casting
b. forging
c. permanent molding
d. lost foam casting

2. The alloys of which element are most widely used in die casting:

a. aluminum
b. magnesium
c. zinc
d. none of the above

3. Alloys of this element are second most widely used:

a. aluminum
b. magnesium
c. zinc
d. none of the above

4. The die casting process utilizes:

a. gravity to fill the die

b. a re-useable steel die
c. a wooden pattern
d. none of the above

5. Advantages of die castings are:

a. many can be used with little or no machining

b. the materials are fully recyclable
c. copper alloys can be used
d. all of the above

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SAFETY
Any industrial environment will have hazards in it. The die casting plant has some particular
hazards that you must be aware of to work safely. The die casting plant uses molten metal at very
high pressures. This requires that you should be thinking about safety, whatever you are doing.
Safety is an attitude; you have to take a defensive attitude. This is similar to driving a car. You
have to anticipate what will happen when you take an action, in fact, you should be certain of the
outcome before any action is taken. You also have to anticipate the actions of others.

The pursuit of safety requires that top management must be fully committed to safety.
The company must provide well maintained properly guarded equipment in a clean working
environment. Supervisors and production personnel must work together to teach and motivate safe
work attitudes and habits. If an accident occurs, an objective analysis must be made to determine
its cause and avoid its repetition.

The types of hazards that occur in the die casting plant can be characterized as pinch, snag,
strike, burn, electric shock, pierce, slip-fall, trip-fall and fire. These hazards are not unique to the
die casting plant, and as with any activity that has special safety requirements, such as driving
a car, you must become familiar with the potential safety hazards, in order to avoid injury to
yourself or associates. For example, reaching into the die space to remove a casting exposes the
operator to pinch, burn and snag hazards.

Personal Protection
For your personal protection it is important to wear the proper protective clothing. Because of
the hazards associated with liquid metals, high pressures, and high temperatures, it is important
to “cover up”. Cotton or woolen clothing is appropriate as opposed to polyester or plastic like
materials that will melt under conditions of high temperature. Proper clothing for the die casting
machine operator includes shirts with long sleeves buttoned at the wrist, long pants, molder’s
boots, gloves, and safety glasses. Some plants will require helmets in order to prevent head
injuries. Molder’s boots have an elastic closure around the ankle that prevents metal from getting
into the shoe. The elastic top also makes them easy to put on and remove. These boots should also
have steel toes and arch supports. The safety glasses should have side shields to offer protection
from the sides.

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Figure 1-7 - Properly attired die caster

Other jobs in the die cast foundry will require special protective clothing. For example, the
furnace cleaners will require special clothing to protect them from radiant heat given off by the
furnace. This will burn faster than the sun burning a sunbather. The metal handler will have to
wear special protective clothing to protect against metal splashing.

Machine
The die casting machine has moving parts, pinch and shear points, lubricants, hydraulic fluid,
and electrical controls. Particular areas of the machine may be hot; the hydraulic fluid is usually
hot. Areas that are recognized as potential safety hazards along with appropriate preventative
measures are discussed in the Die Casting Machine lesson. Typical machine features are described
along with the particular type of hazard that could be present.

Die Casting Dies

The die casting die is hot at operating temperatures and can have pinch and shear points. Each
die feature that is a recognized potential hazard is discussed in the Die Casting Die lesson along
with appropriate preventative measures.

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Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary equipment such as furnaces, conveyors, reciprocators, robots and the like have safety
considerations. These are discussed in detail in the various lessons that are appropriate to them.

Work Environment
The work area also requires special safety considerations. Keeping your work area neat and clean
is the first step to a safe environment and maintaining your personal safety. Tripping obstacles can
cause injury. Machines will have components that project from them. These are trip-fall hazards.
These items should be painted with standard OSHA color coding in order to make them more
visible.

Figure 1-8 - Trip obstacle at machine

Excessive noise can be a hazard that can result in hearing loss in the die casting plant. OSHA
has published regulations regarding noise levels in the industrial environment. Modern machines
and equipment are built to meet these regulations. However, the combination of noises in the
industrial workplace makes it prudent to use hearing protection. At minimum, ear plugs are
recommended and are usually readily available. Hearing protection is required in some plants.

Figure 1-9 - Graphic of ear protection

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The die casting process consumes a large amount of lubricants, release and cooling agents. It is
not unusual for these to get on the floor and cause a slip-fall hazard. Good housekeeping practices
must be maintained to keep floors clean. When liquid spills occur, surface drying compounds
should be used immediately. Rigid equipment maintenance and preventative programs should be
used to minimize the leakage of fluids from machines and dies.

Figure 1-10 - Hazardous floor conditions

Floor clutter will cause slip-fall hazards. This includes electric cords, cables, and hoses running
across the floor. If hoses, pipes and cables must be at approximately floor level, they should be
in a trench that is properly covered or be covered above the floor level. Floor clutter could also
include process debris such as scrap, biscuits, runners, overflows, and sprues.

Figure 1-11 - Floor clutter

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Operator platforms are used to establish the proper working height and prevent fatigue. The
platforms should be of uniform height for similar machines. The platforms need to provide a non-
skid surface to minimize any slip-fall hazard. Proper working heights are necessary to minimize
aches and pains resulting when a person works in an awkward position.

Figure 1-12 - Operator Platform

Machine controls must also be at the proper height to avoid fatigue. A maximum height of 70
inches to the top of the operator control panel has been found to be satisfactory.

Figure 1-13 - Operator at proper height platform

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Plant air or high pressure air is used in a variety of ways in the die casting operation, if
improperly used it can be hazardous. Escaping air can be noisy and an air blast can carry small
particles of dirt or metal. This could be hazardous to your hearing or eyesight. To prevent leakage
or sudden air blasts, air connections should be secured by strong couplings and connectors. Air
hoses should be arranged to prevent tripping hazards.

There are a number actions that you can take in order to prevent an accident from occurring
when working with high pressure air. They are:

●● Check all air hose connections before turning on the air or pressurizing the lines.
●● When turning air on or off, hold the nozzle end of the hose to prevent whipping of the
air line.
●● Shut off the air before adjusting air tools.
●● Never point an air nozzle at anyone.
●● Do not use air to dust off hair or clothing, or to sweep the floor.
●● Wear safety glasses when using high pressure air.
●● Inspect air hoses regularly and request prompt repair of defective lines.

Figure 1-14 - Photo of air hose and/or manifold

Handling materials can also be injurious. Correct handling of objects in the die casting plant is
important. The following pointers to the correct procedure for handing various materials should be
observed. This is not a comprehensive list, but a starting point.

●● Inspect materials for slivers, jagged edges, burrs, and rough or slippery edges.
●● Get a firm grip on the object.
●● Keep fingers away from pinch points, especially when setting materials down.
●● When handling long objects such as pipes and panels, keep hands away from the ends
to prevent them from being pinched.
●● Wipe off greasy, wet, slippery or dirty objects before trying to handle them.
●● Keep hands free of oil and grease.

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SELF TEST 2
Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

1. Your attitude toward safety should be:

a. it’s not my problem

b. defensive, anticipate problems
c. it’s a management problem
d. none of the above

2. There are many hazards in the die casting workplace, they include:

a. burns
b. pinches
c. slipping
d. all of the above

3. Protective clothing includes:

a. long sleeve shirts

b. gloves
c. safety glasses
d. all of the above

4. Reaching into the die to remove a casting exposes you to the following hazards:

a. burn
b. snag
c. pinch
d. all of the above

5. The work environment should be:

a. free of floor clutter on the traffic pattern

b. never be hotter than 90ºF
c. reasonably free of soda cans and other recyclables
d. all of the above

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SAFETY
Let us review a number of items that are crucial to safe operation of the die casting machine.
The types of hazards that exist at the die cast machine are pinch, snag, strike, burn, electric
shock, pierce, slip-fall and fire.

Pinch hazards exist at the:

Linkage - as the linkage operates, the links and/or accessories attached to them can create
pinch areas.

Figure 1-15 - Linkage and die space guards

Safety ratchet pawl -the safety ratchet is a notched bar that moves with the moving platen or
toggle cross head. A pawl drops into the notches to prevent accidental closing of the machine.
The pawl drops by gravity into a notch in the safety bar. If it should drop when someone’s hand is
under it, it would create a pinch hazard and cause injury.

Figure 1-16 - Safety ratchet

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Power doors -doors are used frequently to deter entry to the parting line area during the
machine close and dwell portions of the machine cycle. These gates may be closed manually.
However, bigger gates on larger machines require a considerable effort to close. Such gates are
closed by pneumatic or hydraulic power. The pressure used to close these gates should be as low
as practical. The closing speed should be such that the gate does not pose a serious pinch or strike
hazard. The leading edge of these gates should be covered with a resilient padding.

Figure 1-17 - Power driven gate

Chain/Gear drives -normally on die casting machines, chain or gear drives are limited to the
powered shut height mechanism. The movement of the chain or gears can create pinch or snag
hazards. Machine suppliers provide guards for these areas.

Figure 1-18 - Gear-, worm-, and chain-driven shut heights

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Mechanical/ hydraulic bumper plates -the space between the moveable platen and the bumper
plate presents a pinch hazard as the platen retracts during machine opening or the bumper
plate moves forward during ejection. This area is usually protected by the linkage guards. If the
installation of knock out rods requires entry into the pinch area, the machine must be shut down
and locked out to a ZES condition.

Figure 1-19 - Bumper plate highlighted

Limit trip switch rods -limit switches are actuated by rods or cams that push against the switch
arm as the machine moves. As the actuator contacts and actuates the limit switch, it could cause
a pinch point. If someone should bump against, grab or otherwise actuate the limit switch, it could
cause machine movements, which would be unexpected and therefore hazardous.

Figure 1-20 - Limit switch trip rod

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Pour hole -on horizontal cold chamber machines, metal is poured into the hole at the top of the
cold chamber. The plunger then moves through the cold chamber to force the molten metal into
the die. As the plunger moves forward it creates a shearing action as it passes the edge of the pour
hole. This is a serious pinch hazard. A finger is easily amputated if caught in the pour hole as the
plunger passes. Drippings of metal solidify around the edges of the pour hole and it is necessary to
keep this area free of metal to assure that all metal is poured into the chamber. This metal should
never be removed without the use of a tool, screwdriver, pliers or ladle to knock the solidified
metal out of the way.

Figure 1-21 - Plunger, pour hole pinch point

Plunger coupling -at the end of the injection stroke a pinch hazard can exist between the
coupling, waterlines at the plunger rod and edge of the cold chamber. Care must be taken when
moving the plunger forward and rearward if the rod is being rotated to check the fit in the sleeve.

Figure 1-22 - Plunger coupling, fully forward position of stroke

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Die carriers -many heavy dies will have supports or carriers that are mounted under the moving
die half, to carry its weight and relieve the moving platen of the die weight. Depending on where
these carriers are located, as they move back and forth with the die and moving platen a pinch
hazard could exist between the carrier and a fixed machine component.

Figure 1-23 - Die carrier

Tie bar pulling mechanism -as the automated tie bar pulling mechanism works, the movement
of the various components relative to fixed machine components can cause pinch hazards.

Snag hazards exist at:

Chain or gear drives -see previous entry.

Rotating couplings -the coupling between the motor and the pumps may snag clothing or
fingers. The coupling rotates at the motor speed and may have projections. These areas are
usually covered with simple sheet metal guards. It is extremely important that these guards be
maintained and replaced when they are removed for maintenance.

Figure 1-24 - Couplings and Covers

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Burn hazards exist at:

Die parting line -occasionally, molten metal may escape the die at its parting plane. The metal
will “spit” out of the die at high velocity, and if it is not contained within the machine envelope at
can burn anyone who is in the vicinity. Operators and all others in the die casting workshop should
be instructed never to stand in line with the parting plane when metal is injected or the die is
opening. Some dies will have guards mounted on them to contain any spitting metal. The most
effective protection from parting line spitting is safety gates that cover the parting line. A three
piece guard for the top, operator and helper sides of the machine is most effective. During normal
production the top and helper side gates remain in place. Limit switches are used to check and
confirm the position of the safety gates.

Figure 1-25 - Safety gates

Bursting biscuit -if the biscuit or plug at the end of the cold chamber in front of the plunger
tip has not solidified completely when the machine opens it could burst due to the high internal
pressure. This explosion can cause metal to be sprayed everywhere and cause a burn hazard. The
operator must be aware of this hazard and not be positioned at the parting line when the machine
opens the die. The operator should watch and note the position of the plunger at the end of the
injection stroke. The ending position of the plunger does not typically vary more than 1/4 inch.
If, for example the plunger does not travel as far as is normally expected the operator should
be aware that an exceptionally large biscuit may have been formed, and may not be completely
solidified when the machine opens the die.

Figure 1-26 - A non-solidified biscuit will burst

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Plunger tip spitting -if the fit between the cold chamber and tip is poor; metal could bypass the
tip and spit out of the cold chamber. This is a serious burn hazard inasmuch as the metal will be
deflected after hitting various machine components and fly in unpredictable directions. The same
situation can exist in a hot chamber machine if the rings around the plunger tip fail or are broken.
These are hazards that the operator should be watching for, and should correct before they
become dangerous.

Figure 1-27 - Hot chamber picture of metal passing plunger

Leaky nozzle/gooseneck bushing -in the hot chamber system an adapter bushing is fitted
into the delivery end of the gooseneck. A nozzle is then fitted between the die and the adapter
bushing. These are usually metal to metal seals, although some shops will use composite seals in
these areas. These sealing areas can be prone to spitting if the components are not kept under an
adequate compression. Leakage in this area can be a serious burn hazard.

Figure 1-28 - Nozzle seat sprue bushing and post Nozzle Seat

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Machine platens -many times the stationary platen will become hot, particularly in the hot
chamber process. This could become a burn hazard.

Hydraulic fluid -sometimes the hydraulic fluid gets excessively hot, and leaks could become a
burn hazard. In some cases the hoses and piping for the hydraulic lines can become hot and also
become a hazard.

Pumps and motors -the hydraulic pumps and electric motors can get hot and become burn
hazards. During normal operation these components should not be touched, except possibly to
determine if something is going wrong.

Fire hazard exist:

Lubricants, Die and Plunger Tip -certain lubricant compounds are flammable and constitute a
fire hazard. Flame and/or minor explosions may occur with them. Every attempt should be made
to use non-flammable materials. If flammable materials cannot be avoided, they must be used
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Adequate ventilation should be provided where
fumes are created.

Hydraulic Fluids -most die casting machines have large volumes of hydraulic fluid, high pumping
capacity, and stored fluid under high pressure in the accumulators. Petroleum hydraulic fluid is
highly flammable, a fire hazard, and should not be used. A fire resistant hydraulic fluid is required
as part of the ANSI standard for safety requirements related to the construction, care and use
of die casting machines. However, the fire resistance of various hydraulic fluids varies widely
depending on the fluid type, manufacturer, and exposure to ignition sources.

Many fire-resistant fluids must be checked periodically to assure that their structure and
chemistry has not deteriorated. Some fluids can lose their fire-resistance or other operating
capabilities with use. A program of periodic fluid sampling may be required to maintain the
hydraulic fluid capabilities.

Electrical wiring -improperly maintained electrical wiring could result in a fire hazard.
Wires that are not securely connected can work loose with frequent machine vibrations during
production. This can cause the connection to fail and cause a machine malfunction, or, the spark/
arc from a loose connection could cause excessive heat in the junction and a possibility of igniting
flammable materials. Connections must be tight and the wiring must be secured. Electrical conduit
must be firmly anchored to the machine, and all junction boxes must be covered. Exposed wiring
is not acceptable. The operator must be aware that electrical conduit and flexible cable is not a
step or standing place.

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Figure 1-29 - Hazards with electrical wiring

Figure 1-30 - Hazards with electrical wiring

In the event of an electrical fire, only non-conducting materials should be used to extinguish it,
not water. CO2 or dry chemical extinguishers should be readily available in the workshop and used
on electrical fires.

Electrical Shock Hazards

Grounding -machines with moving parts and most fixed electrical installations must be
permanently grounded. This is to reduce the accumulation of static electricity that could result in
an electrical shock hazard.

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 INTRODUCTION TO DIE CASTING
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Exposed wiring -when wiring is exposed or wiring conduit is loose, wiring can become broken
and insulation frayed. This can result in an electrical hazard if you come in contact with the wire
or it can cause a short circuit resulting in a machine malfunction. Electrical conduit and fittings
must be firmly connected, and all electrical covers must be in place.

Strike Hazards
Falling machine components -a regular preventive maintenance program to check fasteners
is necessary to assure that no machine components come loose during production and strike
someone.

Tie bar nuts -if a tie bar were to break, the most likely locations are at the threaded ends. A
complete failure could cause the tie bar nut and broken section of the bar to fall. This would be
a strike hazard if someone was near by or working on the nut. The tie bar nuts on large machines
can be several feet from the floor and weigh hundreds of pounds.

Figure 1-31 - Tie bar nut with safety strap

Machine projectile - if broken during service, certain machine components can become flying
projectiles at the time of failure. Such an item could strike someone. Examples would be the
cylinder and intensifier tailrods and various caps covers and plates that may be subjected to high
pressures during operation.

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Figure 1-32 - Tailrods

Telescoping tubes -some machines use telescoping fittings and tubes to carry hydraulic fluid
to the cylinders. Since these components are moving during certain segments of the cycle, their
motion could be a strike hazard. Telescoping fittings can also create pinch hazards and should be
guarded to prevent access to the pinch areas.

Figure 1-33 - Telescoping fittings, gates and guards

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Safety gates, tracks and rollers -automatically operated safety gates can be a strike hazard if
someone gets in their way during closing and opening. It is recommended that the leading edges of
the gate be padded. A gate coming off the track could also strike someone. The track and rollers
should be constructed such that the gate does not merely hang on the track but is interlocked to
it. The track height is also important. It should be high enough that the operator need not stoop
under it to unload parts; the operator would run the risk of striking the track.

Figure 1-34 - Rollers, doors, and tracks

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 INTRODUCTION TO DIE CASTING
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SELF TEST 3
True or False
1. Pinch points on the die casting machines have caused severe injury and death.
True False

2. Once the power has been turned off, it is safe to work on the machine.
True False

3. The parting line of the die is not a pinch point.

True False

4. Exposed electrical wires on the die casting machine are dangerous.

True False

5. The pump is an example of a “stored” energy device.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all correct answers:

6. Which of the following fabrics should be avoided in the die cast foundry?

a. cotton
b. nylon
c. polyester
d. wool

7. Personal safety equipment should include the following:

a. glasses
b. shoes
c. long sleeves
d. gloves

8. Safety feature on the die casting machine can include:

a. safety bars
b. screens over the toggle mechanism
c. double palm buttons
d. two hydraulic pumps

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36 OPERATOR TRAINING BOOK
 2 UNDERSTANDING METAL MELTING/
HANDLING FOR OPERATORS

OBJECTIVES
To learn the different alloy systems for die casting alloys.

●● To learn about the various elements that makes up the alloy.

●● To learn the effects of the various elements on castability and properties.

PERSPECTIVE
There are many different alloys used in die casting today. Aluminum and zinc will be discussed
extensively in this lesson.

DIE CASTING ALLOYS

The materials that die castings are made from are alloys of various metals. Alloys are
combinations of two or more elements that are mixed together to achieve the mechanical and
metallurgical properties required by the casting.

For example, 380 aluminum alloy is part of what is called the aluminum-silicon-copper alloy
system. #3 zinc alloy is part of the zinc-aluminum system. The chemistry of the alloys will be
discussed later in this lesson. What is of interest to you, the die casting machine operator, is how
these alloys freeze and what control you will have on this freezing process. First, let’s discuss how
the die casting alloys freeze.

Freezing Behavior
The freezing process with which you are most familiar with is the compound known as water.
When water freezes, it freezes at one temperature; 32°F. Pure metals freeze the same way. If
water is at room temperature, in order to get it to freeze, you must lower its temperature to
32°F, and then continue to cool it, until it freezes. The temperature verses time graph, shows the
freezing behavior of several pure metals that are present in die casting alloys, zinc, aluminum,
copper, and silicon. In all cases the various metals freeze at a particular temperature for that
metal.

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Figure 2-1 - Time vs. temperature graph

Let’s expand the example of water freezing, and get more “specific” about what is actually
happening. As the water cools, it gives up heat. Heat is a form of pure energy, and as such it has
quantity and can be measured. However, heat is not measured directly. A quantity of heat would
be measured in BTU or calories. But no one has developed a BTU or calorie meter for measuring
heat. Instead, heat is measured indirectly, using temperature.

We have a container with a pound of water in it at room temperature, 70°F, to which we add
10 BTU of heat energy. What happens to the water? The water warms to 80°F. In fact, the pound
of water warms 1°F for every BTU that was added. The relationship between the mass or volume
of a material and the temperature change due to heat energy is called the “specific heat” of the
material. A pound of water has a specific heat of 1 BTU per F°. In other words, it takes 1 BTU to
increase the temperature of a pound of water by 1°F. This would be written as; the specific heat
of water is 1 BTU/lb-°F. Specific heat may also be related to the volume of a material. (A pound of
water is equal to 27.73 cubic inches.) On a volume basis, the specific heat of water is 0.036 BTU/
in3-°F.
1 BTU/lb-°F = 0.036 BTU/in3-°F
27.73 in3/lb

In die casting we usually make calculations based on the volume of the casting.

This concept of heat flowing into a material, and thereby raising its temperature, and then
flowing out and again lowering its temperature is very important to the understanding of die
casting materials and the process. This heat energy related to increasing and decreasing the
material’s temperature, is known as sensible heat.

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c Specific Heat

Alloy Cp
J/cm3-°C BTU/in3-°F
Mg (AZ91D) 1.850 0.016
Al 360, 380, 384 2.900 0.025
Al 390 2.900 0.025
Zn 12, 27 2.780 0.024
Zn 3,5,7 2.780 0.024
Fe 3.130 0.027
Cu 60/40 3.130 0.027
Cu 85-5-5-5 3.130 0.027
Pb 85-5-5-5 1.450 0.013

Figure 2-2 - Table of specific heats of die casting alloys

Look at the time verses temperature chart. Again, notice that at the freezing temperature for
each of the metals, it shows a horizontal line. This means that during the conversion from liquid
to solid, heat is given up without any temperature change. This heat energy is known as the latent
heat of fusion. For water the heat of fusion is 144 BTU per pound, or 5.19 BTU per cubic inch.

Latent Heat of Fusion

Alloy H1
J/cm3 BTU/in3
Mg (AZ91D) 657.0 10.6
Al 360, 380, 384 1447.0 22.5
Al 390 1705.0 26.5
Zn 12, 27 908.0 14.1
Zn 3,5,7 682.0 10.6
Fe 773.0 12.0
Cu 60/40 1391.0 21.6
Cu 85-5-5-5 1391.0 21.6
Pb 85-5-5-5 258.0 4.0

Figure 2-3 - Table of heats of fusion

When most alloys freeze, the time verses temperature chart, is slightly different than that for
pure metals and compounds.

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There is one combination of an alloy mixture that behaves like a pure metal, this is known is
the eutectic alloy mixture. The solidification curves for various aluminum alloys are shown in the
alloy time verses temperature chart. For most alloys the time verses temperature chart shows a
freezing range. The amount of this freezing range varies depending on the alloy.

Alloy °F °C
A360, 360 1035-1105 557-596
A380, 380 1000-1100 540-595
383, 384 960-1080 516-582
390 950-1200 510-650
AZ91D 875-1105 470-595
Zn 3,7 718-728 381-387
ZN 5 717-727 380-386
ZA-12 710-810 377-432
ZA-27 708-903 375-484

Figure 2-4 - Chart of freezing ranges for various die casting alloys

Heat in the alloy

It is important for you as a diecaster to know how much heat is in the alloy so you will know how
much heat has to be processed by the die. Let’s determine the amount of heat in a cubic inch of
zinc at the casting temperature and the amount of heat that must be processed in the die casting
die. The steps needed to calculate the heat input into the alloy to melt it and the heat given up by
the die are as follows:

1. Heat input to alloy. (QTOT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3)

●● QTOT Heat to increase alloy from room temperature to holding furnace temperature.
●● Q1 Heat to increase alloy to beginning melting temperature (solidus).
●● Q2 Heat to convert solid alloy to liquid alloy.
●● Q3 Heat to increase alloy from complete liquid temperature to holding furnace
temperature (liquidus).

2. Heat lost in transfer to die.

3. Heat input to the die. (QDIE = Q1 + Q2 + Q3)

●● Q1 Superheat lost to die.

●● Q2 Heat lost converting from liquid to solid.
●● Q3 Heat given up to the die until ejection.

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4. Heat given up to quench or atmosphere (QQ).

For example, calculate the various amounts of heat inputs and losses given the following
information.
For #3 zinc alloy:
Specific heat = 0.024 BTU/in3-°F
Latent heat of fusion = 10.6 BTU/in3
Room temperature = 70°F
Holding furnace temperature = 800°F
Alloy injection temperature = 780°F
Casting ejection temperature = 550°F
Beginning melting temperature = 718°F (liquidus)

Ending melting temperature = 728°F (solidus)

Quantity of alloy = 1 in3

1. (a). Heat to increase alloy to beginning melting temperature.

Q1 = Sensible heat
Sensible heat is the product of the amount of alloy specific heat and temperature change.
Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (718 - 70°F)
= 15.55 BTU

1. (b). Heat to convert solid alloy to liquid alloy plus heat to change temperature from the
beginning melting temperature to the ending melting temperature.

Q2 = Sensible heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (728 - 718°F) + 10.6 BTU
= 0.24 + 10.6
= 10.84 BTU

1. (c). Heat to increase liquid alloy to holding furnace temperature.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (800 - 728°F)
= 1.73 BTU

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The total heat to increase a cubic inch of zinc from room temperature to the holding furnace
temperature is the sum of 1a to 1c, or 28.12 BTU.

QTOT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
QTOT = 15.55 + 10.84 + 1.73 = 28.12 BTU

2. Heat lost in transfer of alloy from furnace to die.

Q (amount of heat) = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)

= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (780 - 800°F)
= -0.48 BTU

3. (a). Superheat lost to die.

Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)

= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (728 - 780°F)
= -1.25 BTU

3. (b). Heat lost converting from liquid to solid.

Q2 = Sensible heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (718 - 728°F) + (-10.6 BTU)
= -0.24 + (-10.6)
= -10.84 BTU

3 (c). Heat given up to the die until ejection.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (550-728°F)
= 4.27 BTU

The total heat, QDIE , given up to the die is the sum of items Q1, Q2 and Q3, or 16.36 BTU.

QDIE = 1.25 + 10.84 + 4.27 = 16.36 BTU Heat input to the die.

4. Finally, the heat lost to the quench is: QQ

QQ = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.024 BTU/in3-°F) (70 - 550°F)
= -11.52 BTU

With the assumptions of this example, 16.36 BTU are input to the die for every cubic inch of
zinc, every cycle.

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ALUMINUM 360 EXERCISE

Calculate the various amounts of heat inputs and losses for a cubic inch of 360 aluminum alloy.
Follow the steps shown in the previous zinc example.

For 360 aluminum alloy:

Specific heat = 0.025 BTU/in3-°F

Latent heat of fusion = 22.5 BTU/in3

Room temperature = 70°F

Holding furnace temperature = 1200°F

Alloy injection temperature = 1175°F

Casting ejection temperature = 700°F

Beginning melting temperature = 1035°F

Ending melting temperature = 1105°F

Quantity of alloy = 1 in3

ANSWER TO ALUMINUM 360 EXERCISE

1. (a). Heat to increase alloy to beginning melting temperature.

Q1 = Sensible heat
Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1035 - 70°F)
= 24.12 BTU

1. (b). Heat to convert solid alloy to liquid alloy plus heat to change temperature from the
beginning melting temperature to the ending melting temperature.

Q2 = Sensible heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1105 - 1035°F) + 22.5 BTU
= 1.75 + 22.5
= 24.25 BTU

1. (c). Heat to increase liquid alloy to holding furnace temperature.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1200 - 1105°F)
= 2.38 BTU

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The total heat to increase a cubic inch of aluminum from room temperature to the holding
furnace temperature is the sum of Q1 to Q3, or 45.25 BTU.

24.12 + 24.25 + 2.38 = 50.75 BTU

2. Heat lost in transfer of alloy from furnace to die.

Q(amount of heat)
= (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1175 - 1200°F)
= -0.62 BTU

3. (a). Superheat lost to die.

Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)

= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1105 - 1175°F)
= -1.75 BTU

3. (b). Heat lost converting from liquid to solid.

Q2 = Sensible heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (1035 - 1105°F) + 22.5 BTU
= -1.75 + (-22.5)
= -24.25 BTU

3. (c). Heat given up to the die until ejection.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (700-1035°F)
= -8.38 BTU

The total heat, QTOT, given up to the die is the sum of items Q1, Q2 and Q3, or 34.38 BTU.

QTOT = 1.75 + 24.25 + 8.38= 34.38 BTU, Heat input to the die.

4. Finally, the heat lost to the quench is:

QQ = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (70 - 700°F)
= -15.75 BTU
With the assumptions of this example, 34.38 BTU are input to the die for every cubic inch of
aluminum, every cycle.

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ALTERNATE EXERCISE
Calculate the various amounts of heat inputs and losses for a cubic inch of AZ91D magnesium
alloy. Follow the steps shown in the previous zinc example.

For AZ91D magnesium alloy:

Specific heat = 0.016 BTU/ in3-°F

Latent heat of fusion = 10.6 BTU/in3

Room temperature = 70°F

Holding furnace temperature = 1250°F

Alloy injection temperature = 1200°F

Casting ejection temperature = 600°F

Beginning melting temperature = 875°F

Ending melting temperature = 1105°F

Quantity of alloy = 1 in3

ANSWER TO AZ91D MAGNESIUM EXERCISE

1. (a). Heat to increase alloy to beginning melting temperature.

Q1 = Sensible heat
Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (875 - 70°F)
= 12.88 BTU

1. (b). Heat to convert solid alloy to liquid alloy plus heat to change temperature from the
beginning melting temperature to the ending melting temperature.

Q2 = Specific heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (1105 - 875°F) + 10.6 BTU
= 3.68 + 10.6
= 14.28 BTU

1. (c). Heat to increase liquid alloy to holding furnace temperature.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (1250 - 1105°F)
= 2.32 BTU

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The total heat to increase a cubic inch of aluminum from room temperature to the holding
furnace temperature is the sum of Q1 to Q3, or 29.48 BTU.

12.88 + 14.28 + 2.32 = 29.48 BTU

2. Heat lost in transfer of alloy from furnace to die.

Q(amount of heat)
= (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in­3-°F) (1200 - 1250°F)
= -0.80 BTU

3. (a). Superheat lost to die.

Q1 = (volume of alloy) (specific heat) (temperature change)

= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (1105 - 1200°F)
= -1.52 BTU

3. (b). Heat lost converting from liquid to solid.

Q2 = Sensible heat + Latent heat

= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (875 - 1105°F) + 10.6 BTU
= -3.68 + (-10.6)
= -14.28 BTU

3. (c). Heat given up to the die until ejection.

Q3 = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (600-875°F)
= -4.40 BTU

The total heat given up to the die is the sum of items Q1, Q2 and Q3, or 20.20 BTU.

QTOT = 1.52 + 14.28 + 4.40 = 20.20 BTU, Heat input to the die.

4. Finally, the heat lost to the quench is:

Q = Sensible heat
= (1 in3) (0.016 BTU/in3-°F) (70 - 600°F)
= -8.48 BTU

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With the assumptions of this example, 20.20 BTU are input to the die for every cubic inch of
aluminum, every cycle.

Figure 2-5 - Chart of typical die cast alloy heat load bar graphs

The example and exercises illustrate the differences in heat load of the various alloys. This will
be significant to the operator if you are in a plant that runs different alloys because they behave
quite differently. The first big difference is the varying amount of heat that they input into the
casting die.

Shrinkage
The next big difference is how they freeze. Remember the freezing range for the zinc was 718-
728°F, for the aluminum it was 1035-1105°F, and for the magnesium it was 875-1105°F. Once the
die is full of metal and the metal begins to freeze, it also shrinks. Shrinkage means that as the
casting solidifies, the solid material occupies less space than the liquid material.

The next time you pass the furnace, take a look at the ingots stacked there. Turn the ingot over
and look at the top; this is the wide side where the alloy was poured into the ingot mold. The top
of the ingot will have a sink or a crack in the middle of it. The metal tender poured the mold full
of metal. This cracking and sinking occurred as the alloy was freezing and shrinking.

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Figure 2-6 - Top of ingot and cross section showing cracks

This cracking and voids can also occur in a die casting. As the casting freezes, it shrinks, and
cracks and voids form, unless high pressure is applied to force more alloy into the die. This
shrinkage is one of the reasons the machines apply the high pressure, intensification or prefill, at
the end of the shot stroke. If the shrinkage is not controlled, the casting will have internal porosity
due to shrinkage or a void or crack at the casting surface if the shrinkage breaks through to the
surface. This defect will occur at the last place to freeze, or at a hot spot in the die.

Figure 2-7 - Shrink crack and/or shrink porosity

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If you can control the freezing of the casting, you can control shrinkage defects. Ideally, the
casting would freeze from the overflows and vents, across the casting, to the gate, runner, and
biscuit. In practice this is rarely achieved, but the operator can influence quite a bit by controlling
cooling lines and by how die release is applied.

Figure 2-8 - Pictorial, showing 6% voids

The chemistry of the alloy is also a significant factor in the amount of shrinkage that can occur.
Pure aluminum shrinks about 6.6%. However, with the addition of silicon to make an alloy, the
shrinkage can be reduced to 3.8% at the eutectic mixture of about 12% silicon in aluminum.
Magnesium shrinks about 4% and zinc about 6%. #3 zinc alloy with approximately 4% aluminum in it
shrinks 2.98%. If a property of a casting is pressure tightness, a material with low shrinkage should
be selected.

Material Solidification Shrinkage,

%
β
Aluminum 6.6 (1); 6.5 (2)
Al-4.5% Cu 6.3 (1)
Al-12% Si (Eutectic) 3.8 (1)
Copper 4.9 (1); 4.2 (2)
70% Cu-30% Zn 4.5 (1)
90% Cu-10% A 4.0 (1)
Lead 3.5 (2)
Magnesium 4.2 (1); 4.1 (2)
Tin 2.3 (2)
Zinc 6.5 (1); 4.7 (2)
Zn-4% Al 2.98 (3)

Figure 2-9 - Solidification shrinkage of various materials

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Figure 2-10 - Solidification shrinkage is a function of the silicon content

Solidification shrinkage should not be confused with dimensional changes that occur after the
casting has been ejected from the die. If a solid metal is heated it usually expands, and as it cools,
it contracts. These changes are predictable by the laws governing thermal expansion.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is another material property that is important for the die cast operator
to understand. This is the property of a material that describes the material’s ability to conduct
heat. Materials that have high values of thermal conductivity transfer heat readily. Materials such
as aluminum and copper have high valves of thermal conductivity. A material such as glass is not
a good thermal conductor. The thermal conductivity of the various die casting alloys will control
how easily they will give up their heat to the casting die once they have solidified. Of the common
die casting alloys, the zinc alloys have the best thermal conductivity, ranging from 60.5 BTU/ft-
hr-°F for Zamak #2 to 72.5 BTU/ft- hr-°F for ZA-27. The aluminum alloys range from 55.6 BTU/
ft- hr-°F for 380 aluminum to 82.2 BTU/ft- hr-°F for 443 aluminum. The magnesium alloys have
considerably less thermal conductivity at 35 BTU/ft- hr-°F for AM20 to 41.8 BTU/ft- hr-°F for
AZ91D.

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SELF TEST 1
True or False

1. Pure metals freeze at constant temperature.

True False

2. Most die casting alloys exhibit a temperature freezing range.

True False

3. “Latent heat of fusion” is the energy given up when a material changes from liquid to solid.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all the correct answers:

4. When alloy is melted two types of heat energy are put into the alloy, they are:

a. superheat
b. sensible heat
c. radiant heat
d. latent heat of fusion

5. Among the three common die casting materials, the one that puts the most heat into the
die is:

a. aluminum
b. magnesium
c. zinc
d. none of the above

6. “Shrinkage” of the alloy means:

a. the casting is undersize

b. the casting is deteriorating due to moisture
c. reduced volume due to conversion from liquid to solid
d. voids on the surface due to corrosion

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DIE CAST ALLOY CHEMISTRY

The chemistry of the alloy can have a big affect on castability. It is important for the operator
to be aware of this and understand how it works. The term chemistry means the elements in the
alloy and the amounts of the various elements in the alloy. This lesson explains the chemistry of
the most popular die cast alloys, aluminum and zinc, what can change the chemistry and how that
can affect the casting process.

Aluminum Alloy Systems

Commercial: 360.000 A380
ANSI/AA: 360.000 A380.0
Nominal Comp Mg 0.5 Cu 3.5
Si 9.5 Si 8.5
Silicon (Si) 9.0-10.0 7.5-9.5
Iron (Fe) 2.000 1.300
Copper (Cu) 0.600 3.0-4.0
Manganese (Mn) 0.350 0.500
Magnesium (Mg) 0.4-0.6 0.100
Nickel (Ni) 0.500 0.500
Zinc(Zn) 0.500 3.000
Tin (Sn) 0.150 0.350
Titanium (Ti) - -
Aluminum (Al) balance balance

Figure 2-11 - Common aluminum alloys and chemical constituents

As has been noted previously, alloys are mixtures of various metals. The aluminum alloys that
are used for die casting fall into four alloy systems. The alloy system is determined by the main
alloying ingredient or ingredients. The alloys and systems for aluminum are:

443, 413 Aluminum-Silicon system

380, 383, 384 Aluminum-Silicon-Copper system

360, 364 Aluminum-Silicon-Magnesium system

518 Aluminum-Magnesium system

Aluminum is one of the most significant base metals for die casting alloys. This group of alloys
provides a wide range of physical and chemical properties, and can be manufactured efficiently.

Die casting alloys contain controlled concentrations of impurities, along with the alloying
elements, this is not only tolerable but also desirable to minimize soldering and increase hot
strength. The effects of impurities are generally the same on all aluminum base alloys.

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Aluminum-Silicon Alloys
For the die casting process, silicon is the most important element to be combined with aluminum
since it imparts more than any other element, the desired casting characteristics demanded by the
die casting process. Of greatest significance is the progressive increase in fluidity.

As an element with a relatively high melting point, it is extremely hard and brittle. Silicon
increases the hot strength of the casting, or conversely, decreases its hot cracking tendencies.
Hot strength is the ability to develop mechanical strength quickly at temperatures just below the
solidus (lowest freezing temperature). This characteristic is important for castings that must cool
in rigid dies and in facilitating ejection from the die at high temperature associated with fast
production rates.

During solidification, alloys containing silicon undergo a smaller volume change than the 6.6% for
pure aluminum. The greater the silicon content, the more this shrinkage is reduced. If aluminum-
silicon alloys are used, it is easier to produce castings free of internal shrinkage and shrinkage
cracks. The minimization of internal shrinkage voids and the improvement of hot strength
imparted by the higher silicon content is extremely important in the production of pressure tight
castings.

Since silicon is less dense than aluminum, 0.084 lbs/in3 verses 0.097 lbs/in3, increasing the
silicon content will reduce the specific gravity of the alloy.

Figure 2-11(a) - Typical Al-Si castings (413 Alloy)

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Aluminum-Silicon-Copper Alloys
The most widely used aluminum base alloy in die casting is the ternary alloy of aluminum,
silicon and copper, A380/380. From the die casters point of view 380 exhibits the best overall
combination of foundry characteristics.

The addition of copper to the aluminum-silicon alloy will add to the strength and hardness of
the alloy, particularly the hot strength. This additional strength improves the alloy properties at
elevated temperatures.

The addition of copper moderately reduces fluidity of the alloy.

As the amount of copper in the alloy increases, the corrosion resistance of the alloy is reduced.
Generally, aluminum alloys have very good corrosion resistance compared to other alloys. For
superior corrosion resistance a copper specification of 0.60% maximum is recommended. This is
the typical specification for alloys 443, and 360. The copper limit for 413 alloy is 1.0% maximum.
There is a consensus that this level of copper enhances pressure tightness.

Figure 2-11(b) - Typical Al-Si-Cu castings (380 Alloy)

Aluminum-Silicon-Magnesium Alloys
This system includes several alloys that are important for die casting applications that demand
superior corrosion resistance, strength, and ductility.

The most common die casting alloy in this series is 360 alloy. Two dominant characteristics
are good ductility and the ability to produce pressure tight castings. Because of the low copper
content, 360 alloy has excellent corrosion resistance. The die filling characteristics of 360 alloy are
essentially equal to 380 alloy and it exhibits excellent resistance to hot cracking.

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364 alloy represents a somewhat improved version of 360 alloy with higher ductility, superior
corrosion resistance, and good casting characteristics. It differs from 360 alloy having a lower
copper maximum of 0.20%. Chromium is controlled to 0.25-0.50% and the alloy has a beryllium
addition of 0.02-0.04%. The beryllium is added to inhibit the oxidation of magnesium and the
chromium is added to assist in changing the iron constituent. As a result greater ductility is
achieved. Because of the low copper content, the alloys in this group may not machine as well as
the 380 type alloys.

Impurities in Aluminum Die Casting Alloys

Iron
Iron is a natural impurity in aluminum, and is generally present in lower concentrations
than found in die casting alloys. Small amounts of iron increase strength and hardness. Iron in
controlled amounts, adds to the hot strength and reduces the tendency to hot cracking.

An important factor about iron is that it retards the attack of aluminum on iron and steel. With
iron content controlled in the range 0.7-1.2% in aluminum alloys, the solvent action on melting
pots and welding (soldering) to steel dies is minimized.

Zinc
Zinc content up to 3% is acceptable for 380 alloys. The zinc has little affect on the casting
properties except a slight change in density.

If excessive amounts of zinc get into the aluminum alloy, well above the 3% maximum
specification a serious problem with hot shortness or hot cracking in the die will occur.

Magnesium
In 413 and 380 alloys the specification restricts magnesium to 0.10%. At this level the magnesium
has no affect on the properties of the alloy.

As magnesium content is increased, yield strength, hardness, and stiffness increase, and fluidity
decreases. The lower the magnesium content, particularly in the presence of silicon, the more
ductile a given alloy will be.

Chromium and Manganese

Chromium and Manganese have the beneficial affect of changing the microstructure of iron in the
alloy. The needlelike structure of the iron is modified and this iron structure improves ductility and
impact strength. These elements also improve the tensile properties of the alloy.

Bismuth, Cadmium, Lead, and Tin

Concentrations of these alloys in excess of the specification will result in hot cracking and
excessive drossing.

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Nickel
Nickel is not a serious contaminant in die casting alloys and most specifications allow 0.50%.

Phosphorus, Sodium, Calcium, Strontium

These elements are seldom encountered in die casting alloys since they chemically react with
chlorine during fluxing. They also evaporate (sublime) and oxidize readily when the surface oxide
film is broken on the molten alloy during holding, transferring and remelting. These elements are
limited to a maximum of 0.1% each.

Titanium
As found in die casting alloys, titanium is considered to have the same effect as iron. Its
concentration is limited to 0.1% maximum.

Hydrogen
The role of hydrogen in aluminum die casting alloys is widely misunderstood. In the die casting
process, hydrogen in controlled amounts is of little consequence, if any. Molecular hydrogen (H2)
is insoluble in liquid or solid aluminum. Ionized hydrogen (H+) has very little solubility in liquid
aluminum at temperatures below 1200°F. As a consequence, normal holding temperatures of
1200°F preclude the absorption of hydrogen in the alloy even if the ionized hydrogen is available.

Oxygen
By the strict definition of impurities, oxygen must be considered the most serious contaminant
encountered in aluminum die casting. Oxygen has a very high affinity for aluminum; forming
aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Aluminum is a very active metal. Its behavior is stabilized by its ability to
rapidly form an oxide skin.

Most metal losses occur during metal transfer operations. Metal transfer should be accomplished
with a minimum of disturbing the alloy, pouring should be done from minimum heights and troughs
should be as short as possible. Increasing oxide content reduces fluidity and also could cause
excessive tool wear during machining operations.

Sludging (Fe-Mn-Cr)
Iron, manganese, and chromium, all available in aluminum die casting alloys, form complex
intermetallic compounds possessing extreme hardness and high melting points.

If present in aluminum alloys in sufficient amounts, primary crystals of these elements

precipitate from the alloy solution. These crystals have a higher specific gravity than the alloy
and sink to the bottom of the alloy bath. Once the crystals combine chemically to form complex
intermetallic compounds they acquire high melting points and are difficult to re-dissolve into
the alloy solution. Finally, they gather together at the bottom of the furnace and form a sand or
sludge.

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Studies on segregation in aluminum melts have shown manganese to be a very powerful agent in
the formation of sludge. Chromium has an even stronger influence. Fortunately, it is only found in
small concentrations in secondary alloys. Sludge is formed at various holding furnace temperatures
depending on the concentration of iron, manganese and chromium. For example, if a melt of alloy
at 1400°F containing 1% of iron and manganese is allowed to cool to 1200°F and maintained still,
it will form sludge.

One way to control sludge is to specify the alloy to have a minimum of the sludge forming
elements. A formula commonly used to express the maximum of these elements is:

% iron + 2 x % manganese + 3 x % chromium = 1.80 max.

If this sludge finds its way into the die casting, it will cause machining problems. In addition to
a problem with sludge inclusions in the casting, aluminum alloys that have sludge experience a
decrease in iron content. If the alloy originally was 0.8-1.0% iron, the iron content could be as low
as 0.5-0.6% after sludging has occurred. Once this iron reduction has occurred, the metal has a
strong tendency to solder to the die. If a die exhibits an unusually high amount of soldering, it may
be advisable to have the alloy bath chemically analyzed for iron to insure that it has not sludged
down to a dangerous level.

Figure 2-12 - Sludge

When sludging is encountered it is somewhat practical to superheat the bath 100-150°F above
the holding furnace temperature and stir the bath with some vigor. It should then be allowed to
sit quietly for settling as it cools back to a normal casting temperature. Much of the sludge will
have been re-dissolved. The sludge that settles out should then be raked from the bottom and
discarded. If allowed to build up it will become somewhat like a refactory material and impair the
thermal efficiency of the furnace.

Since sludge forms when the concentrations of the sludge forming elements are high and the
furnace temperature is low, or varies from high to low, one way to avoid sludge formation is to
maintain as uniform a furnace temperature as possible. This can be accomplished by charging
small amounts of alloy frequently or continuously.

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Zinc Alloy Systems

The alloys that are used for die casting fall into three alloy systems. The alloys and systems are:

No.3 Zinc-Aluminum System

No.2, No.5, ZA-8, Zinc-Aluminum-Copper System

ZA-12, ZA-27

No.7 Zinc-Aluminum-Nickel System

Zinc die casting alloys probably represent the highest degree of purity of any metals used in
comparable commercial quantities. If certain types of impurities are exceeded, this can lead to a
catastrophic defect known as intergranular corrosion.

Commercial: No. 3 ZA-8

Nominal Comp Al 4.0 Al 8.4
Mg 0.035 Mg 0.023
Cu 1.0
Aluminum (Al) 3.5-4.3 8.0-8.8
Magnesium (Mg) 0.02-0.05 0.015-0.030
Copper (Cu) 0.25 max 0.8-1.3
Iron (Fe) 0.100 0.075
Lead (Pb) 0.005 0.006
Cadium (Cd) max 0.004 0.006
Tin (Sb) max 0.003 0.003
Nickel (Ni) - -
Zinc (Zn) balance balance

Figure 2-13 - Chart of zinc alloys and chemical constituents

Intergranular corrosion is a phenomenon in which impurities such as arsenic, bismuth, calcium,

indium, lead, mercury, selenium, sodium, tantalum, thallium, thorium, tin, and tungsten can
migrate to the grain boundaries and under conditions of warmth and humidity the impurities are
subject to chemical attack resulting in subsurface intergranular corrosion. When this occurs, there
is first a swelling effect at the grain boundary and then a fracturing of the casting. Most of these
impurities are rarely encountered in zinc alloys today and only lead (0.005%), cadmium (0.004%),
and tin (0.003%) are enumerated in the alloy specifications.

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Figure 2-14 - Intergranular corrosion

Pure zinc (99.990% pure) permits the use of minimal magnesium. Magnesium is present in all
the zinc alloys. In concentrations up to 0.05%, its main role is to act as a scavenger to collect and
tie up the various elements, which induce intergranular corrosion. If the lead, cadmium, and tin
are at or below their alloy specification levels, magnesium as low as 0.02% is adequate to prevent
intergranular corrosion. Greater concentrations of magnesium, more than 0.05%, will result in hot
shortness, low ductility, and poor fluidity.

Solidification shrinkage for pure zinc is 7.28% (greater than the 6.6% for aluminum). For No. 3
alloy the solidification shrinkage is 2.98%. Depending on the alloy, it may be important to avoid
heavy cross-sections, and use uniform walls and employ metal savers wherever possible.

Zinc-Aluminum System
Zinc with 5.0% aluminum has a melting point of 720°F. No.3 alloy is known as a hypoeutectic
alloy because the amount of aluminum in it is less than 5.0%. The specification for No.3 is 3.5-
4.3%. This same specification applies to alloys No.2, 5 and 7.

Properties
At the eutectic combination, fluidity is at its best. Zinc alloys have excellent fluidity. Intricate
details can be produced on castings and very good surface finishes can be achieved. Under the
proper conditions, these surfaces can be plated with little or no preparation.

Another critical property is impact strength. Impact strength drops substantially as the Zn-Al
combination approaches the eutectic composition. Test data shows that the aluminum content
should not exceed 4.25% for the best hypoeutectic die casting alloy composition. Another factor
affecting impact strength is temperature. Zinc alloy makes a transition from a brittle material
at sub-zero temperatures to a ductile material at room temperature. A brittle material is one
having low impact strength verses a ductile material that has high impact strength. It should be
noted that the impact strength of zinc at low temperatures (when it is brittle) is comparable to
aluminum and magnesium castings.

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Aging
Some dimensional change occurs in zinc alloys due to the decreasing solid solubility of the
alloying constituents. Aging changes to castings that are air cooled range from 0.0007 in/in for
No.3 alloy to 0.0009 in/in for No.5 alloy. For water quenched castings, the maximum expected
shrinkage will be as much as 0.0011 in/in. Approximately 2/3 of this shrinkage occurs within a
month after the castings are made and the balance of shrinkage occurs over years. To achieve
dimensional stability, annealing treatments at relatively low temperatures can be used. Castings
given aging treatments usually exhibit 1/3 additional shrinkage compared to untreated castings.

Zinc-Aluminum-Copper System
Small quantities of castings are produced from No. 5 alloy. This has an addition of up to 1.0%
copper maximum. The purpose of this addition is to give added hardness and strength. No. 5 alloy
is commonly used for small and intricate lock components. This copper addition reduces ductility
and impact strength.

Figure 2-15(a) - Small zinc castings

No. 2 alloy has a copper specification of 2.5-3.0%. Again the additional copper has the affect of
increasing hardness and strength, and reducing ductility and impact strength beyond that of the
No.5 alloy. This alloy was primarily specified for gear castings and is used in stamping dies.

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Figure 2-15(b) - Zinc gear castings

The hypereutectic alloys ZA-8, ZA-12, and ZA-27 are relatively new, having been developed
in the late 1970’s. These alloys are of interest because of their improved mechanical properties
compared to the “standard” alloys. The number trailing the “ZA-” designation is the nominal
percentage of aluminum in the alloy. Because of their high aluminum contents ZA-12 and ZA-27
should be cast in the cold chamber process. ZA-8 can be cast in hot chamber machines, but the
wear on the injection components will be noticeable compared to No.3 alloy. These alloys require
special handing and treatment. Electric induction furnaces generally provide sufficient stirring to
maintain the alloys mixture when power is on. If power is off, additional stirring may be required.
Normal casting temperatures are below 1100°F.

ZA-27 alloy exhibits excellent bearing qualities in many applications under continuous lubrication
in addition to high strength and hardness.

Figure 2-15(c) - Bearing casting

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Zinc-Aluminum-Nickel System
No.7 alloy is rather new, having less magnesium the No.3 or No.5 but with a minor addition of
nickel and more restrictive limits to lead, cadmium and tin. This alloy was developed because of
its improved fluidity and potential to produce a better hardware finish on die castings (compared
to No.3 alloy). The reduced magnesium content gives this alloy improved fluidity.

Impurities

Iron
The zinc alloys will attack and dissolve iron, particularly at excessive temperatures, above 850°F.
The iron that is dissolved will come from cast iron furnace pot and the injection components such
as the gooseneck. It is possible to get concentrations in excess of the allowable 0.1% iron. This
can result in the formation of dross and skimmings; the FeAl3 is lighter than the zinc alloy and
will float to the top of the bath. At high temperatures this dross formation could be excessive and
result in the depletion of aluminum from the bath. This can result in decreased fluidity, and flow
lines or marks on the finished casting. If the iron exceeds the allowable 0.1% limit, cracking could
result in subsequent staking or cold working operations. The best way to avoid these problems is
careful control of the alloy temperatures.

Copper
Copper, is considered an impurity up to 1.25% and has no affect on the zinc based die casting
alloys. Above this level excessive aging and growth could occur.

Magnesium
When magnesium exceeds the limits of the specification, loss of fluidity and hot cracking may be
encountered. Some magnesium is desirable to inhibit intergranular corrosion.

Nickel
The maximum solid solubility of nickel in zinc based alloys is 0.02%. Above this level complex
aluminum-nickel compounds form and can cause surface blemishes and machining problems. Small
amounts of nickel, below the solid solubility level help to neutralize those elements that cause
intergranular corrosion.

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Lead
With a minimum magnesium content of 0.02%, lead may be tolerated up to 0.005% without
the detrimental effects of intergranular corrosion. Above this limit, the solid solubility of lead
is exceeded and the lead migrates to the grain boundaries of the die castings. This could cause
intergranular corrosion and hot cracking.

Cadmium
Concentrations above 0.1% cadmium are detrimental to mechanical properties. At this level and
even at lower levels, cadmium can promote drossing, hot shortness and poor castability.

Tin
Tin seriously promotes intergranular corrosion and excessive growth in die castings due to aging
if the 0.002% limit is exceeded. It can also result in hot cracking in the die.

Chromium
In excess of its solid solubility limit of 0.02%, it will form complex intermetallic compounds with
aluminum and float to the surface. If chromium aluminum compounds are formed and find their
way into the die casting, they will lead to machining problems.

Manganese
Small quantities of manganese are usually found in most grades of zinc and aluminum used to
produce die castings. These are rarely more than trace amounts. No harmful affects have been
experienced up to 0.5% levels, which is the maximum specification.

Magnesium Alloy Systems

The magnesium alloys that are used for die casting fall into two systems. The alloys and systems are:

AZ91D, AZ81 Magnesium-Aluminum-Zinc System

AM60B, AM50B Magnesium-Aluminum System

Magnesium is one of the lightest of structural metals, which has very good mechanical
properties. The solidification shrinkage is one of the lowest of all cast metals, being approximately
4%. An additional 2% volume change occurs during cooling from the melting point to room
temperature. The energy requirement for melting and holding is relatively low. This low heat
capacity provides the advantage that heat exchange in the die occurs rapidly so that solidification
times are short.

Commercial: AZ91D AM 60B

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Nominal Comp Al 9.0 Al 6.0

Zn 0.7 Mn 0.3
Mn 0.2
Aluminum (Al) 8.3-9.7 5.5-6.5
Zinc(Zn) 0.35-1.0 0.22 max
Manganese (Mn) 0.15-0.5 0.24-0.6
Silicon (Si) 0.10 max 0.1 max
Iron (Fe) 0.005 0.005
Copper Max(Cu) 0.030 0.010
Nickel Max(Ni) 0.002 0.002
Rare Earth Total - -
Total Others 0.020 0.020
Aluminum (Al) balance balance

Figure 2-16 - Chart of magnesium alloys and chemical constituents

Among magnesium’s unique properties is its very high affinity for oxygen. This characteristic
makes special protective or inert atmospheres necessary during melting and holding, while
temperatures are above the minimum burning temperature of 790°F. Molten magnesium also
reacts violently with water (releasing hydrogen) and with metal oxides such as iron scale.

Magnesium is free machining. It offers low resistance to cutting and rapidly generates large
volumes of chips. Fine machining chips and sawing dust must be handled with care. Water cannot
be used on magnesium fires because of the danger of explosion. Magnesium flux, dry sand, or
dry cast iron chips should be kept available to smother fires while they are small. The key to fire
prevention when machining magnesium is good housekeeping.

Magnesium-Aluminum-Zinc System
High purity magnesium alloy AZ91D dominates the magnesium die casting field. This is an Mg-
Al-Zn ternary alloy. This alloy is more resistant to salt water corrosion than previous alloys in this
family. The melting range is 1100-830°F; normal casting temperatures are similar to those used for
aluminum.

Corrosion Resistance
Magnesium base alloys do not attack iron or steel. They also do not alloy with iron or chromium
and only slightly with manganese. Copper, nickel, and iron impair corrosion resistance. An iron to
manganese ratio of 32:1 or less appears to be necessary to achieve the best corrosion performance
of the high purity metals.

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Figure 2-17 - Photo of magnesium castings

Magnesium-Aluminum System
AM50B, a binary alloy of aluminum and magnesium was introduced for the production of
magnesium die cast automobile wheels. This alloy was designed for optimum toughness and
ductility with good castability. A slightly higher casting temperature of 1240-1260°F is required.

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SELF TEST 2
True or False

1. There are four common alloying systems for die cast aluminum.

True False

2. An alloy system is determined by the main alloying ingredient or ingredients.

True False

3. There are four common alloying systems for die cast zinc.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

4. The most common die cast alloy for aluminum is:

a. 413
b. 380
c. 390
d. 360

5. The most important alloying ingredient in aluminum is:

a. copper
b. iron
c. magnesium
d. silicon

6. The most common die cast alloy for zinc is:

a. # 3 zinc
b. ZA-27
c. # 7 zinc
d. none of the above

7. The most common alloying ingredient in zinc is:

a. aluminum
b. copper
c. iron

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d. magnesium

Heat in the Process

The proper rate of production is the cycle time that makes acceptable castings, meets
productivity requirements for profitability and maximizes the dies’ life. The die casting process is
a process that exchanges heat. Heat is put into the alloy to liquefy it, the liquid is injected into
the die and heat is removed to solidify the alloy and form the casting. The more efficiently this
heat exchange is accomplished, the better the process will run. To produce efficiently, you want to
exchange as little heat as possible. This means you want to inject the alloy at the lowest possible
temperature and remove the casting at the highest possible temperature. Remember, in the
Materials lesson, the amount of heat energy in the various alloys was discussed. To understand how
to optimize the die casting process, you must look at how the heat energy is processed. This will
be done with an example, the bracket casting.

Figure 2-18 - Bracket casting

The bracket casting weighs 6.5 pounds (2.95 kg.) and is made from 380 aluminum alloy. It is cast
at 1220°F (660°C) and is ejected at 700°F (370°C). These are typical temperature readings from
production when things appear to be running well. From these temperatures you can estimate the
amount of heat energy that is exchanged to the casting die every cycle.

The amount of heat energy given up to the casting die is the sum of sensible heat and
latent heat. Sensible heat is heat given up due to the temperature change from the injection
temperature to the ejection temperature. You know the ejection temperature; the casting
temperature was measured to be 700°F (370°C) at ejection. You do not know the injection
temperature. You can take the holding furnace temperature, estimate the temperature loss
occurring when transferring the alloy from the furnace to the cold chamber and holding the alloy
in the cold chamber before injection. Typically, this temperature loss is estimated to be 50-90°F
(28-50°C). In this example the loss is estimated at 50°F (28°C). The specific heat for 380 aluminum

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is known to be 0.025 BTU’s per cubic inch, per Fahrenheit degree (0.00069 ca/cm3-°C). The
Latent heat of fusion for aluminum is 17.0 BTU’s per cubic inch (.261 cal/cm3).

In this example, the sensible heat given up to the die is:

Q = (65.66 in3) (0.025 BTU/in3-°F) (700- 1170°F)

= - 771.5 BTU

Q = (1076 cm3) (0.0007 cal/ cm3-°C) (261°C)

= -194.4 cal

The latent heat given up to the die is:

Q = Latent heat
= (65.66 in3) (-17.0 BTU/in3)
= -1116.2 BTU

Q = (1076 cm3) (-0.262 cal/ cm3)

= - 281 cal

Total heat going into the die every cycle is the sum of the specific and latent heats.
Qtotal = -771.5 + (-1116.2)
Qtotal = -1887.7 BTU

Qtotal = -194.4 cal + (-281 cal)

Qtotal = -475 cal

The minus sign means the heat is flowing out of the alloy.
The production rate for this casting is 45 pieces per hour. Therefore the amount of heat going
into the die every hour is 84,946.5 BTU.

This means, every hour the die has to remove about 85,000 BTU from the alloy to balance the
heat going into it. If the die is incapable of processing this amount of heat, the die temperature
will increase. If the die has too much cooling capacity, the die temperature will go down. You can
control the cooling capacity of the die.

Mechanisms of Heat Flow

There are three mechanisms that heat uses to flow from one location to another. They are
conduction, convection, and radiation. All these mechanisms are at work in die casting.

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Conduction
An example of heat conduction is dipping one end of a metal rod into boiling water and then
feeling the other end of the rod heat up with your finger tips. Heat from the boiling water heats
the portion of rod in the water; the heat then conducts up the rod to your finger tips.

Figure 2-19 - Illustration of boiling water and rod heating

Conduction of heat depends on several factors or variables.

These factors of the conductor are:

●● Material of the conductor.

●● Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
●● Length of the conductor.
●● The temperature difference from one end of the conductor to the other end.
How these factors work together to conduct heat is straight forward. The material that transfers
the heat is the conductor. The opposite of a conductor is an insulator. You certainly are familiar
with materials that are insulators and conductors. Glass and air are insulators, or poor conductors.
Silver, copper and aluminum are the very best conductors. Many metals are good conductors. If
rapid heat transfer is required, the choice of a good conductor is very important. Most plunger
tips in cold chamber die casting are made from a copper alloy because copper is a good heat
conductor. The property of a material that describes its ability to conduct heat is the Coefficient
of Thermal Conductivity. The larger this number is, the better the material is able to conduct
heat. The thermal conductivity of 380 aluminum is 4.6 BTU/ in. hr°F (0.82 cal/ cm hr°C). The
thermal conductivity of H13 steel is 1.25 BTU/ in. hr°F (0.22 cal/ cm hr°C).

The second factor that facilitates heat conduction is the area available for the heat to flow through.
The larger the cross-sectional area for the heat to flow through, the less resistance there is to the heat
flow. This is similar to fluid flow in various sizes of pipe. If you have two pipes, one with a 2 in. (5 cm)
diameter and the other with a 1 in. (2.54 cm) diameter and water under 40 PSI (2.8 kg/cm2) pressure is

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flowing through both pipes. The pipe with the greater cross-sectional area will allow more water to flow.
The same is true with heat flow, the greater the cross-sectional area, the more heat that will flow.

Figure 2-20 - Cross-sectional area

The third factor that facilitates heat flow is temperature difference: the temperature difference
between the heat source and the heat sink. The temperature difference is the driving force for
the movement of heat just as voltage difference drives electricity and pressure difference drives
fluid flow. Heat will only flow if there is a temperature difference. The direction of the heat flow is
easy to determine. Heat flows downhill, downhill on the temperature scale. Heat flows from hot to
cold. When preheating the die, heat flows from the torch or heater to the cold die and the bigger
the temperature difference, the more heat that will flow.

Figure 2-21 - Sketch of temperature difference

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The fourth factor involved in heat conduction is the distance the heat must flow. The
relationship of this factor is referred to as an inverse relationship. This means that as the distance
the heat must flow goes up, the amount of heat that will flow goes down. Therefore, the longer
the distance for the heat to travel, the less the amount of heat that will flow.

Figure 2-22 - Sketch of distance

Summarizing, the material, the area and the temperature difference are directly related to heat
flow. As these factors go up, the heat flow goes up. The distance the heat must flow is an inverse
factor, as the distance goes up, the heat flow goes down. The engineering formula that expresses
these relationships is:

Q = (C x A x ΔT)/D

Q = heat in BTU/hr (cal/hr)

C = coefficient of thermal conductivity in BTU/in. hr°F.

(cal/cm hr°C)

A = area square inches (cm2)

ΔT = temperature difference in °F. (°C)

D = distance in inches. (cm)

For example: How much heat will flow if the cavity surface temperature is 450°F, the
temperature at the cooling line is 250°F, the die material is H13 steel, the cross-sectional area
available for heat flow is 5 square inches, and the distance to the cooling line is 2 inches?

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Figure 2-23 - Sketch of example

Substituting into the formula:

Q = (1.25 BTU/in. hr°F)(5 in2)(450°F -250°F)
2 in

Q = 625.0 BTU/hr

Q = (0.223 cal/cm hr°C)(32.3 cm2)(111°C)

5.08 cm

Q = 157.4 cal/hr

In this example the heat flow is 625 BTU per hour (157.4 cal/hr). This is not very much.

Convection
The second important mechanism for heat flow is convection. Convection is heat transfer that
occurs when a cold fluid passes over or through a hot object. There are two types of convection,
natural convection and forced convection. For example, if your house is heated with forced hot
air, this is forced convection with air as the fluid. Using the furnace fan, cold air is blown over the
heat exchanger in the furnace. The hot air is then distributed to the house. Another example is
heating a house with a hot water gravity system. A gravity heating system distributes the heat with
natural convection. Cold water, the fluid, passes through the tubes in the boiler, picks up heat,
becomes less dense and rises in the piping system. The hot water is replaced by more dense cold
water that displaces the hot water because of the force of gravity. Another example of natural
convection is the hot die in the machine with the safety doors closed. Air will come in contact with
the die; the air will become warm and less dense, rise from the die and be replaced by cool air.
This cycle will continue and cool the die. If you open the safety doors and point a fan at the die,
this is forced convection, and will cool the die faster than natural convection. Convective heat
flow depends on several factors or variables.

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Figure 2-24 - Natural convection

These factors for convection are:

●● convection film coefficient (CFC)

●● contact area for heat transfer
●● the temperature difference between the hot object and cold fluid

Determining the convection film coefficient is not as simple as determining a conduction

coefficient. The convective film coefficient is dependent on several variables. This means there is
a particular value of CFC for each combination of variable. The variables are:

●● natural or forced convection

●● the convection fluid
●● the velocity of the convection fluid

In die casting the cooling situation is mostly forced convection, particularly in the case of
internal cooling. CFC’s have been determined experimentally for various combinations of cooling
oil and water at various flow rates in various cooling line sizes. A typical value for a CFC is 3.5
BTU/hr. in2°F (0.246 cal/hr. cm2°C) for a 7/16 in. (1.1 cm) diameter waterline at a flow rate of 1
gallon per minute (3.78 l/min). Under these same conditions the CFC for oil is 1.4 BTU/hr. in2°F
(0.098 cal/hr. cm2°C). As velocity of the fluid increases the CFC increases. Finally, as the CFC
increases the amount of heat transferred increases.

The second important factor is area. The area is defined as that area in contact with the
convection fluid. This could be the internal area of a cooling line or the outside surface of the die
with air blowing over it.

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Figure 2-25 - Area of outside of the die

The last factor that facilitates convective heat flow is temperature difference. The temperature
difference is the driving force for the movement of heat. Again the bigger the temperature
difference, the more heat that will flow.

Figure 2-26 - Sketch of temperature difference between hot die and cool air

Summarizing, the combination of fluid and velocity, and the area and the temperature
difference directly control convective heat flow. As these factors go up, the heat flow goes up. The
engineering formula that expresses these relationships is:

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Q = (H x A x ΔT)

Q = heat in BTU/hr (cal/hr)

H = convective film coefficient in BTU/in2 hr°F.

(cal/hr cm2°C)

A = area square inches (cm)

ΔT = temperature difference in °F. (°C)

For example, how much heat will flow if the temperature at the cooling line is 250°F (121°C),
the coolant fluid is

90°F (32°C), and the constant area available for heat flow is 20 square inches (129 cm2), with
a convective film coefficient of 3.5 (0.246) for water in a 0.44 (1.1 cm) diameter waterline at a 1
gallon per minute flow rate (3.8 l/min).

Figure 2-27 - Sketch of example

Substituting into the formula:

Q = (3.5 BTU/in2 hr°F)(20 in2)(250°F -90°F)

Q = 11200 BTU/hr.

Q = (0.246 cal/cm2 hr°C)(129 cm2)(89°C)

Q = 2824 cal/hr

In this example the heat flow is 11200 BTU per hour (2824 cal/hr). This is a significant amount of
heat removal.

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Radiation
Radiation is the third mechanism for heat transfer. You are familiar with radiant heat transfer.
This is how the sun heats the earth. Radiant heat transfer is not a big factor at the die and
machine, unless you use radiant gas or electric heaters to preheat the casting die. One important
thing to know about radiant heat transfer is the amount of heat transferred falls off very quickly
with distance.

Radiant heat transfer is common in the melting and holding of the die casting alloy. Gas and
electric reverbatory melting and holding furnaces use radiant heat transfer. If you are involved in
furnace cleaning you know what radiant heat feels like. If you open the door to a reverb furnace,
even with the burners off, you will feel a rush of heat. This is radiant heat, there is no fan blowing
out of the furnace at you. You must protect yourself from radiant heat just as you would from
sunburn. The most effective protection is to fully cover-up, wear long sleeves and gloves and
shield your face and head with a reflective face shield and helmet.

Figure 2-28 - Radiant heat from furnace

Heat Flow from the Die

Heat is removed from the die by various means. Internal cooling lines are the most effective
means for heat removal. Heat is conducted to the cooling line from the surface of the die cavity.
The coolant then convects the heat from the surface around the cooling line. However, one of the
problems engineers have is that it is not always possible to get effective cooling into all areas of
the cavity. Then other methods of heat removal must be used.

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Figure 2-29 - Temperature distribution in cavity

Die spray is used to remove heat on a spot basis. If external spray is relied upon to carry the
cooling load, spraying with atomized water is recommended because excessive lube will cause
staining. External spray usually removes about 0.15 BTU/in2 sec (0.006 cal/cm2 sec). For example,
if you spray a cavity having a surface area of 50 in2 (322 cm2 ) for 6 seconds, the heat removal will
be 45 BTU (11.5 cal).

Heat is lost to the machine by conduction from the mold base to the machine. Some heat will
be lost to the atmosphere by natural convection. These normal losses are from 0.2 to 0.5 BTU/in2
shot (0.008 to 0.300 cal/cm2 shot).

Operator Control of Heat Flow

As the operator, you have a great deal of control over the heat flow from the die. Your objective
is to balance the heat flow out of the die with the heat flow into the die.

The first step in balancing heat flow out of the die is to establish a consistent heat input.
Consistent heat input to the die is a result of:

●● consistent cycle time

●● consistent metal temperature
●● consistent shot size

The second step in balancing heat flow is to establish consistent heat output. Consistent heat
removal from the die is a result of:

●● consistent cycle time

●● consistent spray application
●● consistent die temperature

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The consistent cycle is necessary to optimize the die casting process. As the cycle begins the die
is at a relatively low temperature, possibly 450°F (232°C). The die closes and alloy is injected.
Immediately the cavity surface temperature rises, its temperature may reach 700-900°F (370-
480°C), depending on the size of the shot and other characteristics like wall sections. As the steel
at the cavity surface heats up due to contact with the molten alloy it expands. The amount of
expansion depends on the temperature change that it experiences. Immediately below the cavity
surface is more steel. In fact, you can try to picture the die steel as a series of layers of steel
below the die cavity.

Figure 2-30 - Sketch of cavity and various layers of steel

As the first layer heats and expands from contact with the alloy, the second layer, because of its
contact with the first layer, picks up some heat, and expands. As the heat moves from the cavity
surface to the back of the cavity insert or to a cooling line, it looses energy and temperature. It is
this temperature difference that causes the heat to flow.

Figure 2-31- Sketch of temperature isothermals along heat flow path

During a single cycle, two things are happening to the cavity steel with respect to temperature.
First, the cavity surface is cool before the alloy is injected, immediately upon injection it becomes
very hot. Then during the dwell portion of the cycle it begins to cool. Once the casting is ejected,

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heat is no longer going into the die, so it continues to cool. Then the die surface is sprayed with
die release. The surface immediately drops in temperature. After spray, the die surface begins to
heat again, because of heat in the cavity insert.

Figure 2-32 - Plot of cavity surface temperatures and temperatures below the surface, for one cycle

Below the cavity surface, the temperature changes are not as dramatic. The temperatures go up
and down just as at the surface, but not the same amounts. The further you get from the cavity
surface, and the closer to a cooling line or back of the cavity, the smaller the temperature range
is for each cycle. This means that the thermal expansion and contraction varies throughout the
cavity block every cycle and also depending on location relative to the cavity surface.

The differences in thermal expansion due to differences in temperature are the cause for heat
checking. If you can minimize the temperature differences, you can prolong the time for the onset
of heat checking. You minimize the temperature differences by running the die as hot as possible,
putting the minimum of heat into the die, and reducing the temperature differences in the cavity
insert. This should result in the longest die life, the highest productivity, and the lowest scrap.

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The consistent casting cycle will put into and take out of the die the same amount of heat every
cycle. As an operator you can control or should be monitoring the following variables in order to
achieve consistent cycle times.

The metal temperature should be constant. If metal temperature goes up or down, the value
of specific heat going into the die, and the number of BTU’s going into the die will change. The
amount of metal being cast should be constant. If you pour different amounts of metal every
cycle, the amount of heat will vary based on different volumes of alloy. This is generally not a
problem at the cavity, but could become a problem at the biscuit. If the biscuit gets to big, you
may not have adequate cooling time to let it solidify completely. This could result in an accident if
the biscuit bursts. Dwell or hold time is based on a predictable amount of heat going into the die
every cycle. If too much heat gets into the die, the casting may not be strong enough to withstand
the forces of opening or ejection. It could stick in either half of the die. Spray time and volume
must be consistent each cycle. This means the time spent spraying the die should be the same
every cycle. One technique operators use is to count the seconds when spraying, “one thousand-
one, one thousand-two.....” The amount of spray flowing from the nozzle should be the same each
cycle. This should be calibrated, so the amount of flow can be set accurately for each casting.
Cooling lines should be adjusted for flow rate, gallons per minute, and the temperature of the
coolant must be controlled. Each cycle element must take the same amount of time to achieve an
overall consistent cycle time.

If the above steps are followed, the die will reach a base equilibrium temperature around which
the cyclic temperature variations will occur.

Figure 2-33 - Plot of cavity surface temperatures for several cycles, showing a base equilibrium
temperature

As you monitor the above process variables you will be aware of changes occurring during the
cycle. You will know when the holding furnace temperature drops or creeps up. You will be aware
of how spraying is affecting the cavity surfaces. You will be aware of cooling lines flowing properly
or if flow rates are changing, or is the coolant boiling? The important thing is to be aware of
changes and then knowing if these changes are affecting the quality of your castings. If everything

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is running well, the casting quality is acceptable and a process change occurs, you should be know
quickly if the process change affects your casting quality. If defects occur, they are usually related
to some change in the process.

SELF TEST 3
True or False

1. 1. The heat put into the die is a combination of latent and sensible heat.

True False

2. 2. Heat moves from the cavity surface to the cooling line by radiation.

True False

3. 3. Heat is taken out of the die, by cooling lines conducting the heat out.

True False

4. 4. A fan blowing air over the die is an example of forced convection.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all the correct answers

5. Conductive heat flow depends on the following variables:

a. the conduction material

b. the distance for heat to flow
c. the area for the heat to flow through
d. a temperature difference

6. Convective heat flow depends on:

a. the convective film coefficient

b. the distance for heat to flow
c. the area for the heat to flow through
d. a temperature difference

7. The operator can control heat flow by

a. making sure the holding furnace temperature is consistent

b. maintaining a consistent cycle time

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c. applying die release evenly in the same amount of time

d. taking frequent, but short breaks

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Internal Defects
Internal defects are detrimental to the die casting because they result in reduced mechanical
properties of the casting, loss of pressure tightness in the casting, and poor machineability.

The mechanical properties of a casting are tensile strength, elongation, hardness, impact
strength and others. These properties have been measured on samples made from the die cast
alloys and are published to help designers pick a material that is appropriate for their design.
These properties were measured on solid and dense samples. If a sample were made from
porous materials, the values of the properties would not be as high. In order to meet the design
requirement, you must make the casting as dense and solid as possible with good clean alloy.

Figure 2-34 - Pressure testing a casting

Internal defects also will affect the machineability of the casting. This includes both porosity and
inclusion defects.

Porosity describes a void, whereas an inclusion is material that should not be present. Inclusions
and voids will result in tool breakage and excessive tool wear.

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INCLUSIONS

Al2O3 Aluminum oxide

The vast majority of inclusions are non-metallic aluminum oxide, Al2O3. Aluminum is a powerful
reducing agent (oxidizing), and consequently oxidizes (combines with oxygen) easily. This is one of
the reasons for build-up inside furnaces. The oxides of aluminum are polymorphic, which means
that in certain environments the properties of the alumina crystals change drastically. When
aluminum oxide first forms it is the soft gamma type with a specific gravity of approximately 2.8.
This is very similar to the alloy from which it is formed. As this material is heated above 1500°F
(815°C), it is transformed into a much denser and harder variety called alpha Al2O3. This is
commonly called corundum and is rated right next to diamond on the hardness scale. The build-up
on the sidewalls of furnaces is essentially pure corundum. Excess air and moisture in the furnace
atmosphere greatly accelerates side wall build-up. Air in the furnace atmosphere comes from two
sources, either primarily, from an oxidizing fuel mixture, or secondarily, from air leakage around
doors, burner ports or cracks in the roof or walls. Invariably massive oxide inclusions or hardspots
trace their origin to the sidewalls of the melting or holding furnace. Since the specific gravity of
corundum is approximately 4, it is expected to sink to the bottom of the furnace bath.

Aluminum oxide finds its way into the alloy bath during the wall cleaning process. It is in the
spading or cleaning of the side wall or even wall contact with the furnace tools during routine
fluxing that this build-up of corundum is broken up and dislodged. It becomes mixed with flux,
parent alloy from the bath, air, and flue gasses. The resulting particles may vary widely in size and
density. Some does sink to the bottom, but most is skimmed off as dross. An appreciable fraction,
however, may have a density similar to the metal in the bath and will remain suspended in the
melt ultimately finding its way into the dip well, and into the castings.

The color of Al2O3 as it appears in castings is a dull gray to black. The gradations in color
from dull gray to dull black are undoubtedly related to the variations in the intense heat that
transformed gamma to alpha Al2O3 and the time frame in which it was formed. The size and shape
of the individual corundum particles may vary widely.

Figure 2-35 - Aluminum oxide in a casting

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Shotted alloy
Shotted alloy is alloy that has solidified into small spheres or globules prior to or during
injection. These small balls are incased in oxide and as such do not assimilate with the parent
alloy. Because they are not homogenous with the alloy they can result in excessive tool wear,
provide a leak path, or become the initiation site for a fracture.

Shotting is usually caused by splashing the alloy against the cold wall in the cold chamber, and is
aided if the alloy is to cold. If the melt contains fine corundum particles the formation of shotted
alloy is enhanced.

Figure 2-36 - Photo of shotted alloy

Oxide films and dross inclusions

Inclusions of oxide films and dross are a major cause for leakers and excessive tool wear. This
is generally gamma aluminum oxide, the soft variety. The source of these thin films is the cold
chamber, the runner or in the die from splashes of alloy ahead of the main alloy stream. The
splashes and jets are usually a result of poor gate and runner design or by improper speed control
of the plunger.

The real problem of the oxide films is that they prevent divergent alloy steams knitting together
properly as the cavity fills. This will result in the formation of discontinuities such as laminations,
orange peels, or cold shuts. If these films envelop air or vaporized die lube, blisters or excessive
internal porosity result.

Silicon carbide refractories

Silicon carbide refractories can find their way into castings if furnace cleaning practices are
not maintained. SiC, silicon carbide is as damaging as corundum because of its hardness. It is
encountered infrequently compared to corundum and may be distinguished by it very black,
glasslike coloring.

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Their source can be chips from carbide crucibles or from grinding wheels used to remove
soldering from the die surfaces.

Figure 2-37 - Silicon carbide inclusions

Flux
Flux inclusions are not usually recognized during a cursory visual inspection. A simple test to
determine whether or not castings contain flux inclusions is to simply submerge the casting in city
water overnight. If flux inclusions are present, they will grow crystals on the casting surface since
flux is composed of salt. The corrosive products that developed appear as light mottling on all
surfaces of the casting.

Flux inclusions can be identified by a gray crystalline appearance, similar to rock salt. Flux
inclusions are often associated with shrink voids, dross or hard spot inclusions.

Figure 2-38 - Photo of flux covered casting

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Flux inclusions will cause problems when coating such as anodizing or alodining are applied,
preventing adhesion. Shelf life of finished components with flux inclusions will be short. Storing
parts in a humid atmosphere will result in discoloration.

Sludge
Sludge is another inclusion considered to be a hard spot. Sludge is composed of complex inter-
metallic compounds of Al-Si-Fe-Mn-Cr having melting points above the liquidus temperature of the
alloy from which they are formed. Sludge is quite hard, and in a casting will surely damage cutter
tooling. Under high magnification sludge is easily recognized by the extremely fine primary crystals
and their pentagonal shape.

The components necessary to form sludge are always present in aluminum die casting. The
tendency to form sludge can be minimized by purchasing alloy that is low in the sludge forming
ingredients as the first step. The next step is to maintain good furnace temperature control.

A frequently used formula to specify the maximum for sludge forming ingredients is:

%Fe + 2 x %Mn + 3 x %Cr = 1.75% max

This means the sum of the iron percentage and two times the manganese percentage and three
times the chromium percentage should not exceed 1.75%. If holding furnace temperatures are
routinely less than 1200°F (815°C), an even lower sludge factor should be specified.

You can check for sludging by raking the bottom of the furnace. Sludge is a silvery sandy material
at the bottom of the furnace. It is best just to rake the material off the furnace bottom and
discard it.

Since sludging depletes the iron in the bath, if the iron is not replaced, soldering can be
expected with jobs that normally do not experience soldering problems. Also, reduced iron in the
casting can result in hot cracking at die opening and ejection.

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AREA EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn the names of the major machine components of conventional machines.
●● To learn the purpose of the major machine components.
●● To learn how the components work, both independently and together.
●● To learn the differences in the hot and cold chamber die casting machines.
●● To learn the requirements for safely working with the various machine components.
●● To learn about forces developed by the tie bars.

PERSPECTIVE
The die casting machine is the most important machine in the die casting plant. All activities
in the plant focus on keeping the machine running, and producing acceptable castings. The die
casting machine is a complex assembly of components that must work in concert with each other
to produce the forces, speeds, and withstand the high temperatures required to make a die
casting. To be given the responsibility to run a die casting machine is similar to being given the
keys to a finely tuned racing car, except the die cast machine may cost more.

In this lesson we will assemble a die cast machine from the ground up. We will identify all the
components that make up the machine and define their function. Along the way we will show a
number of illustrations to clarify and give you a good picture of the machine. The machine we
assemble will be generic in nature and will closely resemble the machine you are working on. At
the conclusion of this lesson you will be able to identify the major machine components, explain
their function and know the safety requirements related to running the machine.

There are two major die casting processes; hot chamber and cold chamber die casting. They get
their name from the temperature of their metal pump relative to the temperature of the metal.
In hot chamber die casting, the metal pump, or gooseneck, is submerged in the metal and is the
same temperature as the metal.

In cold chamber die casting, the metal pump, cold chamber or shot sleeve, is outside the
furnace, and is cold relative to the metal ladled into it.

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Figure 3-1(a) - Cold chamber shot end

Figure 3-1(b) - Hot chamber shot end

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In addition to conventional die casting machines, there are a number of specialty die casting
machines. These will be discussed after the conventional machines. Conventional machines open
and close on a horizontal or vertical axis (most are horizontal). The machines will have tie bars or
a solid cast frame and operate with hot or cold chamber metal pumps.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

Machine Base
The machine base is a steel fabrication that supports the major machine components. It is
generally a rectangular box, but the shape may vary based on the machine size and manufacturer.
The base has several important functions.

First, it serves as a platform for the heavy steel plates to rest on. At small machines the height
of the machine base is adjusted to place the work area of the machine at a convenient height for
the operator. At large machines, a platform must be built for the operator.

Figure 3-2 - Machine base and reservoir highlighted

Many machine manufacturers enclose the rear portion of the machine base to form a steel tank.
This tank becomes a reservoir for the hydraulic fluid that powers the machine. During operation
the hydraulic fluid in the reservoir and machine will heat. For safe operation hydraulic fluid
manufacturers recommend that the operating temperature of the oil should not exceed 125°F.
If it gets too hot, it can lose its lubricity and fire resistance. For the hydraulic fluid to operate
efficiently it must be kept clean. An effort must be made to keep the area of the reservoir clean
and free of dirt and debris. The reservoir area should not be stacked with tools, castings and other
materials.

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Figure 3-3 - Sight glass and thermometer

The reservoir is specially built to be an oil tank. To maintain temperature a thermometer is

usually built in. Also, there is usually a “sight” glass somewhere on the side of the tank so it is
easy to determine the level of fluid in the tank. Because of the high volume flow of hydraulic oil
into and out of the tank, many tanks will be equipped with baffles and a breather. The purpose of
the breather is to accommodate air flow in and out of the reservoir. You should make sure that the
area around the breather is clear and air flow is not restricted. Baffles are placed in the tank to
prevent turbulence and foaming of the hydraulic oil.

The “rear” or “clamp end” of the machine is the end opposite the injection end. This is
generally where the electrical utilities, motors, and pumps are located.

The machine base must be strong enough to support the platens without sagging and must be
rigid enough to withstand twisting that could occur if the machine were improperly locked.

The area around the base should be free of hoses and cords that could become trip-fall hazards.

Platens
The platens are the three large plates that support the machine loads. They rest on the machine
base. They are known as the Stationary platen, Moving platen, and Rear platen. Their functions
are fairly straight forward. The Stationary platen, located at the “shot” or injection end of the
machine, holds the stationary die half on the die space side. The injection or shot end is usually
mounted on the other side. The moving platen is located between the stationary and rear platens.
The moving or ejector half of the die is mounted to the moving platen on the die space side.
The rear platen is located at the rear of the machine. The moving and rear platens are generally
resting on “shoes” that slide on replaceable wear plates. Both the moving and rear platens move
every cycle. The moving platen slides back and forth to open and close the die. The rear platen
slides a little as the tie bars stretch. The rear platen is also known as the “adjustable” platen due
to its movement to accommodate shut height adjustment and because it is adjusted for differing
die heights.

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Figure 3-4 - Platens highlighted and labeled

The platens must be kept clean, particularly the die mounting surfaces of the moving and
stationary platens. These must be cleaned every set-up to assure that there is good heat transfer
from the die to the platens and that the die parting lines and faces are kept parallel to the
machine platens.

The surfaces of the stationary and moving platens in the die space will have Tee slots or tapped
holes for clamping the die. Care must be taken during set-up and operation to make sure these
features are not damaged.

Figure 3-5 - Platens showing Tee slots or mounting holes

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The stationary and moving platens may become hot enough to burn during operation,
particularly the stationary platens of hot chamber machines. Some machines have water lines in
the stationary platens to cool them.

By its very nature, the moving platen can become a strike hazard. Items attached to the moving
platen or items attached and projecting from the platens may be a snag hazards. Care must be
exercised around the moving platen to make sure all guards are in place and properly mounted.

Tie bars
Most machines have four tie bars. The tie bars are long, solid columns mounted through the
four corners of the platens. They are used to orient and position the platens. The moving platen
actually slides along the tie bars. The size and strength of the tie bars determines the size of the
machine. Every cycle the tie bars actually stretch to develop the force that is necessary to hold
the die together against the force of injection. If the machine is improperly set-up or somehow
a tie bar becomes over-stressed, it is possible to break the tie bar. There is at least one machine
manufacturer, Lester Machines, which replaced the tie bars with a solid frame made from a
casting. These machines are no longer being manufactured but many are still in operation. A
detailed discussion of the tie bar strength is developed at the end of this lesson in the “Process
Math and Science for the Die Cast Operator”.

Figure 3-6 - Tie bars shaded

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Figure 3-7 - Die casting machine

Toggle linkage mechanism

The Rear and Moving platens are connected to each other with the toggle linkage mechanism.
This mechanism may look different depending upon the machine manufacturer, but it always
performs the same function. It takes a great deal of force to stretch the tie bars and lock the
machine. If this were to be accomplished with a hydraulic cylinder, the cylinder required would be
very large and move very slowly because of the large amount of oil that would be needed. Indeed,
some older machines in the 1940’s did have very large cylinders. Die casting machine engineers
developed the toggle linkage to overcome the deficiencies of using a large cylinder. The toggles
act as levers and gain a mechanical advantage during die close and locking. This allows the use of
smaller closing cylinders that can operate at higher speeds.

Figure 3-8 - Toggle mechanism, retracted and extended

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Figure 3-9 - Toggle mechanism

The toggle linkage area contains many pinch points that can be hazardous when the machine
is operating. Guards should always be in place when the machine is operating or being set-up. If
the toggle linkage area needs maintenance, the machine must be locked out and in a zero energy
state (ZES) to prevent injury.

Figure 3-10 - Toggle mechanism without guards

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SELF TEST 1
True or False

1. The major feature of the machine base is a large box that supports the platens.

True False

2. The machine base usually contains a hydraulic reservoir.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

3. The front platen is a major machine component. The following components are mounted to
it:

a. shot end frame

b. tie bars
c. stationary die half
d. ejector cylinder

4. The moveable platen is a major machine component. The following components are
mounted to it:

a. tie bars
b. ejector cylinder
c. ejector die half
d. hydraulic core pulls

5. The rear platen is a major machine component, and it supports the:

a. tie bars
b. clamping mechanism
c. die close cylinder
d. ejector cylinder

6. The rear platen moves:

a. every cycle
b. for die height adjustment
c. never
d. when a tie bar is broken

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Figure 3-11 - Lock-out tag

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Motor and Control Panel

An electric motor or motors provide the power for the machine. The motor is directly coupled
to a hydraulic pump or generally to two pumps. Electrical power is converted into hydraulic power
when the electric motor spins the hydraulic pumps. The pumps force oil into the hydraulic lines
under pressure. The motor is located at the rear of the machine, usually on or adjacent to the
reservoir. Near the rear of the machine will be an electric power cabinet that will enclose the
motor starters and the machine control logic. A disconnect switch is mounted on the outside of
this panel along with the lockout tag. The motor(s) operate at high voltage, usually 440/480 volts.
This area must be kept clean and dry in order to avoid an electric shock hazard. The couplings
between the motor and pump must be guarded because these rotate at high speed and could
cause injury if contacted.

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Figure 3-12 - Motor

Solenoids
Solenoids are used to shift valves to control the volume and direction of hydraulic fluid flow.
A solenoid is an electromagnet that shifts a metal core. This core is attached to a valve spool to
control and direct the oil flow. The solenoid/valves are relatively robust but should not be used as
steps or otherwise abused.

Figure 3-13 - Shot of solenoid valves

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Limit Switches
Limit switches are the sensors, eyes and ears, of the electrical control system. They are located
in many different places on the die casting machine. They are used to sense the position of doors,
guards, cylinders and other moving components on the die casting machine. Their maintenance
is essential to the safe operation of the machine. Limit switches must never be defeated or tied
back. Broken connectors and exposed wiring at limit switches should be repaired immediately in
order to assure safe operation of the machine. The trip rods or actuating mechanisms at the limit
switch will cause pinch points.

Figure 3-14 - Limit switch and trip rod

1
3 2

4 1 Shot end limit switches

2 Die space limit switches
3 Die lock limit switch
4 Die close limit switches

Figure 3-15 - Overall machine view, with arrows locating limit switches

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The machine may also have other types of switches and sensors. Some of the limit switch
functions may be accomplished with proximity switches. There may be pressure switches that
react to a given level of hydraulic pressure.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
The die casting machine functions are operated by a hydraulic system. This means that fluid,
usually fire resistant oil, is used to power the cylinders that make the machine move. This
hydraulic system operates at high pressures and high flow rates. For those reasons alone, we need
to keep safety in mind.

The hydraulic fluid is hot and can cause burns. Leaks and spills should be repaired and cleaned
up quickly. These not only waste costly oil but also can cause slippery surfaces that could result in
injuries if someone slips and falls.

Hydraulic Pumps
A die casting machine usually has a minimum of two hydraulic pumps. One pump is capable of
providing oil at high pressures but in low volumes. A second pump would be capable of providing
a high volume of oil at low pressures. For example, the pumping capabilities of a 400 ton machine
may be 8 gallons per minute of 2000 PSI oil from the high pressure pump and 40 gallons per minute
of 200 PSI oil from the low pressure pump. This type of pumping capability is used to solve the
various demands of the die casting machine. The die close cylinder requires a large amount of
oil to open and close the moving platen. Once the die faces close, only a small volume of high
pressure oil is required to stretch the tie bars and lock the die. Just the act of closing requires the
output of both pumps.

Figure 3-16 - Close-in of hydraulic pumps and motors

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Filters
Filter(s) are required to keep the hydraulic fluid clean. The filter(s) are located at the outlet of
the pumps to assure that clean oil is sent to the various valves and cylinders. The filters require
routine maintenance to make sure they work properly. Most filters have a visual differential
pressure gage on them that should be checked frequently to make sure the oil is clean. Small dirt
particles in the oil can cause valves to fail because of the small clearances in the valves.

Figure 3-17 - View of several filters

Figure 3-18 - Close-up of differential pressure gauge on filter

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Valves
Valves are used to control the amount and direction of oil flow. Solenoid operated valves are
used to direct the flow to the head or rod side of a cylinder or they may direct oil to shift a large
valve, such as the pilot operated (P.O.) check valve at the base of the accumulator.

Some of the valves may be manually operated. For example, the valves controlling the speeds of
injection or die closing may be fitted with large hand wheels. These valves are used to control or
shut off the oil flow.

Figure 3-19 - Speed control valve for shot cylinder

Figure 3-20 - Speed control valve for die close cylinder

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On more modern machines the speed control of machine functions is controlled by a series of
valves mounted on a manifold. The manifold provides a centrally located source of hydraulic fluid
for the speed control valves.

Figure 3-21 - Close-up of solenoid valves

Heat Exchanger
Most machines will have a heat exchanger to cool the DCM’s hydraulic fluid. This is a large
tubular tank located adjacent to the reservoir. It operates similar to a boiler. Internally the heat
exchanger will have a large number of pipes going through. Cooling water will circulate through
these pipes. Hydraulic fluid will be let into one end of the heat exchanger; the fluid will flow
over the water cooled piping and give up heat to the water. The fluid will then flow out the exit.
Factors affecting the efficiency of the heat exchanger are the same as those affecting die cooling.
If the water lines fill up with lime (calcium), heat flow is reduced. If fluid flow is to slow, heat flow
is reduced.

Leakage in the heat exchanger can be troublesome in two ways. First the hydraulic oil can be
contaminated by too much water. Second the recirculating water will be contaminated by the
hydraulic fluid. As an operator, you should be aware of the hydraulic fluid temperature. If it gets
too hot, then check for flow through the heat exchanger, both hydraulic oil and coolant.

Figure 3-22 - Heat exchanger

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Cylinders
Hydraulic cylinders are used to open and close the machine, to inject the metal into the die, and
may be used to operate the ejection system, move slides on the die, actuate a safety ratchet and
open and close a safety door at the die parting line. These cylinders may be liquid or air operated.
Cylinders operate very simply; a fluid comes in one end and pushes an internal piston to the
end of the cylinder. In order to accomplish work one end of a rod is connected to the piston and
the other end of the rod is connected to whatever we want to move. Hydraulic cylinders can be
very powerful. The force that a cylinder can develop depends on its size and the pressure of the
hydraulic fluid.

Die Close Cylinder

The die close cylinder is used to open and close the die. It is mounted on the rear platen, with
the cylinder rod extending through the platen and connected to the crosshead, or center of the
toggle linkage.

Figure 3-23 - Die close cylinder

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Ejection Cylinder
Some machines have cylinders to actuate the ejection system on the die. The ejector cylinder
is mounted to the moving platen on the toggle linkage side. It may be a single cylinder with a rod
that connects to the ejector plate in the die, or there could be several cylinders that are used to
move a large plate that will actuate “bump pins” that operate between this large plate and the
ejector plate in the die. The area of the ejector bumper plate is usually covered by the guards
that cover the toggle area. You must be sure that the pinch points in these areas are protected.

Figure 3-24 - Sketch of center hydraulic ejection cylinder

Shot Cylinder
The shot cylinder is used to inject the metal into the die. On hot chamber machines the cylinder
rod is connected to a plunger that is located in the gooseneck. This cylinder is mounted to an “A”
frame that is supported by smaller tie bars from the furnace side of the stationary platen.

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Figure 3-25 - Shot cylinder

On a cold chamber machine the cylinder rod is connected to a plunger that is located in the cold
chamber. The shot cylinder is mounted to a “C” frame that is mounted to the stationary platen.

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SELF TEST 2

True or False

1. The purpose of filters is to smooth the oil flow.

True False

2. Hydraulic pumps supply high and low pressure oil.

True False

3. Valves control the amount and direction of oil flow.

True False

4. The heat exchanger is used to heat the die.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all correct answers:

5. The following are typical hydraulic components found on a die casting machine:

a. accumulators
b. valves
c. bump bars
d. filters

6. Hydraulic cylinders at the machine are used for:

a. closing
b. injection
c. ejection
d. hydraulic core pulls

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Injection Components

The hot chamber injection components include the shot cylinder, plunger coupling, plunger,
rings, gooseneck, bushing, and nozzle. An “A” frame supports all of these components. The
plunger rings are assembled to the plunger tip just as piston rings are fit to an automotive
piston. The purpose of the rings is to prevent metal leaking past the plunger tip and to maintain
metal pressure in the die cavity at the end of cavity filling. The bushing and nozzle connect the
gooseneck to the casting die. The metal to metal contacts between the die, nozzle, bushing, and
gooseneck must not leak during operation as the spitting metal could be a burn hazard to anyone
in the area. During operation these components are all very hot and could burn if touched.

Figure 3-26(a) - Injection components, hot chamber

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Figure 3-26(b) - Injection components, cold chamber

For efficient operation, care must be taken during set-up to assure that the shot cylinder and
plunger are in proper alignment. This will assure a minimum of wear and operating problems.

The cold chamber components include the shot cylinder, plunger rod and tip, coupling and the
cold chamber. Alignment of the chamber, tip and rod, and shot cylinder is critical to the efficient
operation of the injection system. The shot cylinder rod extends from the shot cylinder and is
connected to the plunger rod with a coupling. Care must be taken to avoid damage to the cylinder
rod. It is a precision machined component that extends through a packing gland that seals the high
pressure oil into the shot cylinder. This should not be used as a step or tool rest. In some cases
the position and velocity transducers for the shot cylinder are machined into the cylinder rod.
The plunger tip is usually made from a beryllium copper alloy in order to achieve fast cooling of
the cast biscuit or plug at the end of the cold chamber. Proper cooling and temperature control of
the tip is necessary to prevent metal from bypassing the tip and spitting out of the chamber. This
can be hazardous. Sticking tips can also be a problem and proper training is necessary before one
attempts to remove a stuck plunger.

Accumulator
The accumulator is simply a large steel tank. This tank is partially filled with hydraulic fluid
above which is a column of high pressure nitrogen gas. An accumulator is used when large volumes
of hydraulic oil are required. This could be during die open or close, or during injection and
intensification.

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For example, during the fast shot phase of injection, the valve at the base of the accumulator
is opened and oil is supplied to the shot cylinder. Neither of the hydraulic pumps can supply
the gallons per second of oil needed for cavity filling. Once the accumulator is discharged its
job is complete. During another portion of the casting cycle, the oil is pumped back into the
accumulator, recharging it.

Figure 3-27 - Various types of accumulators

The accumulator stores a large amount of oil under high pressure. This could be potentially
hazardous. When maintenance to the machine or die is required, activities that require the
machine to be “locked out”, the accumulator must be returned to a “zero energy state”, or ZES.
This will require relieving the pressure in the accumulator to eliminate the possibility that a
hydraulic cylinder could move.

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Figure 3-28 - Shot accumulators

Intensifier
The intensifier is a hydraulic device that increases the hydraulic fluid pressure at the end of the
injection stroke. The purpose of this high pressure is to dramatically increase the metal pressure
in order to squeeze additional metal into the die cavity as the metal shrinks and to further
compress trapped gases.

Figure 3-29 - Schematic of passageways from the intensifier accumulator to the plunger in order to
increase pressure at the end of the shot stroke.

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SELF TEST 3

True or False

1. The accumulator supplies the hydraulic fluid during cavity filling.

True False

2. The intensifier squeezes the metal during cavity filling.

True False

3. High volume pumps are generally low pressure pumps.

True False

4. High pressure pumps are generally low volume.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all correct answers:

5. Cold chamber shot end components include:

a. cold chamber
b. tip
c. rod
d. rings

6. Hot chamber shot end components include

a. gooseneck
b. nozzle
c. plunger
d. coupling

7. The purpose of the first stage of injection is to:

a. purge dirty metal from the metal flow path

b. vent air and gases in the metal flow path
c. advance the metal in a sinusoidal wave form
d. allow some of the metal to form solids

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VARIATIONS IN CONVENTIONAL MACHINES

Most die casting machines operate along a horizontal axis. Pivoting these machines on the
shot end and orienting them along a vertical axis created another family of machines. A major
advantage of this type of machine is in making castings that require cast-in inserts. Gravity is used
to hold the inserts in the stationary die half. Also, unloading can be simplified by using gravity to
drop the castings on an unloader after ejection.

Figure 3-30 - Vertical die casting machine

Another variation of the conventional horizontal machine is one that is used to cast and trim in
the same die space. In this special machine both a casting die and trim die are mounted to the
machine platens. A specialized unloading mechanism then rotates the casting from the casting die
to the trim die, finishing a casting every cycle. During the first cycle one casting is cast. After die
opening this casting is rotated to the trim die. The next cycle makes a new casting and trims the
first. Thereafter, a casting is cast and trimmed every cycle.

Non-Conventional Machines
“Four-slide Machines” are specialty die cast machines used for the production of small castings
with the hot chamber process. The machine consists of a frame used to support a furnace, small
pivoting gooseneck and large plate that is angled 5-10° from vertical. The dies are actually two to
four slides that are mounted to the plate and open and close along the horizontal and vertical axis
of the machine. Some machines use air as their pneumatic fluid. The closing forces are very low
and manufacture is limited to very small parts. These machines run at very high production rates,

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20-30 cycles per minute. Tooling is usually designed to run with minimal draft and flash free to
eliminate any secondary operations. Also, tool costs are very low when compared to conventional
tooling.

Figure 3-31 - Techmire machine

Figure 3-32 - Close-up of Techmire machine

“Low pressure Machines” are die cast machines that have been designed to run on a process
that is similar to conventional die casting. The low-pressure process uses metal pressures on the
order of 5 PSI. The low pressure machine has a vertical opening and closing stroke and is mounted
over the holding furnace. The process injects metal by pressurizing the air above the metal in the
furnace and forcing the metal up a tube into the die. The characteristics of metal flow are very
similar to sand or permanent mold gravity casting. Compared to conventional die casting, the
tooling cost is low and the cycles are very long. Internal quality of the castings is usually better,
but the process does not have the ability to fill the thin walls that conventional die casting can.

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DIE LUBRICANTS/RELEASE
Another major material in the die casting process is the release material that is used between
injection cycles. The application of this material will occur every cycle or at a some regular
frequency. This material has several functions, first and foremost is to act as a parting or
release agent. A second purpose is to provide cooling in order to obtain a uniform temperature
distribution. A third function is to aid lubricity and metal flow.

In recent years die releases have been converted from solvent based agents to water born
agents. Solvent based agents have been deemed undesirable because they tend to burn or
decompose and release undesirable hydrocarbons. One of the biggest differences with this change
is the amount of heat removed by the release agent. The water born die releases remove much
more heat than the solvent based release agents.

The components in release agent are organic, inorganic, or synthetic. The organic materials are
based on carbon chains; these materials include most oils, waxes, fats, and silicones. Inorganic
materials are crystalline solid materials usually in the form of small particles, including graphite’s,
boron nitride, MoS2 (molybdenum sulfide), and others. Synthetics are carefully made reaction
products, usually organic, which contain very few impurities.

Functions
The first function is to provide lubrication and release. This is accomplished by applying a
thin layer of lubricant on the die steel; this results in a carbon barrier as thin as 1/1,000,000
of an inch. This prevents soldering of the aluminum in the alloy with the steel/iron in the die.
If the lubricant is applied to heavily, the lubricant can build-up. This build up is a combination
of aluminum and carbon that can be removed readily. Minerals can build-up from water based
lubricants. These minerals, like lime build-up in waterlines, is more difficult to remove. Build-up
of the lubricant can impair proper venting if left on the die face.

The second function of the water based die lubricant is to provide cooling at the die surface.
Some die casters feel cooling might be best accomplished by just spraying the die with atomized
water.

Figure 3-33 - Spraying water on die to cool it

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The last important function of the die lubricant is to control the lubricity and metal flow of the
alloy.

Some key features of die lubes are low gas generation, noninterference with finishing, good
cleanliness, low smoke and odor generation, ease of mixing and handling, and an acceptable
ecological profile.

Lubricant Application

Spray wand

Figure 3-34 - Cut-away of a spray wand

Die release can be applied in a number of ways. The most common method of application is
manually with a spray wand having a single nozzle. This method is under control of the die cast
machine operator. You are responsible to determine how the die must be sprayed to achieve
maximum quality and productivity. The typical controls the operator has over the spray application
are:

1. Nozzle adjustment for spray pattern.

2. Air pressure at nozzle.

3. Lubricant volume at nozzle.

4. Spray location.

5. Spray duration or time.

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Spray pattern

Figure 3-35 - Graphic of various spray pattern

A specific nozzle type can be selected to provide a circular spray pattern, or a nozzle may be
selected to provide an oval shaped pattern. Some nozzles are adjustable and can be varied to
supply a circular or elongated pattern.

Air pressure adjustment

Figure 3-36(a) - Cut-away of a air adjusting screw

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Most spray wands will have an adjustment for the volume of air flow at the nozzle. Two things
are important when making adjustments to the air-lube mixture. First we want to achieve
atomization, to provide a fine layer of lubricant to the die surface. Second, we need adequate air
pressure to force this mist into the deep recesses of the die. The air pressure regulator is usually
mounted to the air supply pipe. You must know maximum air pressures recommended for your
spray wand, so they are not exceeded.

Lubricant volume at nozzle

Figure 3-36(b) - Lubricant adjustor identified

As with air, the flow of lubricant must be controlled to achieve atomization and also to flow
enough volume to coat the cavity in a reasonable amount of time.

Spray location
A very important part of your job as an operator is to apply the die release where it is required,
to avoid excessive application, and to blow excessive or trapped lube out of recesses and corners.
You must be able to look at the casting and be able to “read” the surface finish for defects and
temperature in order to be able to gauge the application of die release for the next cycle.

Spray duration or time

Spray duration is the dominant variable with respect to heat removal from the die. It is more
effective than increased volume. For example, if spray were being applied at a rate of 20 in3/
min. for 3 seconds. Doubling the spray volume to 40 in3/min will not double the heat removal. But
doubling the spray time from 3 seconds to 6 seconds will double the heat removal.

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Fixed Head Spray application

Figure 3-37 - Fixed spray head

Fixed spray nozzles are another method of die release application. With this method individual
nozzles are mounted around the periphery of the die or machine platen, on both halves. The
nozzles must be pointed at the proper locations, with proper adjustments to the volumes and
pressures of the air and lubricant.

Reciprocating Spray Heads

Figure 3-38 - Reciprocating sprayers and manifolds

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Another method of applying die spray is through the use of a reciprocating applicator.
Reciprocators usually have multiple nozzles that can be adjusted for direction, volume and
pattern. Additionally, reciprocators have adjustments for travel and dwell. To simplify set-up and
repeatability some die casters will have dedicated manifolds with nozzles for important jobs.

Characteristics of Lubricant Application

Atomization has previously been mentioned as one of the goals to be achieved when setting up
the die spray nozzle. It has been found that the smaller droplet size is better in obtaining good
contact with the die steels. Larger droplets will have a tendency to form a steam barrier that the
lube cannot penetrate. If a droplet of lube can contact the solid surface, the molecules on the
surface will be more attracted to the solid surface than to the liquid. The droplet then spreads,
increasing the surface area contact. This is called “wetting”.

If a lube can wet the die surface quickly, spray time can be reduced, and cycle time reduced.
This could cause the die to run hotter, improving filling and reducing thermal shock. This should
result in better die life.

Figure 3-39 - Die lube wetting

Die lube will run away from hot spots in the cavity. Also, radiant heat will resist die lube. Pre-
cooling with water could be solution to hot spots, prior to applying the die spray.

Air currents will affect the die spray application. In the case of multiple nozzles spraying on a
cavity, the interaction of the sprays should be reviewed and the nozzles redirected if necessary.
Converging spray patterns could work against getting lube where it is required.

Lastly, a most important characteristic of the lube will be its concentration in its carrier. 50:1
dilutions with water are common, and some die casters have extended as much as 100 and 200:1.
A dilution of 50:1 means 50 parts of water to 1 part of lube. Whatever dilution is required, proper
instructions for mixing must be given and the ratio should be checked on a periodic basis.

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HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Function
Hydraulic fluid is the medium that converts electrical power into mechanical action; it transmits
power from one point to another point. The fluid also lubricates the surfaces it contacts.
Lubrication is a very important function because of the tight tolerances of components, such as
gears, valves and pistons in the hydraulic system.

Properties
The physical properties of the hydraulic fluid are very important. The most important physical
property is viscosity. Viscosity of a fluid describes its thickness, or resistance to flow. It is a
measure of the internal friction of the fluid. Viscosity is measured in a unit called SUS, or the
Saybolt Universal Second. A viscosity number is the amount of time it takes 60 cubic centimeters
to drain from a container at given temperatures, usually 100°F and 210°F.

Figure 3-40 - Viscosity cup and stopwatch

Viscosity changes with temperature. As temperature goes up the viscosity goes down and
vice versa. A good hydraulic fluid is one that has a relatively constant viscosity over the entire
temperature operating range of the system.

The Viscosity Index (VI) is a measure of how much the viscosity of the fluid varies from 100-
210°F. Water based fluids do not have a VI. This is because their viscosity varies with the
percentage of water in the fluid.

Viscosity also varies with pressure. The VI increases with pressure. In other words, as pressure
goes up the change in viscosity between 100-210°F goes up.

Another important property of the hydraulic fluid is its “pour point”. This is the lowest
temperature at which the fluid will flow.

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Chemical Properties
The most important chemical property that the fluid must have is resistance to oxidation. If the
fluid oxidizes, its viscosity increases, it darkens in color, it decomposes and forms varnishes and
gums that jam components and plug orifices. This is the most common factor in shortening the
fluid life. Oxidation in hydraulic systems can be controlled by using the proper equipment, proper
chemical formulation, and proper maintenance.

Other contaminants that affect the performance of the hydraulic fluid are water, air, foaming
and corrosion.

In some systems, water in the form of water vapor, and air get into the hydraulic fluid and
form an emulsion. These water emulsions can be thin slurries, pasty, or heavy gummy mixes; all
depending on the fluid viscosity and water content. These emulsions will promote the collection
of impurities (dirt) that lead to increased friction and wear. These emulsions are not stable and
during periods of shutdown demulsification or breakdown of the fluid takes place. When this
happens, the water settles out, causes corrosion and lack of lubrication.

Dissolved air in the fluid can also be a problem. Air gets into the system when it is picked up
at the pump suction filter in the reservoir, or through leaks in piping and seals. Air in the fluid
causes oxidation. If the fluid has too much air in it, it will foam. This can cause erratic operation
of the machine because of sudden pressure drops due to the compressibility of the fluid with air. If
foaming is a problem it can be managed with screens and splash plates or chemical additives.

Corrosion and rusting can occur in the hydraulic system as the result the fluid oxidizing. Some
of the products of oxidation of the fluid are acids that cause corrosion. Also air and water trapped
in the fluid will cause rust. The corrosion resistance of most hydraulic fluids is excellent, except,
water glycols will attack magnesium, and zinc. Additionally, the water glycols have low lubricity
when compared to petroleum based oils.

Fluid Types
The hydraulic fluids available in die casting are petroleum oil, water emulsions, water glycols or
phosphate esters. Each of these has characteristics that make them more desirable in a particular
application. It may simply be the price. The comparison table rates some of the important
characteristics.

Hydraulic Fluid Comparison Chart

Fire Resistance Petroleum Water Emulsion Water Glycol Phosphate Ester
Bare flame poor fair very good good
Hot surface poor fair good very good
Cost (times petroleum) 1 1 2-2.5 3.5
Stability excellent good excellent excellent
Lubricity vane pump excellent good very good excellent
Gear pump excellent excellent excellent excellent
Corrosion protection very good good good very good
Compatibility excellent very good (except very good good (except paind,
paint) (except paint) rubber, plastic)

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Operating Characteristics
As an operator it is important that you understand how the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid
changes during the die casting process, you should also note if the hydraulic fluid is undergoing
changes that will lead to its degradation.

At machine start-up the hydraulic fluid viscosity is high, it is thick and cold. This means the
machine performance will not be up to expectations. For example,

●● There will be a greater overall pressure drop at all the various components.
●● Overall the system experiences increased drag and is sluggish.
●● Noise levels will be higher.
●● Power consumption will be higher because of greater resistance in the system.
●● There will be a greater vacuum at the pump inlet.

This means that time must be allowed at the start-up to warm up the hydraulic fluid. Some dry
cycling should take place to redistribute lubricant and move fluid through the various components.

Once the machine is warmed up normal operation should be expected. If abnormal things happen
such as erratic shot performance, or pump cavitation, this could be an indication of foaming or
excessive air in the fluid. These types of problems should be referred to your supervisor.

One of the things that can go wrong during normal production is overheating of the hydraulic
fluid. Most manufacturers of hydraulic fluid will specify a recommended operating range for those
fluids. For die casting machines, the maximum temperature is about 125°F. If the fluid overheats it
will loose its viscosity and the following problems could occur:

●● Leakage can increase at valves and actuators.

●● Leakage at gaskets, seals, and connections.
●● Increased pump slippage.
●● Increased wear.
●● Shortened service life of the fluid.

As an operator you should monitor the temperature the fluid. Most reservoirs have a
thermometer on them. A good time to check the temperature is at breaks, after periods of
extended operation. High fluid temperature could be an indication of a heat exchanger that is
plugged or not open.

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Figure 3-41 - Know the temperature of the oil!

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SELF TEST 4
True or False

1. The main purpose of die release is to cool the die.

True False

2. Hydraulic fluids such as water glycols are very fire resistant.

True False

3. Die release should always be diluted at 50 parts of water to 1 part concentrate.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all the correct answers:

4. Die release should:

a. mix easily
b. not interfere with finishing operations
c. be free of noxious odors
d. not be full of dirt

5. Die release is most effective when:

a. it atomizes
b. wets the cavity surface
c. It is properly diluted
d. none of the above

6. Hydraulic fluids will deteriorate if:

a. exposed to air
b. gets dirty
c. due to rust in the piping
d. operated above 125ºF

7. When the machine is started, and the hydraulic fluid is cold,

a. it will be noisier than usual

b. the fluid will be more viscous (have higher viscosity)
c. the machine will consume more power
d. the machine will operate normally

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DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE CYCLE ELEMENTS

Modes of Operation
The casting machine will have several modes of operation. The most common modes are Manual,
Automatic, and Semi-automatic. The mode of operation is chosen with a selector switch.

The modes of operation are explained as follows:

Semi-automatic, the machine completes one cycle and stops. A machine operator issues the
cycle start command for each new cycle. The machine completes only one cycle at a time.

Automatic, the machine runs one cycle at a time and receives a cycle start command each cycle
from an automated sensing device that determines if the previous cycle has been completed
successfully or the machine runs continuously.

Manual, the machine performs each individual machine function as commanded from the control
panel for as long as the command is sent. Other names for this mode are inch or jog. This mode
is used for set-up. At set-up further control over the functions is achieved by throttling the speed
valves that supply the various actuators or cylinders.

Machine/Die Close

Cycle Start
To run a casting machine cycle, the cycle start must be actuated. There are several acceptable
methods for starting the casting machines cycle. Whatever method your company has selected as
being safe should not be disregarded.

Double palm buttons- many companies have the operators simultaneously actuate double palm
buttons to start the machine cycle. The palm buttons must be held until the operator safety door
is closed and access to the parting line blocked. The machine will close after the safety door is
shut.

Safety door closure- another technique is to have the machine operator close and hold/latch the
safety door closed until the die is locked.

Safety door/cycle start- another variation is to have the operator close the safety door and push
the cycle start button. Once the safety door is closed, the machine cannot close and lock the die
until all safety conditions and cycle sequence conditions have been satisfied. These conditions are
as follows:

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At the die:

Figure 3-42 - Limit switch locations at a hydraulic cylinder on die

For machines and dies employing hydraulic coupled ejection, the ejector plate must be “home”
in the returned position. This must be done if ejector pins are located under slides and would
interfere with a slide in the “home” position. (The “home” position is the ready to cast position of
all components, slides in and ejectors back.) An ejector plate limit switch is required to prove the
ejector plate is home.

A die with ejector half hydraulic cores must have the cores in the withdrawn position, cores out.
This must be proved with a limit switch.

A die with stationary half hydraulic cores must have the cores in the withdrawn position, cores
out. This must be proved with a limit switch.

At the machine:

Figure 3-43 - Limit switch locations detailed at the machine

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The safety pawl is engaged.

●● Guards are in place over and around the toggle/linkage mechanism.

●● Safety doors are in place, preventing access to the die parting line.
●● Ejection cylinder is returned, home.
●● The die close cylinder is in the open position.
●● The injection cylinder is in the home position.

After all the conditions are satisfied the safety pawl is withdrawn and the machine can begin
closing. The machine will close rapidly, but under low pressure. The speed of die closing can be
controlled by opening or closing a throttle valve, or if cartridge valves are used, by programming
the logic controller. A properly setup machine will close using low pressure hydraulic oil. In case
an obstruction is encountered, the machine will stop, not having enough power to overcome
the obstruction and cause damage. The setting is only good to prevent damage to tooling and
equipment and should not be considered a personnel safety device. A limit switch setting should
determine the transition from low to high pressure. This should be at about 0.030” of the die faces
meeting. High pressure oil is used to close the die faces, stretch the tie bars and lock the die.

Figure 3-44 - Hydraulic schematic showing low pressure die close

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Figure 3-45 - Hydraulic schematic showing high pressure die closing

Figure 3-46 - Low pressure limit switch

If you review the hydraulic schematics for the two stages of die closing you will note the
differences in oil volume and pressure requirements. During the first stage of die closing the
cylinder has to move a long distance, whatever the die closing stroke is. During this stage the only
resistance the cylinder must overcome is the static friction to get the platen moving and then
a lesser dynamic friction to keep the platen moving. You need a lot of oil, but at relatively low
pressure. Most machines have enough low pressure pump capacity to supply this oil directly from
the pump. At the second stage of die closing, the die faces are in contact, so the cylinder travel
requirement will be relatively small, but it will take a great effort to stretch the tie bars to lock
the machine. For the second stage of die close, the high pressure pump supplies a small volume of
oil at very high pressure. Once the toggles are locked, a limit switch senses their position.

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Figure 3-47 - Die lock limit switch location

Die locking, or in other words, tie bar loading is one of the major die casting process variables.
As the machine operator, you should be aware of this and observe the lock up sequence as
frequently as possible. The tie bar loading, or amount of stretching, can vary from cycle to cycle.
Usually these changes are not large or important, but when they are, you should be aware of
them in order to take corrective action. The amount of tie bar stretching can be measured. By
measuring the stretch of each tie bar every cycle and observing the readings you will know if a
change has occurred. If this is not practical, other methods of monitoring the tie bar strain will
have to be developed.

Figure 3-48 - Tie bar strain indicators

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Tie Bar Stretch (strain)

When you refer to a die casting machine as a 600 ton machine, you are saying that it can
develop a closing force of 600 tons (not that it weighs 600 tons). This means that the machine can
hold a die together, against an injection force of up to 600 tons. If that 600 tons is exceeded, the
die will pop open and spit metal. If the force is exceeded by a large amount, the machine, or a tie
bar, could break. This is not a common occurrence, but it does happen when people are ignoring
what is going on in the process. The die casting machine develops this closing and holding force
by stretching, or preloading, the tie bars. For proper operation of the machine it is important that
each tie bar be stretched the same amount. If this is not the case, the machine will twist with the
imbalanced load and may not hold the die together.

The amount of stretching can be measured. This is called “strain”, which is a mechanical
property of many materials. Strain is predictable depending on the material, the size of the
material and how much stretching force is applied to the material. The material of the tie bar is
steel and the size is its cross-sectional area (or circular area). Strain is defined as the amount of
stretch (elongation) divided by length over which the stretch was measured. For example, if a tie
bar stretches 0.008” over a distance of 8.0”, the strain is:

Strain = 0.008in/8.0in = 0.001in/in

(Strain = 0.2mm/200mm = 0.001mm/mm)

The strain is equal to one one-thousandth of an inch per inch. Or every inch of the tie bar
stretches 0.001”. A 10 foot long tie bar, 120 inches long, would stretch 0.120”; almost an 1/8th of
an inch.

(The strain is equal to one one-thousandth of a mm per mm. Or every mm of the tie bar
stretches 0.001mm. A 3.048m long tie bar, 3048mm long, would stretch 3.05mm.)

The tie bar strain can be measured a number of ways. The simplest method is to drill a tie bar to
a specific depth and measure the strain over the depth of the hole.

Figure 3-49 - Tie bar strain in drilled tie bar

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Another method is to use a temporary magnetic device with a dial indicator that clamps to the
tie bar and measures the amount stretch between the magnets.

Figure 3-50 - Magnetic tie bar strain device

Changes to die locking

As noted previously, die locking/tie bar strain is an important process variable and you as the
operator should be continually aware of how the die lock is behaving. Under normal operating
conditions the machine cycle will have a particular rhythm. The normal cycle will have various
noises, such the sprayers, the shot and the hydraulic pumps and motors. You should be aware
when changes to this normal cycle occur, be aware of the exceptions. In the case of die locking,
is the machine slowing down and straining more to lock the die? Has the machine sped up and
is it locking with less effort? Is the machine straining and twisting, or bending? Is the machine
“popping” or jumping when it unlocks? Machine locking and unlocking should be fluid movements
with a hesitation when the machine locks and stretches the tie bars.

The objective of the die is to maintain a consistent and uniform lock, straining the tie bars
uniformly. If the die lock changes during production you should try to determine why the change
occurred and correct the problem. There are several common causes for the die lock changing.
They are:

●● Temperature
●● Flash
●● Loose fittings

As the die heats up to operating temperature, you can expect it to expand. This means the
shut height dimension will get longer. As the die gets bigger, it will be tougher and tougher for
the machine to lock up. When this occurs, you will have to open the shut height to adjust for the
larger die.

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Figure 3-51 - Die expanding

As with the die, during production the machine also warms up. It is possible that the tie bars
could increase in temperature by 20-30°F(10-15°C). This will cause the tie bars to expand (get
longer). If this happens the lock will get looser. The shut height will have to reduce to tighten the
lock.

Flash stuck to the die faces will make the die thicker. This is similar to the die expanding due
to heat, except it can be more of a problem. First, changes due to flash are usually greater than
expansion. Second, the flash is not uniform and causes a load imbalance. Excessive flash has been
responsible for a large number of broken tie bars.

Figure 3-52 - Flash straining the tie bar

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As the machine locks, it squeezes the die faces together and pushes against the stationary and
rear platens. The platens in turn push on the tie bar nuts. The tie bar nuts grip and stretch the tie
bars. If the nuts are loose and can rotate on their thread, the die lock can change. Each nut will
have a hold down device to prevent the nut from turning. You should make sure on a daily basis
that the nuts are secure. This should be part of your machine start up inspection.

Figure 3-53 - Loose nut at the tie bar

INJECTION / MAKING THE SHOT

Before injection will occur a number of process and safety conditions must be satisfied.

●● The die must be locked.

●● The plunger must be at the home position.
●● All safety doors and barriers must be in place.
●● Plunger tip has been lubed and is cooling properly.

The injection sequence begins when metal is poured into the cold chamber. The metal should
be dipped from the holding furnace and transferred to the cold chamber as quickly as possible, to
minimize heat loss, and with as little disturbance as possible. Agitation at this time would only add
to oxidation problems.

The details of injection are presented in Lesson 4.

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MACHINE DWELL/HOLD
After the shot has been completed, and prior to die and machine opening the metal must be
allowed to freeze and gain strength. Intensification can be released after 3-4 seconds, the gate
and runner are frozen and metal pressure cannot be transmitted to the casting. At this time the
machine can recharge the accumulator. The high pressure pump is used to refill the accumulator,
to pump the oil into the bottle against the nitrogen charge.

Figure 3-54 - Hydraulic diagram for accumulator recharge circuit

During dwell the casting is cooling in the die. The casting would also like to contract (opposite of
expand), get smaller, but it cannot because it is trapped in the die. Because the casting cannot get
smaller as it cools, the stress that would otherwise be released along with the heat energy, stays
in the casting and becomes what is known as an internal stress. This is similar to having a box with
a tensioned spring in it, if the cover is removed, the spring is released and pops out (don’t have
your face in its way). If the casting is kept in the die too long, and this internal stress is greater
than the strength of casting, the casting will crack.

Dwell time is determined by experience and experimentation. Initially, the dwell time is set
long enough to insure that the biscuit will freeze and not become an explosion hazard. Slowly,
dwell time is reduced, to a point where a lack of hot strength is indicated. An indicator of lack
of hot strength would be ejector pin bulges, or in the worst case, the part sticking in the ejector
half with the pins poking through. Another indicator would be pieces of the casting sticking in the
stationary die have.

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The amount of time that the casting dwells in the die will also affect its final dimensions. The
longer the casting stays in the die, the cooler it gets, and smaller its dimensional changes will be
once it is ejected from the die.

Dimensional changes to the casting during air quenching are governed by the law of thermal
expansion. This law states that the dimensional change of the casting is directly related to the
casting material, the magnitude of the dimension involved, and the difference in temperature
involved.

A casting that is subjected to a long dwell time will be difficult to remove from the die. The
shrink forces onto core features in the die will be great. It will be difficult to strip the casting off
of stationary cores and it will also be difficult to eject the casting from ejector half cores.

Figure 3-55 - Illustrations showing shrink onto cores and away from cavities

MACHINE OPENING
As the machine opens, you should be observing what is happening. You should be listening for
exceptions to the normal sound associated with the machine cycle. Are the leader pins squealing?
Is the die shifting as it slips off the leader pins? Are slides galling as they withdraw? Is ejection
smooth and quiet? Did the plunger push the biscuit out properly? There are a lot of things that can
go wrong, you need to be paying attention, every cycle.

Just as with die locking, die opening requires high pressure to relieve the tie bars. Initially, the
machine needs to move slowly, because the plunger needs to push out the biscuit and keep it in
contact with the ejector die until it is fully out of the cold chamber. Otherwise the biscuit might
stick in the sleeve and bend the runner and casting. The oil supply to the shot cylinder is provided
by the low pressure pump. At this same time the machine is unlocking with the high pressure pump
supplying oil to the die close cylinder.

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Figure 3-56a - Hydraulic diagram for die open

Figure 3-56b - Hydraulic diagram for plunger push-out

If die opening is uneventful, the casting will be sticking in the ejector half cavity of the die. With
some castings there is no way of predicting in which half the casting will remain. In those cases we
must take action to assure the casting remains in the ejector half. If the casting has mechanical
slides, a slight delay can be built into slide withdrawal by adding clearance to the cam pin hole in
the slide carrier.

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EJECTION
The next step in the cycle is ejection. Ejection can be accomplished with a number of different
methods. The simplest ejection is “bump” ejection. This means that some sort of actuator
supplied by the machine simply bumps the ejector plate of the die, pushing the casting out of
the die. This does not require any coupling between the die and the machine. After the part is
ejected, the pins remain extended until the die closes and the ejector plate is pushed home when
the ejector return pins “kiss” the parting line. The actuator for bump ejection can take several
forms.

Figure 3-57 - Bump ejection stud

Some machine manufacturers provide a hydraulic ejection cylinder in the center of the moving
platen. A stud can be threaded into the cylinder rod to provide a bumper.

Another machine manufacturer provides a fixed plate behind the moving platen. Long pins or
knock-out rods are placed in holes in the moving platen, and extend from the die ejector plate to
within several inches of the fixed plate. when the machine opens, the knock-out rods are squeezed
between the fixed plate and the ejector plate of the die, pushing the ejector plate forward. Again,
the ejector pins remain extended until the die closes and the ejector plate is pushed home when
the ejector return pins “kiss” the parting line.

Other, more sophisticated methods can be used to actuate ejection. Another common method
is to couple a hydraulically operated bump plate to the die ejector plate with threaded knock-out
rods.

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Figure 3-58 - Hydraulic diagram of ejection

CASTING REMOVAL
After the casting is ejected, it must be removed from the die. Removal of the casting must
be done with care, if not, the die and casting can be damaged. A pliers or tongs should be used
to grip the biscuit or runner to remove the casting from the die. The tool should not be used to
grip the casting directly, as this could leave damaging marks on the casting. The use of a tool for
removal is recommended for several reasons. The tool will provide leverage to get a firm grip on
the casting without having to squeeze the tool very tightly. Over a shift this can ease the work
load to the hand and wrist. The tool will get hot from repeated handling of hot castings, but using
insulated grips or hose over the grips will insulate you from the hot casting. This way your gloves
will not burn up and you will not get burned through holes in the gloves.

Figure 3-59 - Using tongs to remove a casting

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The casting should be pulled straight off of the ejector pins. If the casting is wiggled and
twisted, the ejector pins will flex and bend, and put pressure on the ejector pin hole causing it
to wear and become bell mouthed. This bell mouthed condition will cause the ejector pin hole to
flash, which will aggravate the casting removal.

Fragile or thin walled parts may be damaged; nicked, or bent if they are too difficult to remove.

Some operators prefer to remove castings with gloved hands. If this is an approved method in
your plant, you should make sure you use clean gloves. Grease and oil stains burnt into a casting
from dirty gloves can not be removed by normal cleaning and washing.

Recently ejected castings are hot and are a burn hazard. Typical ejection temperatures for die
castings are 750 -550°F (400 - 290°C). Castings cool at different rates. Thin walls will cool readily,
while it may take half an hour or longer to cool a biscuit or sprue.

Castings usually have flash on them that is sharp and jagged and can cut quite easily. The
castings must be gripped firmly when handling them to avoid loosing your grip and getting cut.

Figure 3-60 - Example of flashy casting

INSPECTION
After the casting has been removed, but before it is set aside, it should be given a brief
inspection for completeness and obvious visual defects. This is done before you address the next
cycle step, die spray.

At this cursory inspection you are looking to make sure that none of the casting is stuck in the
die. You may be checking a particular area to watch the progress of soldering. You may be looking
for flash at a particular feature.

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This inspection is kept short in order to maintain the rhythm of the cycle time. After the die
spraying is complete and the die has been recycled, during the dwell time, a more thorough
examination of the part can be made.

Figure 3-61 - Example of an inspection plan for visual check

DIE SPRAY
Applying die release is the next step in the casting cycle. This is your opportunity to inspect the
die. The die should be inspected for flash, on the parting line, in the vents, and in slide pockets.
Also the die should be inspected for soldering and lube build-up.

As you spray, you should develop a consistent spray pattern. When you have worked out the
pattern that works best, this should be documented, and this record kept for the next time the
job is run. These notes would best be kept on a set-up sheet.

The objective of the die spray is to put a protective barrier on the die, to shield it from the
aluminum in the die casting alloy. This barrier is only one millionth of an inch thick, and is
replaced every cycle.

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The development of die spray and its application is an extensive science. The die is best sprayed
with a very fine mist, with very small droplet sizes. The small droplet size is less likely to form a
steam barrier to the lube. In addition to being a fine droplet, it has to have enough velocity and
energy to reach the deep pockets in the die cavities.

Die spray also can be used to remove heat from areas that are not accessible to internal cooling.
Die spray should not be considered the cure all for thermal problems because an excessive
application of spray will result in the spray washing off the die face. If excessive cooling is
required, use atomized water first an follow up with die spray before the die cavity is too cold. Die
spray should not run from the face of the die.

Figure 3-62 - Example of a Castherm printout showing the effect of die spray

After die spraying is complete, the die should be blown off with high pressure air to assure that
no liquid is left in the die cavities. Also, that die parting line should be cleaned to remove any
flash.

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SELF TEST 5
True or False

1. For the machine to close the die, the safety ratchet must be locked.

True False

2. The initial die closing is done with high pressure hydraulic oil because of the relative
weight of the moving platen.

True False

3. The tie bars must stretch to develop locking force, this could be called “straining the tie
bars”.

True False

4. The force of injection relieves the strain in the tie bars momentarily.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

5. If you change to a larger plunger size and make no other changes to the machine settings:

a. metal pressure goes up

b. plunger speed goes up
c. gate speed goes up
d. cavity fill time goes up

6. The critical slow shot velocity is required to:

a. give air in the cold chamber time to escape

b. prevent the loss of heat
c. maintain uniform metal pressure
d. push air out ahead of the metal and avoid mixing the air in the metal

7. The intensifier is used to

a. fill the corners of the cavity

b. compress air trapped in the casting
c. feed shrinkage
d. push the plunger out when the die opens

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PROCESS MATH AND SCIENCE FOR DIE CAST OPERATORS

The amount of stress developed in the tie bar is determined by its diameter, its material, and
the amount that it is stretched.

Its cross-sectional area defines its size, whether that is a circle or a rectangle. For a circle the
area is A = ∏r2, and for a rectangle the area is A = L x W.

The material property that is important to the tie bar is the Modulus of Elasticity. This is the
ability of the material to resist stretching without yielding, (taking a permanent set). Modulus of
Elasticity, also known as Young’s Modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve for the particular
material that the tie bar is made from. For steel the Modulus of Elasticity is 30,000,000 lbs/in2.

The amount the material is stretched is a property known as strain. Strain is defined as the
amount of stretch divided by the overall length, or ΔL in/L in

The formula that describes the force developed by the tie bar is:

F = U x A x E U = ΔL in/L in
2000 lbs/Ton A = ∏r2 or L x W in square inches
E = 30,000,000 lbs/in2

What force is exerted by a 6 inch diameter steel tie bar that had a measured strain of 0.008 in.
in 12 inches length?
F = U x A x E U = ΔL in/L in = 0.008 in/12.0 in
2000 lbs/Ton U = 0.00067 in/in

A = ∏r2 = (3.14)(3 in)(3 in)=28.27 in2

F = (0.00067 in/in) (28.27in2) (30,000,000 lbs/in2)

2000 lbs/ton

F = 284 tons

Are these numbers typical of a 1200 ton machine?

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GLOSSARY
A-frame - an “A” shaped frame work at the shot end of the machine used to support the shot
cylinder and gooseneck on most hot chamber machines.

Accumulator - storage tank(s) for hydraulic oil under pressure of an inert gas, to supply oil when
high volumes are required in excess of pump capacity.

C-frame - a “C” shaped framework at the shot end of the machine used to support the shot
cylinder on many cold chamber machines.

Clamp end - the end of the machine with the toggle linkage.

Cold Chamber - the die casting process in which the metal pump is outside of the holding furnace,
the actual cylinder of the cold chamber metal pump.

Die close cylinder - hydraulic cylinder mounted to rear platen, connected to linkage, for opening
and closing the die.

Hot Chamber - die cast process with metal pump (gooseneck) submersed in the molten metal.

Intensifier - special hydraulic cylinder used to increase oil pressure, usually 2-4 times.

Limit Switch - electric switch with a moveable arm that is moved by an operator connected to a
moving machine member, used to signal position of machine or die member.

Linkage - Steel beams connected to moving platen and die close cylinder, arranged as levers to gain
mechanical advantage to stretch tie bars.

Platen - the large steel plates, held together by the tie bars, to which the die and toggle linkages
are mounted.

Safety Ratchet - a ratchet and plunger mounted on top of the rear platen that prevents die closing
if the plunger is extended. The plunger is usually air operated.

Shot Cylinder - hydraulic cylinder responsible for injecting molten metal mounted to A, C, frames
or tie bars.

Shot end -the end of the machine with the shot cylinder.

Tie bars -the large steel columns that connect platens. When the die is locked, the tie bars stretch
to generate the clamping force.

VALVES:

Fast shot valve - volume flow control valve for shot cylinder.

Relief valve - a valve at the pump outlet that opens and allows oil to flow back to the reservoir
when a preset pressure is reached.

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OBJECTIVES
●● To learn about the function of the shot end.
●● To learn the various elements of the shot cycle.
●● To learn the components of the shot system.

PERSPECTIVE
In our third lesson you learned about the die casting machine. In this lesson you are going to
learn about the system that injects the molten metal into the die. This is the shot end.

INJECTION / MAKING THE SHOT

Before injection will occur a number of process and safety conditions must be satisfied.

●● The die must be locked.

●● The plunger must be at the home position.
●● All safety doors and barriers must be in place.
●● Plunger tip has been lubed and is cooling properly.

The injection sequence begins when metal is poured into the cold chamber. The metal should
be dipped from the holding furnace and transferred to the cold chamber as quickly as possible, to
minimize heat loss, and with as little disturbance as possible. Agitation at this time would only add
to oxidation problems.

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Figure 4-1 - Metal being transferred to the cold chamber

Figure 4-2 - Shot push-button

The alloy should be poured into the cold chamber quickly, but without agitation. It has been
estimated that the heat lost during alloy transfer could be as much as 20-30°F (10-15°C) per
second. Then the shot button is depressed, initiating injection. The wave formation during slow
was discussed previously. You can watch a wave form as the alloy is poured into the sleeve. The
alloy quickly runs down to the biscuit block of the die and is reflected back to the pour hole. The
ideal time to start the shot is when the wave arrives back at the shot hole and is reflected to the
biscuit block. An alternative is to pour slowly and try not to start a wave.

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Figure 4-3 - Alloy pouring into the cold chamber

Figure 4-4 - Graphic of wave in the cold chamber

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During injection a number of important process characteristics are executed, characteristics that
have a great influence on the casting quality. These characteristics (and variables) are:

●● Critical slow shot speed (csss)

●● Fast shot shift point
●● Fast shot speed/fill time
●● Static pressure
●● Intensification start time and ramp time

The ideal slow shot speed is the speed that is slow enough to allow the air in the cold chamber
to escape through the die and fast enough to prevent a significant amount of alloy to freeze and
loose temperature in the cold chamber. For the case of non-vacuum die casting, this is called the
“critical slow shot speed” or csss. The csss should be reached as soon as the plunger passes the
pour hole. Usually a very slow speed is necessary to get past the pour hole without spitting metal
out of it. The csss speed is dependent on the sleeve diameter and the amount of metal poured into
the sleeve on a percentage basis. This speed can be calculated from the following formula:
csss = K x (100% - %fill) x (PΦ)0.5
100%

Where

K = 22.8in. 0.5/sec

(57.9cm0.5/sec)

PΦ = plunger diameter

%fill = percent of shot sleeve filling

If vacuum is being used, the slow shot speed is set to allow enough time to draw a vacuum. This
may be 1.5 - 2.0 seconds.

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Figure 4-5 - Schematics showing various wave forms in the cold chamber

During slow shot, hydraulic oil is pumped to the shot cylinder from the low pressure, high
volume hydraulic pump.

Figure 4-6 - Hydraulic schematic showing slow shot

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Many older machines do not have enough low pressure pump capacity to supply oil required to
maintain the csss. You can calculate the pump requirements if you know your shot cylinder diameter.

Fast shot length

Once the cold chamber is filled with metal, you need to consider when the fast shot should start.
When the metal arrives at the gate, you want it to have reached its desired gate velocity. You can
calculate the ideal length of fast shot by determining the volume of metal required to fill the die
cavity, and converting this volume to a cylinder having the same diameter as the plunger and the
cylinder height would be equal to the plunger stroke needed to fill the cavity.

Figure 4-7 - Schematic of a cylinder

For example, if the metal through the gate has a volume of 22 cubic inches (142 cm3) and the
cold chamber is 2.5 inches (6.35cm) in diameter. What shot stroke length is required to fill the
cavity?

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Volumecyl = Areacyl x Heightcyl

Areacyl = (∏ x Diameter2)/4

Volumecyl = ((∏ x Diameter2) 4) x Heightcyl

Heightcyl = Volumecyl
(∏ x Diameter2)/ 4

Heightcyl = 22 in3
(3.1416 x 2.52)/ 4

Heightcyl = 360.5 cm3

(3.1416 x 6.35cm2)/ 4

Heightcyl = 4.48 inches

Heightcyl = 11.5cm

For this example, the minimum length of fast shot would be about 4.5 inches (11.5cm). It is not
possible for the machine to instantly shift from slow to fast shot. This transition takes time. You
should determine how much plunger travel is required for this transition to take place. For most
machines this can be 1-2 inches (2.5-5.0mm) of travel. This transition length should be added to
the previously calculated minimum fast shot length.

If your transition from slow to fast shot requires 2 inches (51 mm) travel, the minimum fast
shot length would then be 6.5 inches (4.5” +2” = 6.5”) (16.5cm). This transition point is usually
controlled by the fast shot limit switch.

Figure 4-8 - Fast shot limit switch and tail rod or follower

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Fast Shot Speed

The fast shot speed is one of the most important process variables. This speed will determine
the gate velocity and the cavity fill time. When the die is engineered, a lot of effort goes into
determining the best gating, both gate size and flow pattern. This is based on the best estimate
of a maximum allowable time to fill the die cavity and achieving atomization of the metal during
filling. The calculation of cavity fill time is based on the casting geometry (mostly wall thickness)
and die and metal temperatures. When a cavity fill time is calculated, this is the best estimate
of the maximum time available to make an acceptable casting. This is an estimate or starting
point that is then refined by experience. Fast shot speed is very important, since only one speed
will give the best initial combination of gate velocity and fill time. The relationship between gate
velocity, fill time and fast shot speed is as follows.

The die casting machine pumps the metal at a given fill rate, it pumps “Q” cubic inches of metal
in a second. In fact, the shot end of a machine is rated by its maximum pumping capacity or filling
rate for a give plunger size. The pumping rate for a particular job is determined by multiplying
the plunger area times the plunger speed, or

Q (in3/sec) = plunger area (AP) x plunger speed (VP)

For example, if a 2 inch diameter plunger is traveling at a fast shot speed of 60 inches per
second, what is its filling rate?

Q (in3/sec) = (AP) x (VP)

AP = (∏ x Diameter2)/ 4

Q (in3/sec) = ((∏ x Diameter2)/ 4) x (VP)

Q (in3/sec) = ((3.1416 x 2 inches2)/ 4) x (60 inches/second)

Q (in3/sec) = ((3.1416 inches2) x (60 inches/second)

Q (in3/sec) = 188.5 inches3/second

Q (cm3/sec) = ((3.1416 x 5.08cm2)/ 4) x (152 cm/sec)

Q (cm3/sec) = (20.26cm2) x (152cm/sec)

Q (cm3/sec) = 3081 cm3 /sec

Once the filling rate or pumping capacity for a given plunger diameter and plunger speed is
known, you can determine the gate velocity and fill time straight away.

The fill time is equal to the volume of the metal through the gate (casting and overflows) divided
by the filling rate.

fill time (sec) = volume in3 ÷ Q in3/sec

For this example with a casting and overflow volume of 10 cubic inches, the fill time is 53
milliseconds.

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fill time (sec) = 10.0 in3 ÷ 188.5 in3/sec

(fill time (sec) = 164 cm3 ÷ 3089 cm3/sec)

fill time (sec) = 0.0530 seconds or 53 milliseconds

The gate velocity is equal to the filling rate divided by the gate area. If this example has a gate
area of 0.125 square inches, the gate velocity of speed of metal through the gate is 1508 inches
per second.

VG = Q(in3/sec)
(AP in2)

VG = 188.5(in3/sec)
(0.125 in2)

VG = 3089 cm3/sec
(0.806 cm2)

VG = 1508 in/sec

VG = 3830 cm/sec

The machine hydraulic pumps do not have enough capacity to supply oil to the shot cylinder to
achieve the fast shot speeds that are necessary to inject the metal. For this reason a device known
as an accumulator is used. The accumulator is an energy storage device, it stores a volume of oil
under very high pressure. When the fast shot is called for, the accumulator is switched into the
hydraulic circuit and discharges pressurized oil into the shot cylinder.

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Figure 4-9 - Schematic of accumulator in the hydraulic diagram

Static pressure
When the plunger comes to rest at the end of the fast shot, the hydraulic systems comes to rest
and the oil pressure in the system reaches its maximum value. This pressure multiplied by the
ratio of the square of the shot cylinder diameter to the square of the plunger diameter determines
the static pressure on the metal.
PMETAL = PHYDRAULIC x (DHYDRAULIC CYL) 2
(DPLUNGER TIP) 2

This is the pressure available to squeeze porosity and feed solidification shrinkage until the
intensifier is turned on. Typical values for static pressure would be 3500-6000 PSI (245-425 Kg/
cm2). If porosity is a problem, static pressure should be increased to 5000-7500 PSI (350-525 Kg/
cm2). Beyond that, spitting can become a problem.

Intensification time

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Solidification of the metal begins as soon as the cavity begins to fill with metal. Therefore, the
intensifier should be activated as soon as the static pressure reaches maximum. The intensifier
multiplies the static pressure from 2-4 times depending on the die casting machine.

Figure 4-10 - Schematic of intensifier in the hydraulic diagram

The intensification pressure will build up as rapidly as the dynamics and control settings of the
mechanism will allow. The time delay from cavity fill to application of full intensified pressure may
be critical. If it is too short, the high pressure could flash the die open. If the time is too long,
intensification will be ineffective for “feeding” metal through the gate into the solidifying casting.

The minimum delay for intensification is a function of the machine dynamics and must be
measured or obtained from the manufacturer. The pressure build up times can be controlled and
adjusted on some machines. There is no way to calculate the optimum delay and build up times.
These are usually determined by experimentation.

Shot profile

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You must have some way of measuring the shot end speeds and pressures. A printout of these
measurements is referred to as a shot profile. The shot profile records the pressures and speeds
of the shot cylinder with respect to plunger position and / or elapsed time. Without measurement
there is no way to know how the shot cylinder is actually performing.

Figure 4-11 - Shot profile

As the operator, there are several things that you should be watching for during every shot. First,
note the stopped position of the plunger at the end of the shot. If the plunger has not reached its
normal end of stroke position this could be an indication of a thick biscuit or some other hazardous
problem. Next, watch to see that the plunger moves smoothly, no stuttering or lurching. This could
be an indication of lack of lubrication, metal build up, or inadequate cooling. Watch for metal
bypassing the plunger tip. This could indicate the tip is worn out and needs replacement.

MACHINE DWELL/HOLD
After the shot has been completed, and prior to die and machine opening the metal must be
allowed to freeze and gain strength. Intensification can be released after 3-4 seconds, the gate
and runner are frozen and metal pressure cannot be transmitted to the casting. At this time the
machine can recharge the accumulator. The high pressure pump is used to refill the accumulator,
to pump the oil into the bottle against the nitrogen charge.

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Figure 4-12 - Hydraulic diagram for accumulator recharge circuit

During dwell the casting is cooling in the die. The casting would also like to contract (opposite of
expand), get smaller, but it cannot because it is trapped in the die. Because the casting cannot get
smaller as it cools, the stress that would otherwise be released along with the heat energy, stays
in the casting and becomes what is known as an internal stress. This is similar to having a box with
a tensioned spring in it, if the cover is removed, the spring is released and pops out (don’t have
your face in its way). If the casting is kept in the die too long, and this internal stress is greater
than the strength of casting, the casting will crack.

Dwell time is determined by experience and experimentation. Initially, the dwell time is set
long enough to insure that the biscuit will freeze and not become an explosion hazard. Slowly,
dwell time is reduced, to a point where a lack of hot strength is indicated. An indicator of lack
of hot strength would be ejector pin bulges, or in the worst case, the part sticking in the ejector
half with the pins poking through. Another indicator would be pieces of the casting sticking in the
stationary die have.

The amount of time that the casting dwells in the die will also affect its final dimensions. The
longer the casting stays in the die, the cooler it gets, and smaller its dimensional changes will be
once it is ejected from the die.

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Dimensional changes to the casting during air quenching are governed by the law of thermal
expansion. This law states that the dimensional change of the casting is directly related to the
casting material, the magnitude of the dimension involved, and the difference in temperature
involved.

A casting that is subjected to a long dwell time will be difficult to remove from the die. The
shrink forces onto core features in the die will be great. It will be difficult to strip the casting off
of stationary cores and it will also be difficult to eject the casting from ejector half cores.

Process Math and Science for Die Cast Operator

This course will include a small amount of math and science in it. The formulas and calculations
that are required will be reviewed in detail. Math requirements are adding, subtracting,
multiplying and dividing. There will be some rearranging of formulas (algebra) and some area
calculations (geometry). When formulas are needed, they will be provided. You should take it upon
yourself to try to memorize the formulas and how they are used.

Force and pressure

Understanding the difference between the terms force and pressure is very important for the die
caster.

Force is measured in terms of pounds (lbs), ounces (oz), or tons (T) (grams (gr), kilograms (kg),
or metric tons (Mt) in the metric system). For example, your weight is the force that you exert
on the earth, or floor due to gravity. If you weigh 200 pounds (90.0 kg), you exert a force of 200
pounds (90.0 kg) on the floor.

If you push against a door, a door that is held shut with a spring, you must exert a force that will
overcome the spring in order for the door to open.

Pressure is the force divided by the area to which the force is applied. This relationship is
expressed by the following formula:

Pressure = Force ÷ Area

If you take your weight and divide it buy the area of both your shoes, the result will be pressure
that you exert on the floor in the exact place that you are standing.

For example, an average shoe is approximately 3 inches (7.62 cm) wide and 10 inches (25.4 cm)
long. In this example we have approximated the shoe as a 3 inch by 10 inch (7.62 cm by 25.4 cm)
rectangle. The area of a rectangle is the width multiplied by its length.

The area of the shoe is:

3 in x 10 in = 30 in2

7.62 cm x 25.4 cm = 193.5 cm2

Both shoes will have a total area of 60 in2 (387.1 cm2).

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If you divide the example weight of 200 pounds (90.9 kg) by the total area of both shoes, 60 in2
(387.1 cm2), the resulting pressure is 3.33 pounds per square inch (0.235 kg/cm2).

This is not much pressure; the pressure of air at sea level on the earth is 14.7 lbs/in2 (1 bar).

Shot end forces and pressures

At the shot end of a die casting machine, both force and pressure are important. During metal
injection, the force and pressure act according to the following sequence.

When the shot cylinder is activated, a hydraulic fluid, under pressure enters the cylinder and
pushes against a piston tip. The piston tip has area. This develops a force that is transmitted to
the plunger through a coupling.

Force = Pressure x Area

The force on the plunger develops a pressure (metal) at the plunger tip and biscuit dependent
on the size and area of the plunger tip.

Pressure = Force ÷ Area

The metal pressure at the biscuit is transmitted through the liquid metal, to the projected
area of the casting. This develops a force that tries to open the die. This force is resisted by the
machine that has been preloaded, locked, to hold the die shut.

Force = Pressure x Area

Example 1:
Determine the force of the atmosphere on top of a house that has a 20 ft by 30 ft roof.
Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Figure 4-13 - 20 x 30 roof

Use

Force = Pressure x Area

The area of the roof, a 20 ft by 30 ft rectangle is:

A = Length x Width = 20 ft x 30 ft = 600 ft2

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Next we see that we have mixed units, both square feet and square inches. Since the pressure
has the units of square inches in it, we will convert the area to square inches from square feet. A
square foot is 12 inches on each side. Therefore a square foot has 12 inches times 12 inches or 144
square inches in a square foot. To convert the 600 square feet to square inches, multiply the 600
ft2 times 144 in2 per ft2.

Conversion: 600 ft2 x 144 in2/ft2 = 86,400 in2

Therefore

Force = Pressure x Area = 14.7 lbs/in2 x 86,400 in2

Force = 1,270,080 lbs

Example 2:
Determine the force developed by a 4 ½ inch diameter shot cylinder operating at 1800 pounds
per square inch of oil pressure.

Answer:

Apply the formula F = P x A (Force = Pressure x Area)

First, determine the area of the shot cylinder piston head.

Figure 4-14 - Sketch of 4.5 diameter piston

The area of a circle, the shot piston, is:

A = ∏ x r2 or ∏ x r x r

r = radius of the piston

r = diameter ÷ 2 or d/2

∏ = 3.14 a constant

A = (3.14) x (2.25 in) x (2.25 in)

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A = 15.9 in2 the area of a 4.5 in diameter circle

Next, apply the force formula:

Force = Pressure x Area = (1800 lbs/in2) x (15.9 in2)

Force = 28,620 lbs

Example 3:
Determine the metal pressure at a 2 ½ inch diameter plunger tip given a shot cylinder force of
28,620 pounds.

Answer:

Apply the formula P = F ÷ A (Pressure = Force ÷ Area)

Figure 4-15 - Sketch of 2.5 diameter tip

First, determine the area of the plunger tip.

The area of a circle, the shot plunger tip, is:

A = ∏ x r+ or ∏ x r x r

r = radius of the tip

r = diameter ÷ 2 or d/2

∏ = 3.14 a constant

A = (3.14) x (1.25 in) x (1.25 in)

A = 4.9 in2 the area of a 2.5 inch diameter circle

Next, apply the pressure formula:

Pressure = Force ÷ Area = (28,620 lbs) ÷ (4.9 in2)

Force = 5841 lbs/in2

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Example 4:
Determine the force that is trying to open the machine given a metal pressure of 5841 pounds
per square inch and a shot having a projected area of 200 square inches.

Answer:

Apply the formula F = P x A (Force = Pressure x Area)

Figure 4-16 - Sketch of projected area

Apply the force formula:

Force = Pressure x Area = (5841 lbs/in2) x (200 in2)

Force = 1,168,200 lbs

This answer can also expressed in tons if we convert the pounds to tons. To convert pounds to
tons, divide the pounds by 2000 pounds per ton.
1,166,400 lbs = 584.1 T
2000 lbs/T

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SELF TEST 1
Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

1. My weight is:

a. a pressure
b. an area
c. too much
d. a force

2. Atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lbs/in2 represents:

a. the speed of air flow

b. hydraulic pressure in the shot cylinder
c. the weight of the atmosphere divided by the earth’s surface area
d. none of the above

3. Pressure is defined as:

a. lots of tension
b. force divided by area
c. area times force
d. none of the above

4. To increase the force the shot cylinder develops, all I have to do is:

a. lock the die tighter

b. increase the hydraulic oil pressure
c. decrease the plunger size
d. increase the plunger size

5. To reduce the metal pressure because the die is spitting, I can:

a. lock the die tighter

b. increase the size of the plunger tip
c. reduce the hydraulic oil pressure
d. increase the shot cylinder size

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 5 WHY SHOT MONITORS ARE
IMPORTANT

OBJECTIVES
• To learn about shot monitors and how they help manage the die casting process.

• To learn about the importance of the various parts of the metal injection cycle.

• To learn about shot monitors detect shifts in shot end performance.

PERSPECTIVE
In recent years, the development of electronics technology has allowed the die casting industry
to greatly improve its ability to control the die casting process. One of the most important pieces
of technology utilized by modern die casting facilities is the shot monitor. This equipment permits
the precise control of many aspects of the die casting process, but especially the critical injection
of the molten metal into the die. In this lesson, the shot monitor is described in detail and how it
can be used by the machine operator is presented.

Basic Shot End Dynamics and Process Requirements

The die casting shot end is made up of several configurations. The conventional cold chamber
shot end, shown below in Figure 5-1, has the shot sleeve at a 90 degree angle from the parting
line. The vertical cold chamber machine either has the machine platens and shot end rotated
vertically, shown in Figure 5-2, or has the shot sleeve on the parting line. The hot chamber
machine, shown in Figure 5-3, has the shot sleeve mounted vertically with the nozzle at about an
80 degree angle from the parting line.

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Figure 5-1 - Injection components, cold champer

There are three critical components to the shot end. These components are the accumulators,
the hydraulic shot cylinder, and metal chamber.

The accumulators are typically nitrogen (N2) over hydraulic fluid pressure vessels. Most
accumulators have pistons to separate the N2 from the hydraulic fluid. Some have a bladder to
contain the hydraulic fluid in the accumulator. Some have nothing separating the N2 from the
hydraulic fluid. The most efficient of these is the accumulator with nothing separating the N2 from
the hydraulic fluid. However, this system may allow N2 or aerated hydraulic fluid into the shot
cylinder.

Figure 5-2 - Vertical Die Casting Machine

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All die casting machines have a shot accumulator. Cold chamber machines usually have
intensification accumulators. These accumulators are required to provide hydraulic power to the
shot end. Providing this power causes a loss of volume of hydraulic fluid. The reduced volume of
fluid results in a pressure drop within the accumulator. Therefore, the die casting machine must
recharge these accumulators with hydraulic fluid to replace the lost volume during each shot.
The result is that if the correct amount of hydraulic fluid is replaced, the accumulator pressure
will be the same as the last shot. Die casting machines control the recharge process during each
shot using a pressure relief valve. This pressure relief valve resides between the hydraulic pump
and the accumulators. The pressure relief valve is a spring loaded valve that will open and allow
hydraulic pressure to go to the hydraulic accumulator if the spring pressure is not exceeded. Once
the spring pressure is exceeded, the valve closes flow to the accumulator and reroutes the flow to
the hydraulic fluid tank. The spring pressure is typically established using a screw that compresses
the spring. Die casting employees set the relief pressure with a screw driver while watching a
pressure gauge on the accumulator. It is important to verify accumulator pressure settings by
verifying the initial head side pressure in the shot profile or by using a transducer that is directly
connected to the accumulator. This is important because of inaccuracy in the screw setting and in
the pressure gauges used for setting the relief valve.

The pressure in the accumulators should be visually audited periodically by the die casting
operator and monitored each shot by the PLC or shot monitoring system. This requires the use of a
hydraulic pressure transducer (See Appendix 2: Transducers).

The motion of the shot end also must be monitored. This is done by a position and velocity
transducer. There are several position transducers types shown in Appendix 2.

Figure 5-3 - The basic simplicity of the die casting machine is obscured by the auxiliary equipment, pumps,
motors, pipes, control valves, etc., which are needed for efficient operation of the process.

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Process Variables Before Cavity Fill (Cold Chamber only)

The cold chamber machine with a horizontal shot end has a significant disadvantage over
other die casting processes. The metal is introduced using a horizontal sleeve. This process
provides opportunity for temperature loss, metal contamination, air entrapment, frictional
losses due to the sleeve and tip, and a 90 degree turn in the metal path. The shot end process
can help to minimize the temperature loss and air entrapment through control of several
process parameters before the metal reaches the cavity. These process parameters are:

Shot Delay Time – The shot delay time is the amount of time from when the ladle has completed
the pour into the cold chamber to when the shot motion begins. This time should be dictated
by the amount of time for the metal wave within the shot sleeve to go to the parting line and
then return to the shot tip. The shot motion should start at the instant that the metal wave hits
the shot tip. This time should be tested during process development, and then controlled during
production by the PLC, and documented within the process setup book.

Pour Hole Velocity – The pour hole velocity is the plunger speed average from the start of the
plunger motion to the point where the pour hole is closed by the plunger. This speed needs to be
as fast as possible without allowing metal to escape the cold chamber fill hole during the pour hole
closing phase of the shot.

Slow Shot Start Position – The slow shot start position is the position where the slow shot
velocity is initiated. This setting should be equal to or slightly before the pour hole closed
position. The slow shot may be set to start before pour hole closed because of the hydraulic and
electronic delay in initiating the slow shot speed. The means to control this position accurately
is to have accurate, closed loop measurement of position via the PLC. When the desired start
position is achieved, the PLC should trigger the slow shot to begin. Please note that when using
the PLC for position based shot control, the normal PLC scan should be interrupted so that timely
control of the position based outputs may be completed. However, this interruption should not be
higher in priority than safety functions of the die casting machine.

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Figure 5-4 - Process variables before cavity fill (Provided by Buhler-Prince, edited to indicate process
variables before cavity fill)

Slow Shot Velocity – The slow shot velocity is the average plunger velocity between the pour
hole closed position and the sleeve full position. The value for the slow shot velocity is critical to
minimize air entrapment. The critical slow shot velocity calculation provides a good starting point
for the slow shot velocity setting. See Appendix 1: Calculations, for the critical slow shot velocity
formula. Please note that the best velocity for slow shot is at or slightly above (+ 2 inches per
second) the critical slow shot calculation. Control of slow shot velocity is best done through closed
loop control of a servo or proportional valve.

Slow Shot Acceleration Rate – Some more advanced machines allow for constant acceleration
of the shot tip during the slow shot phase. This has been proven by research to provide the best
conditions to minimize air entrapment and shot time. The acceleration value has a broad range of
good conditions. Therefore, the best scenario is when acceleration matches the desired fast shot
velocity at the metal at gate position. This calculation is shown in Appendix 1.

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Figure 5-5 - Acceleration Profile (Provided by Buhler-Prince)

Fast Shot Start Position – At the sleeve full position, the cold chamber die casting machine
should initiate the fast shot. The means to control this position accurately is to have accurate
closed loop measurement of position via the PLC. When the desired start position is achieved,
the PLC should trigger the fast shot to begin. Please note that when using the PLC for position
based shot control, the normal PLC scan should be interrupted so that timely control of the
position based outputs may be completed. However, this interrupt should not be higher in
priority than safety functions of the die casting machine.

Slow to Fast Acceleration Rate – It is important that the machine is capable of completing
the acceleration to the desired fast shot speed before the metal reaches the casting in-gate.
To determine if this is possible, the fast shot acceleration rate must be known. This can be
calculated by measuring the change in velocity over the change in time on a current shot
profile. This acceleration should be documented as a machine capability characteristic. The
required acceleration rate, which is based upon the runner volume, can also be calculated.
If the required acceleration rate is lower than the machines capability, then the process
will work well. If the required acceleration rate is higher than the machines capability,
then the fast shot may need to be started early by some time. The calculation for required
acceleration rate is shown in Appendix 1. Therefore, the control mechanism is to watch the
actual acceleration rate and look for downward trends over time. If the rate drops, machine
maintenance staff should be involved to identify the reason for the problem.

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Two Speed Machines

If a two speed cold chamber machine is used, there is no pour hole velocity phase. In this
case, the critical slow shot velocity must be calculated with a pour hole closed position setting
of 0 inches. Although some metal may come out of the shot sleeve each shot, this calculation
should still be used to determine the slow shot velocity. The slow shot start position will also
be 0 inches.

To determine the best settings for these process parameters, several values must be known.
These values are:

Total Shot Volume – This can be determined in the CAD geometry file in the design phase or by a
weight scale on the production floor.

Liquid Metal Density – This varies by alloy and chemistry and should be known.

Distance from Plunger Start to Pour Hole Closed –

This is required to determine slow shot start position.

Sleeve Full Position – This value can be calculated from the impact position using the entire pour
weight, liquid metal density, and plunger area.

Casting and Overflow Volume – This value can either be determined from CAD geometry,
estimated, or measured.

Metal at In-Gate Position – This value can be calculated from the impact position using the
weight of the metal through the gate, liquid metal density, and plunger area.

The calculations for these values are shown in Appendix 1: Calculations.

Figure 5-6 - Two Speed Shot Profile (Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

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Process Variables during Cavity Fill

The cavity fill event is equally critical to all die casting processes. The high pressure die casting
process is characterized by a fast fill time with high in-gate velocity. The purpose of the high
fill rate and high in-gate velocity is to provide a net shape product with thin walls, high internal
integrity, and good surface finish. Therefore, the process variables that we must watch carefully
are:

Fill Time – This is the amount of time to fill out the die casting part cavity. This does not include
the time to fill the overflows. Specifically, it is the amount of time to go from the metal at in-gate
position to the metal at overflow gate position.

The desired fill time should be determined prior to runner design and die build, and then should
be controlled during the process. The NADCA fill time formula is shown in Appendix 1. The fill time
will have a strong influence over the resulting casting surface finish and will affect the amount of
internal porosity.

Control of fill time is done by controlling the velocity of the plunger between the metal at in-
gate position and the metal at the overflow gate position. The methods to control the fill time
are open or closed loop control (described in the previous chapter on Closed Loop and Open Loop
Control). For fill times above 0.050 seconds, closed loop systems work well. However, the overall
best practice is to use an accurate proportional valve with open loop control. Many of these types
of valves are available to the die casting market.

Average In-Gate Velocity – This is the average metal velocity through the in-gate during the fill
time. In the process monitoring system, it should be calculated by first determining Q (the volume
flow rate of metal) and the gate area. The in-gate velocity is then equal to Q divided by gate area.

The desired in-gate velocity should also be determined prior to runner design and die build.
The in-gate velocity needs to be high enough to assure good atomization so that internal porosity
is effectively dissipated (finely distributed within the casting) and die erosion is minimized. To
calculate the average in-gate velocity, the average plunger velocity during cavity fill must be
calculated. The average plunger velocity must then be multiplied by the ratio of plunger area to
gate area. The atomization velocity and gate velocity equations are shown in Appendix 1.

For a given gate area, in-gate velocity is inversely proportionate to fill time. Therefore, if a
problem exists with the in-gate velocity, it is directly related to the fill time.

In-Gate Velocity at Metal at Gate Position – This value should be at least as high as the average
in-gate velocity to assure that the cavity fill begins with an in-gate velocity that provides proper
initial atomization when the metal first travels through the in-gate. If the in-gate velocity at metal
at gate position is below the desired in-gate velocity, the atomization desired during fill may be
compromised.

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Figure 5-7 - Shot Profile during Cavity Fill (Provided by Buhler-Prince)

If a problem occurs with the in-gate velocity at the metal at gate position, the fast shot start
position is starting too late or the slow to fast acceleration is too slow.

In-Gate Velocity at 90% Fill – Near the end of cavity fill the resistance to flow increases
significantly. The increased resistance often causes the plunger velocity to drop and the in-gate
velocity to drop. If this drop is significant, the metal flow may no longer be atomized. If this
happens, there will be an increase in die erosion depending upon the part size and geometry.
Therefore, it is important to monitor this velocity and correct the machine problem, if necessary,
so that die erosion problems may be addressed.

Discharge Coefficient during Cavity Fill – The discharge coefficient is the hydraulic efficiency
during the cavity fill time. The value for Cd has no unit. In the past, NADCA texts have suggested
that Cd should be 0.5 for cold chamber and 0.65 for hot chamber. Research have shown that
Cd is rarely this high in either process. Cd also is critical when evaluating PQ Squared graphs. It
determines the angle of the die performance curve. See Figure 5-10.

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Figure 5-8 - Low Initial Gate Velocity (Provided by Buhler-Prince)

Figure 5-9 - Low Gate Velocity at 90% of Fill

(Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

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To calculate Cd, the process monitoring system must accurately calculate the head side pressure
average during cavity fill, the rod side pressure average during cavity fill, and the average in-gate
velocity. Cd should be calculated every shot and tracked via SPC within the process monitor. A standard
for the minimum value for Cd should be established. See the calculation for Cd in Appendix 1.

Figure 5-10 - PQ2 Diagram Illustrating Discharge Coefficient

(Die Cast Process Planner provided by Bisnet)

As a rule of thumb, a good cold chamber standard minimum would be between 0.32 and 0.36
and a good hot chamber standard minimum would be between 0.45 and 0.50. If the Cd falls
below the minimum, this indicates that excessive shot end force is required to achieve the
desired fill velocity. This may result in lower than desired fill time or flashing problems.

Vent Velocity – The vent velocity is critical to assure that air can easily escape the die
cavity without allowing metal to flash out of the die cavity. The range of typically accepted
vent velocity is 4,000 to 8,000 inches per second (or 100 to 200 meters per second). Vent
velocity below 4,000 inches per second indicates a large vent area, which will often lead
to flashing problems. Vent velocity above 8,000 inches per second nears the speed of sound
(the speed of sound is between 13,000 and 16,000 inches per second depending upon air
temperature). When the vent velocity exceeds 8,000 inches per second, air pressure builds
exponentially and restricts venting. To calculate the vent velocity, the average plunger
velocity during cavity fill must be divided by the ratio of plunger area to the minimum vent
opening area. See Appendix 1 for the calculation of Vent Velocity.

To control vent velocity, the vent area at the smallest opening should be accurately measured and
maintained. The vent opening may become smaller over time due to the die closing force deflecting
and flattening the die parting surface.

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To calculate the above cavity fill parameters, several other process variables must be determined:

Average Plunger Velocity – This is the average velocity during cavity fill.

Metal at Overflow Gate Position – The monitor must know this position to accurately calculate
the cavity fill variables. A shot monitor can calculate this by finding the impact position and then
subtracting the distance that the plunger tip must travel to fill the overflows.

Average Head Pressure During Cavity Fill – This value is important for the discharge coefficient
calculation and for shot end preventive maintenance.

Average Rod Pressure During Cavity Fill – This value is important for the discharge coefficient
calculation and for shot end preventive maintenance.

­The gate area is the sum of the areas of all in-gates in the die casting mold. It should be
measured often to assure accuracy. In a large cold chamber machine using aluminum, the gate
area may need to be measured at every setup. In a small hot chamber machine using zinc, the
gate area should be measured every six months to one year. The gate area is critical to the in-gate
velocity and discharge coefficient calculations.

Plunger Area – The plunger area is equivalent to the plunger diameter squared multiplied by π/4.

Vent Area – The vent area is the sum of the areas of all vents in the die casting mold. The vent
area should be measured at the smallest point because the vent velocity is important at the point
of greatest air flow restriction.

Figure 5-11 - Process Variables after Cavity Fill

(Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

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Process Variables After Cavity Fill

There are several parameters that must be monitored and controlled at cavity fill and after
cavity fill. These parameters are:

Impact Pressure – The impact pressure is the highest hydraulic head pressure measured by the
pressure transducer near the end of cavity fill (or overflow fill). The impact pressure is critical
with regard to flashing and dimensional control issues related to die and slide blow problems. The
impact force is a combination of static force from the residual accumulator pressure at the point
of impact and kinetic force from the stopping of the moving mass of hydraulic fluid, shot end
components, and metal.

Two means used by the industry to control impact pressure are programmable shot control
systems that are capable of decelerating the shot system near the end of cavity fill. Another is
SoftSHOT Technology – a series of especially designed overflows positioned at the point of final
filling in the cavity, the purpose of which is to stall out the kinetic energy of the shot system.

Impact Position – The impact position is the plunger position when the impact pressure occurs.
This position is critical because it should be used to calculate other critical position points within
the process. These critical position points are the overflow gate position, the metal at in-gate
position, and the sleeve full position.

Impact position is affected (in order of importance) by pour weight, flashing, slide blow, and die
temperature. These items need to be monitored. These items may need to be controlled using the
appropriate technologies if impact variation causes process problems.

Intensification Metal Pressure (Cold Chamber) – The intensification metal pressure is the metal
pressure, typically in pounds per square inch, applied to the biscuit during the intensification
phase of the shot. It is best to calculate the metal pressure, which is the intensifier accumulator
pressure multiplied by the hydraulic cylinder area then divided by the plunger area, to understand
the pressure on the metal during intensification. It is known that pressure tight castings or castings
requiring low levels of porosity may require intensification metal pressure of at least 8,000 psi up to
20,000 psi. The calculation for intensification metal pressure is shown in Appendix 1.

Hold Metal Pressure (Hot Chamber) – Hold Metal Pressure is the average metal pressure held after
the impact position. Hold metal pressure can affect shrinkage porosity. Small plunger diameters
cause larger hold metal pressure while larger plungers cause lower hold metal pressure.

Intensification Stroke (Cold Chamber) – The intensification stroke is the distance traveled after
the impact position. The intensification stroke indicates how much shrinkage volume in the casting
is replaced during intensification. This value can be compared to the shot volume to determine the
percentage of shrinkage eliminated during intensification.

Average Overflow Fill Velocity – The average overflow fill velocity can either be the plunger
velocity during overflow fill or the overflow gate velocity during overflow fill. This value is an
important determinant of impact force. If the plunger velocity during the overflow fill is close to
the fill velocity, the impact force may be too high because the plunger did not decelerate much
as the overflows filled. If this value is between one-third and one-half of the plunger velocity
during fill, the impact force should be minimized. If this value is below one-third of the plunger

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velocity during fill, the peak impact pressure may occur before the overflows fill. If the peak impact
pressure happens before the overflows fill, the overflows may not be venting air and dirty metal
well enough and flashing problems may occur.

Plunger Drift Velocity (Hot Chamber) – The plunger drift is the plungers over-travel after impact.
The majority of the movement during plunger drift is leakage of metal by the rings in the hot
chamber system. The best way to measure this is by a RATE of movement or velocity. Maximum
standards for plunger drift velocity should be set by plant or by job. If the plunger drift velocity
standard is exceeded, the machine is no longer maintaining adequate metal pressure as the casting
is freezing. If this occurs, the rings, plunger, or gooseneck (in that order) may need to be changed.

To calculate the above parameters at cavity fill and after cavity fill, several other process
variables must be determined:

Impact Velocity – This is the velocity required by the monitoring system to detect the impact
pressure. The impact velocity is typically between 5 and 12 inches per second. The monitoring system
should start at the end of the velocity data array and look backwards in the data array to find when
this velocity was first exceeded. Then the monitoring system can look for the peak pressure, which
would be identified as the impact pressure, within a range of time (milliseconds) before and after the
impact velocity is found.

End of Shot Velocity – This is determined by assigning a velocity at which impact has occurred.
Some monitoring systems can be armed (somewhere in the fast shot) to begin looking for this
velocity (typically above 5 – 12 IPS). As the die becomes full and the plunger has nowhere to go the
velocity reduces very quickly. This technique is very good at finding the impact position.

A good way to find the impact pressure is to define a window (say 0.5” before the impact position,
and =15 mS after the impact position) and then take the greatest pressure seen on the head side
pressure transducer in the window.

Hydraulic Cylinder Area – The hydraulic cylinder area is the hydraulic cylinder diameter squared
multiplied by π/4.

Plunger Area – The plunger area is equivalent to the plunger diameter squared multiplied by π/4.

Overflow Volume – The overflow volume is the overflow weight divided by the liquid metal
density.

Other Shot End Monitoring Features

Position Based versus Time Shot Profile

Position based and time based shot profiles have long been used in the die casting industry to
characterize the shot profile graphically. Position based profiles are typically considered to be
better during the shot until the impact position. After impact, time based profiling demonstrates
post impact variables best during slow plunger motion.

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Figure 5-12 - Position Based Shot Profile (Provided by Buhler-Prince)

Figure 5-13 - Time Based Shot Profile (Provided by Shotscope division of Moldflow)

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Figure 5-14 - Position (before impact) and Time (after Impact) Profile
(Provided by Shotscope division of Moldflow)

Figure 5-15 - Reference Profile Example - Reference Traces Shown in Red (Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

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Figure 5-16 - Profile Overlay Example (Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

Figure 5-17 - Positioned Based Outputs (Provided by Bisnet)

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Shot Profile Master

Once a process has been developed and proven to be effective, shot end process variables can
be documented. A very good way to verify the shot profile is by saving a master profile. All of the
process monitoring software suppliers provide this feature. Not only does this feature provide
more information on the shot profile itself, but it also enables the die cast user to perform
preventive maintenance activity on the machine shot end.

Shot Profile Overlays

The shot overlay feature allows for multiple traces to be displayed over the top of one another.
The shot overlay feature is designed to enable the die cast user to view shot to shot consistency.
All the monitoring suppliers provide this feature. This feature is also very valuable for shot end
preventive maintenance.

Position Based Graph Lines and Outputs

The slow shot start, fast shot start, low impact, and intensification systems are started using
position based signals, often using limit switches. Monitoring suppliers realized that they could
provide a simple way to view these positions, relative to the shot profile, within the monitor.

Some monitoring suppliers have provided an accurate and easy method to change positions
within the shot monitor. The monitoring system sends a digital signal to the PLC or shot
end valves once the position transducer indicates that pre-determined positions have been
achieved. Position based graph lines and outputs are visually effective ways to control a basic
part of the process.

Figure 5-18 - Best Shot Profile

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Shot End Summary (Suggested Process Variables)

In the opinion of the author, the profile approach that best describes the die casting process to
the user is shown as Figure 5-18. The profile is displayed in position base before impact and time
base after impact. Velocity is the focus before impact and pressure is the focus after impact.

The following process variable lists do not reflect any of the current process monitoring systems.
However, these lists for hot chamber and cold chamber encompass the important process variables
needed to support the best casting process design and product quality.

Suggested Process Variables

Cold Chamber

Shot Delay Time

Pour Hole Velocity

Slow Shot Start Position

Slow Shot Velocity

Slow Shot Acceleration Rate (Constant Acceleration Shot End Only)

Fast Shot Start Position

Slow to Fast Acceleration Rate

Fill Time

Average In-Gate Velocity

In-Gate Velocity at Metal at Gate Position

In-Gate Velocity at 90% Fill

Discharge Coefficient during Cavity Fill

Vent Velocity

Impact Pressure

Impact Position

Intensification Pressure Rise Time

Intensification Metal Pressure

Intensification Stroke

Average Overflow Fill Velocity

Hot Chamber

Slow Shot Velocity

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Fast Shot Start Position

Fill Time

Average In-Gate Velocity

In-Gate Velocity at Metal at Gate Position

In-Gate Velocity at 90% Fill

Discharge Coefficient during Cavity Fill

Vent Velocity

Impact Pressure

Impact Position

Hold Metal Pressure

Plunger Drift Velocity

Average Overflow Fill Velocity

Figure 5-19 - Shot Profile with Suggest Process Variables

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Figure 5-20 - Hot Chamber Shot Profile with Suggested Variables

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APPENDIX 1: SHOT END PROCESS CALCULATIONS

General Note: A variable with an exponent to the 0.5 power is a square root ()0.5

Process Variables for Calculations

SV – Shot Volume

TV – Total sleeve Volume

PD – Plunger Diameter

V1 – Velocity at a position early in the slow shot

V2 – Velocity at a position late in the slow shot

T1 – Time at V1w

T2 – Time at V2

FSV – Fast Shot Velocity

SSV – Slow Shot Velocity

RV – Runner Volume

PA – Plunger Area

TSW – Total Shot Weight

D – Liquid Metal Density

COV – Casting and Overflow Volume

COW – Casting and Overflow Weight

OV – Overflow Volume

OW – Overflow Weight

SFP – Sleeve Full Position

PLP – Parting Line Position (tip to end sleeve distance)

MGP – Metal at in-Gate Position

MOP – Metal at Overflow Gate Position

t – Fill Time

k – Die Material / Alloy Heat Flow Constant

Ti – Metal Injection Temperature

Tf – Minimum Flow Temperature

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Td – Average Die Temperature

Th – Casting Thickness

%S – Percent Solids Allowed during Fill

Z – Percent Solids Alloy Constant

AV – Atomization Velocity

J – Fluidity Factor

Gt – Gate Thickness

GV – Gate Velocity Target

FDF – Fill Distance Factor (See Gating and Process Planning text)

VV – Vent Velocity

VA – Vent Area

IMP – Intensification Metal Pressure

IP – Hydraulic Intensification Pressure

CA – Cylinder Area

Critical Slow Shot Velocity

CSSV = 22.8 x (1 – SV / TV) x PD0.5

Slow Shot Acceleration Rate in Constant

Acceleration Machine
SSAC = (V2 – V1) / (T2 – T1)

Plunger Area
PA = PD2 x 0.7854

Slow to Fast Acceleration Required

SSAR = (FSV – SSV)2 / (RV / PA)

Slow to Fast Acceleration Rate

SSAC = (V2 – V1) / (T2 – T1)

Total Shot Volume

TSV = TSW / D

Casting and Overflow Volume

COV = COW / D

Overflow Volume
OV = OW / D

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Sleeve Full Position

SFP = PLP – TSV / PA

Metal at In-Gate Position

MGP = PLP – COV / PA

Metal at Overflow-Gate Position

MOP = PLP – OV / D

Fill Time Formula

t = k x {(Ti – Tf + %S x Z) / (Tf – Td)} x Th

Atomization Formula
AV = {J / (Gt x D)}0.588

Gate Velocity Formula

GV = AV x FDF

Discharge Coefficient Calculation (refer to Appendix 4)

Vent Velocity Formula

VV = (COV – OV) / (t x VA)

Intensification Metal Pressure

IMP = IP x CA / PA

APPENDIX 2: TRANSDUCERS

Position Transducers
Position transducers detect the position of the shot rod and therefore the plunger. Some position
transducers also directly measure velocity. Other transducers rely upon the monitoring computer
to calculate the velocity signal from the position signal. The following are the types of transducers
used in the die casting industry.

Threaded Cylinder Rod or Tail Rod

A very accurate means of position measurement is done through creating an accurate thread on
the shot cylinder rod or on the tail rod. The number of threads per inch must be very accurate.
Once the threads are place on the rod, the rod must be chromed over to create a flat surface
down the length of the rod. A Hall effect sensor can then be used to detect the motion of the rod
across the face of the sensor. Typically, two Hall effect sensors are used. The sensors are offset by
¼ of the thread pitch. The result of the combination of the two sensors is a quadrature signal. The
quadrature signal can measure forward and backward movement of the shot cylinder. The rod and
signal output are shown in Figure 5-21.

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Figure 5-21 - Threated Cylinder Rod with Quadrature Signal (Provided by Visi-Trak Worldwide)

The advantage of the quadrature output is high speed, accurate measurement of cylinder
movement. It can have accuracy of between +/-0.005 and +/- 0.0125 of an inch. The biggest
problem with the threaded rod is in the sensor. The sensor’s can fail due to high heat, impact from
bouncing of the threaded rod, or poor signal because the distance from the sensor to the rod is not
maintained. Most all die casting plants that use this technology have been able to work through the
problems.

Wand Style Transducer

A wand style transducer has a rod that has alternating magnetic plates within the rod. The
transducer body sends an electronic signal down the wand. A round magnet, which is connected
to a moving part of the shot end, reflects the electronic signal as it crosses the alternating
plates. The wand style transducer is very accurate; however, it is sometimes difficult to mount
effectively. Rigid mounting tends to cause the wand to bend or break. Compliant mounting tends
to induce vibration in the position and velocity signal. The best means of mounting the wand style
transducer is by placing it within the shot cylinder. The magnet is mounted in the cylinder piston
with a hole drilled within the cylinder piston and shot rod for clearance of the wand. This means
of mounting often results in transducer life of more than 5 years.

Figure 5-22 - Wand Style Transducer

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Rotary Encoder
A rotary encoder uses a rack and pinion connected to the shot end as shown in Figure 5-21.
The encoder spindle sends a signal, either a pulse or a voltage step, a fixed number of times per
rotation. The number of signals is calibrated to the length of the pinion and the number of notches
in the rotary encoder wheel. Rotary encoders are calibrated to 0.020”, 0.050”, or 0.100” per
signal. A rotary encoder with 0.020” is the most accurate.

Figure 5-23 - Rotary Encoder

String Encoder
A string encoder uses a wire that connects to a moving component on the shot end. The wire is
wound around a spring loaded spindle within a steel box. Electronically, the string encoder works
exactly like a rotary encoder. String encoders are less expensive and just as effective as rotary
encoders, except the wire can easily unwind from the spring loaded spindle. This happens most
often when the wire is released while it is extended.

Figure 5-24 - String Encoder or Potentiometer

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String Potentiometer
A string potentiometer looks and mechanically works just like a string encoder. The only
difference is that it uses a potentiometer. A potentiometer is a variable resistor. When the string
is not extended string potentiometers have infinite resistance. When the string is fully extended a
string potentiometer will have zero resistance. The process monitoring system sends an excitation
voltage to the string potentiometer, if the string is not extended it will have infinite resistance
and will send back a voltage of zero. If the string potentiometer is extended fully it will have zero
resistance and will send back a voltage equal to the excitation voltage. The potentiometer has a
gain and calibration so that the voltage change is linear with position change.

Pressure Transducer
Most all lower cost pressure transducers used in the die casting industry work in the same way. The
pressure transducer has a treaded fitting on one end that is hydraulically connected via a narrow tube
to a rubber or metal diaphragm. The diaphragm has a strain gage on the opposite side of the hydraulic
fluid. Higher pressure causes the diaphragm to stretch which results in higher resistance in the strain
gage. The transducer includes electronics that are powered by the excitation voltage provided to
the pressure transducer. These electronics measure the resistance of the strain gage, calibrate the
measurement, and then provide a linear voltage signal to the process monitoring system.

Figure 5-25 - Pressure Transducer

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 6 DIE COMPONENTS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn the names of the major die components of conventional die.
●● To learn the purpose of the major die components
●● To learn the requirements for safely working with the various die components.
●● To learn how the die is made.
●● To learn how the die works.
●● To learn the factors that control die life.

PERSPECTIVE
Along with the machine, the casting die is the other major component in the die casting system.
The casting die has four major functions according to E.A. Herman, author of NADCA’s Die Casting
Dies: Designing. These four functions are:

1. Hold the molten metal in the shape of the desired casting.

2. Provide means for molten metal to get into the space where it is to be held in the desired
shape.

3. Remove heat from the molten metal to solidify the metal.

4. Provide for removal of the solidified metal.

Conventional production dies come in various forms. A die may be a single cavity die, meaning
that it produces one casting per cycle. It could be a multiple cavity die, meaning that the die
produces multiples of the same casting per cycle. It might be a multiple cavity die with multiple
part numbers, also known as a “family” die, or it might be a unit type die. The unit die is a special
form of a conventional die; the particular differences will be explained later. If your job requires
that you handle the die cast dies, this must be done with care. First for safety reasons, the dies
can be heavy and unwieldy. Therefore, they must be secure when moved. Secondly, the dies are
very expensive, like jewelry, it takes many hours of skilled work to manufacture a die. Figure 1
shows the various die configurations.

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Figure 6-1 - Conventional single cavity, multiple cavity and family die

This lesson on the casting die will teach the names and function of the major components of
conventional dies. Additionally, it will teach us to work safely with the die and how to care for the
die.

Conventional dies have two halves. These are the stationary half, also known variously as the
“cover” half, “hot” half, or “A” half and the moving half, also known as the “ejector” half, or “B”
half, or “cold” half.

Figure 6-2 - Nomenclature of the two die halves

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MAJOR DIE COMPONENTS

Mold base
The mold base is the steel envelope that is designed to hold all the other die components
together. It is split or parted into two halves, “stationary” and “moving”. This split is known as the
parting line. During normal operation, the opening and closing of the die creates a pinch hazard at
the parting line. We must always be aware of this pinch hazard, as it can be very dangerous. The
die parting line can also spit metal if the die is not completely closed during injection. This can
be a burn hazard to anyone in the vicinity of the die. This area is normally protected with safety
doors and shields.

The mold base encloses the components that actually make the casting. The stationary mold
base is mounted to the stationary machine platen. The stationary half is coupled to the machine
injection system with either a cold chamber or a nozzle to the hot chamber gooseneck. The
moving half mold base is mounted to the moving machine platen via the ejector box.

Figure 6-3 - Die with mold base shaded

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Figure 6-4 - Section through cold chamber die with cold chamber

Figure 6-5 - Section through hot chamber die with nozzle and gooseneck

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The mold base is usually made from pre-hardened steel such as a P-20 or AISI 4140. This is a
very tough steel, but not necessarily very hard. Care must be taken when handling the mold base
to avoid damage to it. It can be nicked or dented by rough handling, and this could cause set-up
problems if the mold base does not fit flush on the machine platens.

Stationary half mold base

The stationary half mold base has a number of components and features that are important
to the die’s function. Its most important function is to act as a container for the die cavities.
Additionally, it provides a means for attaching the stationary die half to the machine, it couples
the injection system of the machine to the die, and it provides a means for aligning the two die
halves.

Figure 6-6 - Stationary mold base from parting line

Clamp slots- usually a clamping slot is found around the outside perimeter of the stationary
mold base. This slot is normally a standard distance from the platen mounting surface with a
standard width and depth to accommodate the die/clamps that are available in the die cast shop.
In some shops the clamp slots may only exist on the horizontal or vertical sides. In some other
shops, a clamp hole may exist instead of the slot. Slots around the perimeter are recommended,
as these would give the greatest versatility for clamping.

Figure 6-7 - Clamp slots

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Guide pins- are round pins located at the four corners of the die. The purpose of the guide pins
is to assure the alignment of the two die halves. Sometimes a casting may have critical dimensional
alignment requirements from a feature in the stationary die half related to a feature in the moving
die half, the guide pins in one half and the bushings in the other die half are used to maintain this
alignment. The guide pins could be located in either die half. Since the guide pins project from the
parting line they can become a snag hazard when castings are removed from the die, or the die is
being sprayed with die release. The guide pins also operate at an elevated temperature and could
be a burn hazard. Usually, one of the four guide pins is offset in order to prevent incorrect assembly
of the die. In some special cases, these pins may be rectangular instead of round. These are called
guide blocks and work in conjunction with wear plates in the opposite die half.

Figure 6-8(a) - Guide pins

Figure 6-8(b) - Guide blocks

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Pryslots- are gaps at the parting line of the die, located at the corners adjacent to the guide
pins. If the die must be opened, and it is not on the machine, it usually has to be pried or worked
open. A pry bar or wedge shaped tool is inserted at the pryslot, and worked like a lever to open
the die. This levering must be done at all the corners, sequentially, in order to move the die half
off the guide pins or out of the bushings. Because the prying action tends to bind at the pins and
bushings, the pryslots are located near them.

Figure 6-9 – Pryslots

Additionally, the stationary mold base will have a lot of holes in it. The holes are there to
accommodate the cold chamber or sprue bushing. There will be pockets for the cavities and there
will be assorted holes for cooling lines and mounting holes.

Mounting/Clamp plate- some dies will have a clamp plate bolted to the stationary mold base.
The purpose of this plate is to accommodate standardized or automated clamping systems or
sometimes it is just a spacer to adjust the shut height of the die. These plates are discouraged
because they become a barrier to heat transfer to the machine and do not add to the rigidity of
the die.

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Figure 6-10 - Clamp plate mounted to the stationary die half

Moving half mold base

The functions of the moving half mold base are very similar to those of the stationary half mold
base. Again, its most important function is to act as a container for the die cavities. Additionally,
it couples the ejection system to the cavities, and it provides a means for aligning the two die
halves. The ejector systems of the die and ejector box are mounted to the moving half mold base.
This mold base will also be full of holes; to create pockets for the die cavities, for the cooling
lines, ejector pins, and a variety of mounting holes.

Figure 6-11 - Moving half with mold base highlighted

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Guide bushings- are round holes located at the four corners of the die, designed to accept the
guide pins. With the guide pins, their purpose is to align the two die halves. If the die uses guide
blocks, the bushings are replaced with wear plates for two sides of the guide blocks.

Figure 6-12 - Guide bushings and wear plates

Ejector box
The ejector box refers to the area that encloses the ejector system of the casting die. There
are no specific rules as to how this area of the die is to be constructed. It must provide a means
for mounting the moving half mold base to the moving machine platen. Additionally, the ejector
box must support the moving half mold base against the machine closing force and the force of
injection. It must couple the machine ejector system to the die ejector system. In some cases the
ejector box will totally enclose the ejector system, in other cases only top and bottom or operator
and helper sides will be enclosed.

Figure 6-13 - Moving half with ejector box highlighted

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Parallels/rails- parallels are steel plates that extend from machine side of the moving half mold
base to the machine moving platen for clamping or to a clamp plate. They are called parallels
because the “contact” surfaces are parallel. The parallels may have clamp slots cut into them
to mount the moving die half to the moving machine platen. In other cases the parallels act as a
spacer between the moving half mold base and a clamping plate. The parallels are usually made
from steel plate such as AISI 1020. The parallels must be strong enough to prevent them being
“squished” or compressed. Remember, if the machine exerts a locking force of 1000 tons to hold
the die shut, the parallels must support these 1000 tons.

Figure 6-14 - Parallels

Clamp plate- some dies will have a plate bolted to the parallels for the purpose of clamping the
moving half mold base to the machine. This plate, depending on its thickness, will have clamp slot
of a specific height and depth cut into it.

Figure 6-15 - Clamp plate

Support pillars- inside the ejector box there may be columns extending from the moving half
mold base, through the ejector plates to the machine platen or clamp plate. These columns, round
or rectangular, are located in line with the die cavities and are designed to support the mold base
against the force of injection.

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Figure 6-16 - Support pillars

Ejector system
Inside the ejector box is the ejector system. This provides one of the four critical die functions:
Provide for removal of the solidified metal.

The ejector system includes plates and pins as a minimum, and may additionally include guide
pins and bushings and other sophisticated components to provide specialized ejection features.

Figure 6-17 - Moving half with ejector system cross-hatched

Ejector pins- are pins that extend from the ejector plate to the casting. They may actually be
located on the casting and/or at other locations on the “shot”. (The “shot” is all the injected
material). The ejector pins will leave marks on the casting. These ejector pin marks may vary
in height, with respect to the adjacent casting surface, and may be subject to special quality
requirements. For example, the height of these ejector pin marks may be subject to a dimensional
requirement such as “flush to 0.020 depressed” with respect to the casting surface. If the ejector
pin is too long it will leave an indentation that may make it difficult to remove the casting from
the die. If the ejector pin is too short it will leave a raised boss on the casting that may be
objectionable.

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There may be a maximum flash requirement at the ejector pin mark. Since the ejector pin is
a component that is subject to many stresses during operation, failure is not uncommon. As an
operator, it is your job to minimize breakage. This means you must make sure the pin is properly
lubricated and is not bent or bumped during operation.

Figure 6-18(a) - Ejector pins

Figure 6-18(b) - Ejector pins, raised and depressed, and with flash

Ejector pins, when extended, pose both burn and snag hazards. When reaching in to remove
the shot, the operator must be aware of the ejector pin locations in order to avoid contacting or
snagging on them.

Return pins- are pins that are used to return the ejector system to its “home” position before
the next shot. The return pins extend from the ejector plate to the parting line. During the
ejection stroke the return pins do not push on anything, but just extend above the parting line.
When the machine closes, the return pins contact the stationary half parting line and push the
ejector plate back to the “home” position. On some machines the ejector plate is coupled directly
to the casting machine and the ejector cylinder pulls the plate back to the home position before

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die closing and the return pins become redundant. Even with this redundancy, return pins are
recommended to provide returning of the ejector plates in case of failure.

Figure 6-19 - Return pins

Return pins, when extended, pose both burn and snag hazards. When reaching in to remove
the shot the operator must be aware of the return pin locations in order to avoid contacting or
snagging them.

Ejector plate- the heads of all the ejector pins rest on the ejector plate. As the ejector plate
moves forward, it pushes on the pins and ejects the casting. A machine motion moves the ejector
plate forward. This could be accomplished by knock-out rods that operate between the ejector
plate and a fixed plate or surface on the machine as the machine opens. Another alternative is to
have a machine, hydraulically operated bumper plate or an ejector cylinder.

Figure 6-20 - Ejector plate

Ejector retainer plate- this plate retains the heads of all the ejector pins and is bolted to the
ejector plate. This plate is necessary to hold the pins in place when the ejector system is returned
to the “home” position.

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Figure 6-21 - Ejector retainer plate

As the ejector plate and ejector retainer plate assembly move back and forth between stops
during normal operation pinch hazards are created in these areas. If the ejector box is not totally
enclosed, access to these pinch areas is possible.

Guided ejection- sometimes it is necessary to make sure the ejector system operates smoothly
and uniformly. To achieve this, guide pins and bushings are added to the ejector system.

Figure 6-22 - Ejector guide pins and bushings

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SELF TEST 1
True or False

1. Die casting dies are very expensive because they require many hours of skilled work to
manufacture.

True False

2. The stationary half is also known as the cold half or fixed half.

True False

3. The purpose of parallels is to frame an opening for the ejector system and support the die
against the closing force of the machine.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

4. Alignment between the die halves in achieved by the:

a. ejector guide pins

b. support pillars
c. guide pins and bushings
d. ejector return pins

5. Items inside the ejector box include:

a. return pins
b. ejector plate
c. ejector guide pins and bushings
d. core pins

6. The moving half mold base:

a. provides a means for aligning the die halves

b. functions as a container for the die cavities
c. couples the ejection system to the cavities
d. all of the above

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Cavity
Cavity blocks- the term cavity blocks includes all the specialized tool steel that is used to form
the actual casting. This could include core pins, interchangeable inserts within the cavity blocks
and various slide cavity components. These pieces are usually made from AISI H-13 steel. This is
a specialized hot work tool steel that is made to exacting specifications for chemical analysis,
density, homogeneity, and grain size, to name a few. This steel is comparatively expensive to
purchase, and after the toolwork is done, it is subjected to rigorous heat treatment that must also
conform to a series of exacting specifications.

Figure 6-23 - Photo of several die cavities

The cavity blocks, although hard, can easily be nicked or damaged. For that reason, they must
be handled as if they were expensive jewelry. If they are nicked or damaged, those defects will
show up on the casting. This also means that if a casting or piece gets stuck, it must be removed
with care. The tools used should be softer than the cavity block, brass is usually recommended,
not screw drivers or wedge ground ejector pins. The cavities can also be damaged in a less obvious
way, by how the die is run. The cavities will last the longest if they are always preheated to a
minimum of 350°F and if they normally run within a temperature range of 450-550°F.

Core pins- these are very similar to ejector pins, their size tolerances are slightly different. Core
pins are usually used to cast round holes in the part, but their shape is not restricted to being
round, only the shape of the core pin body must be round. Core pins can be very fragile and fail
if not taken care of. It is important that they are properly sprayed with die release in order to
prevent the build-up of solder.

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Figure 6-24 - Core pins

Slides- sometimes it is necessary to cast features that cannot be created with the normal
opening and closing of the die. This can be done with a component called a “slide”. The motion
of a slide will be in a direction different than normal opening and closing. A cavity feature can
be mounted on a slide, and then this slide is withdrawn from the casting before the casting is
ejected. If the slide is mounted in the stationary die half, the slide must be withdrawn before
the machine opens the die. The slides may be actuated either with a hydraulic cylinder or
mechanically with a cam pin.

Figure 6-25(a) - Slide assembly with cavity highlighted

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The in and out motions of slides will create numerous pinch and strike hazards. The operator
must be aware of the location of these hazards in order to avoid being caught by them. Some slide
mechanisms rely on springs to hold the slides in position when the die is open. In the event the
spring or part of the carrier was to fail, they could become a projectile and a strike hazard.

Figure 6-25(b) - Springs for core return mechanisms can be guarded with standard pipe fittings, (left), or
with welded covers, (right)

Carrier- the cavity portion of the slide is normally mounted to a carrier. The carrier either moves
the cavity back and forth with a cam pin or hydraulic cylinder.

Figure 6-26 - Slide carrier

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Wedgelock- the carrier is held in place with a wedgelock. The wedgelock is a piece of steel with an
angled surface that is forced against the carrier to hold it in place against the force of injected metal.

Figure 6-27 - Slide wedge lock

Cam pin- is a pin mounted into the stationary mold base at an angle. It fits through a hole in the
slide carrier and causes it to slide in and out with the closing and opening motion of the machine.

Figure 6-28 - Cam pin

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Figure 6-29 - Hydraulic cylinder to move slide

Cam pins, when extended, pose both burn and snag hazards. When reaching in to remove the shot
the operator must be aware of the cam pin locations in order to avoid contacting or snagging them.

Cooling lines- most cavity blocks will have cooling lines in them. These are necessary to perform
one of the basic die functions: Remove heat from the molten metal to solidify the metal. The
cooling lines may be designed to carry either water or oil as a cooling medium. In some cases
the lines will be equipped with special high pressure and high temperature hoses and fittings.
It is important that these be maintained in good repair. Failure could result in a burn hazard. In
addition to the burn hazard the fittings should be maintained to prevent leakage and leaks should
be quickly repaired because of the danger of a slip-fall hazard.

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Figure 6-30 - Cooling lines

Heaters- some dies may use electric cartridge heaters to control temperature instead of cooling
lines or in addition to cooling lines. These heaters will have wiring associated with them to power
them. The wiring can pose a shock hazard if not properly maintained.

Figure 31 - Cartridge heaters

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SELF TEST 2
True or False

1. Cavity blocks are made from ordinary recycled steel.

True False

2. Cooling lines can be designed for water and hot oil.

True False

3. Electric heaters can be used to add heat to the die.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all the correct answers:

4. The cavity blocks can be damaged if:

a. they are overheated

b. they are started at 350F
c. brass chisels are used to remove stuck pieces
d. if they are dropped

5. Cavity blocks are made from H-13 steel that has been prepared to meet standards for:

a. chemistry
b. density
c. astrological sign
d. homogeneity

6. Ejector pins can cause the following defects associated with them:

a. bulges
b. too deep
c. raised marks
d. excessive flash

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Die / Shot Terminology

There are a number of cavity features that share the same terminology as the cast shot. These
are the sprue, runner, gate, overflows and vents.

Figure 6-32 - Shot/die with items identified

Runner- the runner is the die cast alloy distribution system within the casting die. It takes the
alloy from the biscuit or sprue and directs it to the die cavities, where the casting is actually
made. The runner terminates at the gate.

Figure 6-33 - A Runner

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Gate- is the smallest restriction in the alloy flow path, located at the edge of the casting. The
gate is used to control the flow of the alloy into the die cavity.

Figure 6-34 - Gates identified

Overflows, lifters- the overflows are small pockets of alloy located around the edge of the
casting. They can be used to perform several jobs. If an ejector pin is located on the overflow, it
can be used to help lift the casting out of the die cavity, hence the name “lifter”. If the cavity
has a cold spot, placement of an overflow near that location can be used to add heat to the die.
An overflow can be used to direct air flow out of the die or be a location to trap air outside of the
cavity.

Figure 6-35 - Overflows

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Vents- a vent is a path from the die cavity to outside the die. Vents usually start at an overflow,
but they can start at the edge of the cavity if necessary. The vent usually varies in depth, getting
thinner as it nears the edge of the die. When production is run, the vents must be kept clear of
flash and debris every cycle. If alloy is allowed to build-up in the vents, the vents can become
blocked and not work, or the build-up could be so great that the die does not close properly and
will spit alloy and become a burn hazard.

Figure 6-36 - Vents

Vacuum vent- some die casting systems use vacuum to help get the air out of the die cavity. This
venting system will be somewhat different than an atmospheric vent and will terminate in either a
valve or chill block.

Figure 6-37 - A vacuum vent

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Miscellaneous components
Biscuit block- generally cold chamber dies will have a separate piece of H-13 steel in the moving
die half opposite the cold chamber. This block is the beginning of the metal distribution system
(runner) to the casting cavities. Since all the metal in the shot flows past this block, adequate
cooling is very important.
Figure 6-38 - A biscuit block highlighted in assembly

Sprue bushing - in the hot chamber system, the sprue bushing has the important job of being
the liquid metal to solid metal interface. At the junction of the nozzle and sprue bushing, the
metal in the nozzle must always remain a liquid and the metal in the sprue bushing must solidify.

Figure 6-39 - A sprue bushing

Sprue post- the sprue post has a job similar to that of the biscuit block. The post is the
beginning of the metal distribution system. Proper cooling in the post is very important to
consistent operation of the die.

Figure 6-40 - A sprue post

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DIE MANUFACTURING
The process of building the die begins with the casting design. A major effort should be made
during the casting design phase to assure that the casting can be manufactured with relative ease.
This is achieved when the following goals are met:

1. The casting will fill easily and completely with alloy.

2. The casting will solidify completely without defects.

3. The casting will eject readily from the die.

The die manufacturing process is very complex. Successful die manufacturers are at the
forefront of machining technology. Many of the machine tools used today are computer controlled
and run without direct supervision. The result of this technology, when properly applied is; tools
are manufactured in less time, with fewer errors and at lower cost.

Figure 6-41 - Machine tools, grinder, CNC mill, EDM machine

Dimensions and Tolerances

The toolmakers job is to manufacture all the tool components and assemble them. This
involves a number of manufacturing processes including; grinding, milling, EDMing, polishing,
and assembling. The die actually is a high precision tool. It is not uncommon for us to expect the
toolmaker to hold tolerances as small as ±0.002 of an inch (±0.05mm). For some small precision
zinc dies the tolerance may be as small as ±0.0002 of an inch (±0.005mm). With these types of
tools at our disposal, it is our responsibility to take care of them. The cost of a single die can
range from $1000 to over $1,000,000.

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Figure 6-42 - Unit die

Thermal Expansion
In order to obtain satisfactory dimensional control, the toolmaker and die cast machine operator
must understand the concept of thermal expansion. Thermal expansion is the property of a
material that predicts dimensional changes based on changes in temperature. W e know that
during hot summer weather that the electric and telephone wires get longer and sag further
between the poles as compared to the sag during cold winter weather. If we heat a core pin it will
get longer.

Figure 6-43 - Sagging electric lines

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The formula that predicts thermal expansion is:

ΔL = C x L x ΔT

ΔL = change in length

C = coefficient of thermal expansion

L = length

ΔT = change in temperature

This formula means that the amount of thermal expansion depends on the type of material
(coefficient of thermal expansion), on how long the dimension is (length), and how much the
temperature changes (ΔT).

(C), Different materials have different coefficients of thermal expansion. Die cast aluminum alloy
has a coefficient of thermal expansion that is almost double that of H-13 die steel.

(L), If the dimension is long, it will have a lot of expansion. If the dimension is short, the
expansion will be less.

(ΔT), As the temperature goes up the dimension gets longer, as it goes down the dimension gets
shorter.

When the toolmaker builds the die cavities, he anticipates the affects of thermal expansion and
applies a shrink factor to each cavity dimension. (The shrink factor accounts for the shrinking
or contraction that takes place when a casting cools.) A typical shrink factor is 0.006 inch/inch
(0.006mm/mm). This means the tool maker will increase all the casting dimensions by 0.006 inch
(0.006mm) for each inch (mm) of dimension length. Another way to look at this is to multiply
each dimension by 1.006. A 2.000 inch (50.80mm) dimension on a casting would be 2.012 inches
(51.10mm) in the die (2.000in x 1.006 = 2.012in) (50.80mm x 1.006 = 51.10mm).

This is not the same as shrinkage, which will be discussed in the materials lesson.

Die Life Factors

There are several factors under the toolmaker’s control that will affect the life of the tool.
To maximize the life of the die, the toolmaker must use the best materials, and the best
manufacturing processes. The best material for cavity tool steel is Premium grade H-13 steel
that meets the NADCA specification#207-90. Following the EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining)
process, the damaged “white layer” of material must be removed. The heat treating process must
follow the recommended procedures as specified by NADCA in their document entitled “NADCA
Recommended Procedures for H-13 Tool Steel”.

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Figure 6-44 - NADCA Recommended Die Procedures, H-13 Tool Steel

After the toolmaker implements the above measures, it is the responsibility of die cast operators
to take the steps under their control that will extend the life of the die. The four things that the
operator must do are:

●● Preheat the die to a minimum of 350°F (175°C) before injecting metal into it.
●● Run the die at a consistent cycle to maintain minimal temperature changes.
●● Preventing soldering.
●● Take care to make sure the die is not damaged.
Die steel fails in three ways:

1. It is subjected to an excessive thermal shock and suffers a gross crack or break

2. It wears out and heat checks

3. It is damaged through carelessness or negligence.

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Figure 6-45 - Photo of gross failure

Figure 6-46 - Photo of heat checking

Thermal shock can occur if the die steel is subjected to a big temperature difference. This
could be when a die is started in production. If the die is cold compared to the temperature of
the alloy being injected, it will see a thermal shock. A thermal shock could also occur if the die
were running and suddenly we remember to turn on or open a cooling line. If the die is preheated,
the intensity of the thermal shock is reduced. The reason preheating is very important is to avoid
thermal shock. Metals have properties that vary with temperature. One of these properties is
toughness. Toughness is the ability to absorb a shock. If a metal is tough, it can absorb a shock, we
refer to that material as being ductile. If a metal is not tough, cannot absorb shock, it is referred
to as being brittle. This property varies with temperature. This means that the same metal may
be brittle at one temperature and ductile at another temperature. Zinc die cast alloy is brittle
at temperature below 30°F (0°C) and ductile at temperatures above 70°F (21°C). H-13 die steel
behaves the same way, at temperatures below 250°F -275°F (120-135°C) the steel is brittle, and
temperatures above 350°F (175°C) the steel is ductile.

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Thermal fatigue or heat checking is a sign that the die cavity is wearing out. Every cycle the
steel at the surface of the die cavity is heated by the incoming alloy and then cooled internally
or with die spray. This means the surface steel is stretching and relaxing every cycle. This is very
stressful on the die steel and ultimately it will break down, initially by cracking and finally with
pieces of steel actually breaking out. By running the die consistently we can minimize the high
temperatures and maximize the low temperatures, and reduce the temperature change that
occurs every cycle.

Figure 6-47 - Graph of brittle to ductile transition

Lastly, the operator must take actions to prevent the die from being damaged. For example, if
a casting gets stuck in the die, and heat is applied to help remove the casting, it must be applied
carefully. Too much heat, like heat from an acetylene torch or gas torch can re-heat treat the
cavity steel and soften the steel. The steel will begin to change properties if it is heated in excess
of 1000°F. W e can’t see this temperature change. If we are working on the die with a torch and
the steel begins to change color (red), we have gone too far and the properties of the steel have
been changed.

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Figure 6-48 - Acetylene torch

Again, in the case of a stuck casting, the proper tools must be selected to remove the stuck
piece. Tools that are harder than the die steel should not be selected because they can damage
the die cavities. These might be screwdrivers, chisels, pliers, or ejector pins. The correct tool to
use would be softer than the H-13, a material such as brass. Care must also be taken to handle the
cavity blocks with care. They should not be dropped or used as tool rests.

Figure 6-49 - Ejector pin

The list below is a number of actions the die cast machine operator can take in order to prevent
damage to the die:

●● Keep the parting line and slides free of flash.

●● Run the die in a fashion that will prevent flash formation.
●● Properly pre-heat the die, to avoid thermal shock.
●● Keep the moving components lubricated.
●● Use the proper tools and techniques to remove stuck pieces.
●● Do not close the machine on stuck pieces to remove them.
●● Maintain consistent cycle times.
●● Be aware of unusual occurrences during the cycle.

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SELF TEST 3
True or False

1. Toolmakers do not affect die life.

True False

2. Die cavities fail because of thermal shock.

True False

3. Die cavities fail due to fatigue.

True False

4. Overflows can be used to add heat to a cold spot in the die.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all the correct answers:

5. The operator can extend die life by:

a. running the die at a consistent cycle

b. preheating the die to 3500 F
c. using brass chisels to remove stuck pieces
d. preventing soldering

6. For a die to withstand a thermal shock:

a. it must be hard
b. it must be brittle
c. it must be tough
d. it must be strong

7. Thermal expansion is directly related to the:

a. type of material
b. length of the dimension
c. temperature difference
d. tolerance

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GLOSSARY
Cam pin- a pin, similar to a guide pin, mounted at an angle with the general parting line, used to
pull a slide in and out of the die during the machine die opening and closing portion of the cycle.

Cavity- the empty space in the cavity block that is filled with alloy to make the casting.

Cavity Blocks- die components that form the casting; usually made from AISI H-13 steel.

Clamp Plate- plates that are used for mounting the die to the machine.

Core Pins- round pins used to cast holes in the casting; usually made from AISI H-13 steel.

Ejector Pins- pins used to push the casting out of the cavity.

Ejector Plate- steel plate that pushes on the ejector pins to push the casting out of the cavity.

Ejector Retainer Plate- the steel plate mounted to the ejector plate that sandwiches the ejector
pin heads to hold the pins and pulls them back to the home position after ejection is complete.

Ejector Return Pin- the ejector pin that is used to push the ejector plate to the home position when
ejection is complete.

H-13 Steel- the material that most cavity blocks and cavity components are made from.

Mold Base- the steel envelope that contains the cavity components.

Parallels- steel plates mounted between the moving half mold base and machine that must support
the die against the machine clamping force. They are spacers used to establish a space for the
ejection system.

Solder- mechanical bond between aluminum in alloy and iron in the die steel. The aluminum
molecules actually penetrate the steel structure at the molecular level.

Support Pillars- steel posts that are located behind the cavity blocks, used to support the forces of
injection.

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SETUP

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn about the importance of die setup in die casting operations.
●● To learn the fundaments of SMED, Single Minute, Exchange of Dies.
●● To learn basic Lean Manufacturing principles such as 5S, 3M’s, and Waste.

PERSPECTIVE
Die casting operations are often required to change the die that is production because of
schedules, downtime, or quality issues. The die changes reduce the amount of castings that can
be produced and disrupt the overall operation of the plant. Therefore, it is important for machine
operators to be involved in the die setups and to understand the principles of die change that
permit these changes to be made quickly and effectively.

In recent years, many industrial plants have adopted Lean Manufacturing practices. These
practices include 5S and Visual Controls, Pull Manufacturing, Six Sigma, and SMED, Single Minute
Exchange of Dies. This lesson will review SMED and help the machine operator understand its use
to be able to make die setups more quickly.

SMED is an acronym for Single Minute Exchange of Dies. This means that the entire die change
process, from last good part to first good part is completed in less than 10 minutes. This is the
goal. Some die casters with both large and small dies have already achieved this goal.

Today, SMED is one of a number of disciplines that constitute “Lean” production. For example,
all of the following are activities that fall into the scope of “lean” thinking:

Lean Manufacturing Quick Changeovers-SMED

5S & Visual Controls Six Sigma
Kaizen Lean Accounting
Value Streams Theory of Constraints
Pull Manufacturing Human Factors
Mistake Proofing

The goal of all these efforts is to achieve Customer Satisfaction and also to stay in business. This
is accomplished by providing the highest quality, lowest cost, and shortest lead-time by continually
reducing waste. Additionally, our customers require that we work safely, are good stewards of the
environment and treat our employees fairly.

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Although this is a guide to understanding and implementing SMED, there are some basic concepts
we need to understand and embrace from “lean” thinking. “Lean” thinking is all about reducing
waste or Muda (Japanese for “waste”). Think of waste as any activity that your customer is
unwilling to pay for. Your customer is willing to pay for the alloy, for the alloy to be cast, for the
casting to be trimmed (but not in all circumstances), for the casting to be packed and shipped.
Your customer is not willing to pay for scrap, rework, delays, or excess inventory. In short, your
customer is unwilling to pay for activities that do not add value to the casting.

One way of looking at the die casting process is to break down the various activities involved in
making the casting into three categories.

1. Actual work: activity that adds value to the alloy.

2. Auxiliary work: activity that supports actual work usually precedes or follows actual work.

3. Waste: activity or motion that adds no value. For example, an activity, when stopped,
has no adverse effect on the casting.

In die casting:

●● The actual work is melting, injecting, solidifying and cooling the alloy.
●● Auxiliary work is ladling the alloy, removing the die casting from the machine and
setting dies.
●● Waste includes start-up scrap, making excess castings, and unnecessary transport of the
casting.

3M’s
The three M’s are the Japanese words that describe intolerable conditions. The words are Muda,
Mura, and Muri. These are all heavy sounding words. Think of them as a heavy unacceptable load!

MUDA: Muda is waste, activities for which your customer is unwilling to pay.

MURA: Mura is irregularity, unevenness, and fluctuation in work. Usually due to poor
planning or lack of standardization. Operations need to be standardized and discipline
maintained to assure the operations do not change.

MURI: Means “hard to do”, this may be because of variations in production or poor job,
fixture and layout design. This could result in excessive strain and stress (frustration).

Waste
The Toyota Production System lists eight different types of waste. In fact, it claims that the
ratio of value to waste is 5:95 in most operations. If this is true, there is a lot of opportunity for
improvement.

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The eight classifications of waste are:

Motion Over-processing
Waiting Over-production
Conveyance Inventory
Correction Knowledge disconnection

Motion
Wasted motion can be both human motion and machine motion. Wasted human motion is usually
related to workplace ergonomics. If the workplace is not organized or setup properly productivity
and quality will suffer. This waste includes walking, reaching or twisting. Spending time walking
searching for the die to setup is this kind of waste. It is thought that about half of workplace
injuries are due to poor ergonomics. The risk factors involved in these types of injuries include
force, repetition and posture. In terms of die setup, we must be sure that we do not put our
employee at risk of these types of injuries. Force and posture are the two risk factors to be most
aware of when considering setup work.

Two simple examples of wasted die casting machine (DCM) motion are more than required die
opening and closing stroke and more than necessary injection stroke. All DCM motions must be
reviewed and optimized.

Waiting/Delay
This waste occurs when an activity is delayed waiting for material to be found and retrieved. For
example, during setup you may discover that a hydraulic fitting has been damaged and cannot be
connected. A delay results waiting for the fitting and replacing it. Or a delay may occur as you wait
for materials to be cleared from a required work area.

Delays add to lead-time:

Lead-time = Processing time + Retention time.

Processing time: actual work being done to the part.

Retention time: delays, waiting for actual work.

Conveyance
Conveyance is a necessary waste since materials must be moved, to the work site and through
the plant. However, this waste must be minimized. This is accomplished by efficient work place
layout and efficient layout of tools and work pieces. For example, when setting the die we need to
assure that all the tools and components have been gathered or staged prior to movement to the
DCM. Once at the DCM all the required tools are arrayed in such a manner to be easily accessible
when they are required.

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Correction
Correction or rework is the waste incurred when something is done incorrectly. A hose
connection improperly secured, leaking or being blown off its fitting is an example of this. This
requires reconnecting the fitting and cleaning up the mess that occurred. Your motto should be
“Do it right the first time.”

Over-processing
Doing more work than required. An example related to die setup would be applying excessive
torque to clamping bolts, using a 3-foot long extension (cheater bar) on a wrench to tighten a nut.

Inventory
Inventory waste is the keeping of unnecessary materials. For the purposes of doing a setup, this
means the correct components and correct number of components to do the setup are provided.
This also includes tools.

Over-production
This is a waste not generally associated with setup. This refers to making things that do not sell.
It could be related to setup if we keep the machine running because we are not ready to do the
die exchange.

Long set-ups lead to over-production. The inability to conduct single minute die changes
increases batch sizes and eliminates the opportunity for “make to order” batch sizes.

Knowledge Disconnection
This waste exists when there is a disconnect within the company or between the company and
its customers. During a setup, this could be as simple as stopping the setup because of a defective
connector and waiting for a new connector to be delivered. As opposed to moving on to the next
setup step and continuing the setup process.

Lean thinking is more than seeing and eliminating waste. It is also about balancing work efforts
and simplifying the work. In order to minimize the setup time for a die, two or more persons may
be required to accomplish a particular task. Those persons must be available when required. Some
tasks may be difficult to accomplish and require an inordinate amount of skill to be done correctly.
These tasks should be simplified.

For example, 6000 pounds of castings that are in stackable 1000-pound containers have to be
moved with a 2500-pound capacity forklift. What is the best and safest method for moving the
castings?

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The alternatives are:

1. Six trips at 1000 pounds per trip.

2. Two trips at 2000 pounds and two trips at 1000 pounds.

3. Two trips at 3000 pounds.

4. Three trips at 2000 pounds.

Number 4 is best; it has the minimum number of uniform loads within the forklift capacity.

Number 1 is wasteful with too many trips. (Muda)

Number 2 has too many trips and the loads are not uniform, unbalanced. (Mura)

Number 3 is unsafe as it overloads the forklift, difficult not simple. (Muri)

As we begin to think about implementing the SMED discipline there is another discipline we
should have in place or plan to do concurrently because they complement each other. This is the
5S & Visual Controls discipline.

5S & VISUAL CONTROLS

5S is considered the foundation of improvement activities. The 5 S’s are:

Sort

Set in Order

Shine

Standardize

Sustain

(Some would add a sixth S for safety.)

Sort
This means that you remove from the workplace all items that are not needed for current
production. This could include equipment and machinery.

Set in Order
This is arranging needed items so they are as close to the point of use as possible and identifying
them so they are easy to find and put away.

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Shine
This means cleaning. Sweeping floors, picking up trash, wiping off excess die release from the
DCM and making sure everything in the plant stays clean. This improves safety, brightens the
workplace for inspection and uncovers maintenance opportunities.

Standardize
This is the method used to maintain the first three S’s. It is related to Sort, Set in Order and
Shine, however, most strongly to Shine. It results when the machines and their surroundings are
free of debris, oil and dirt.

Sustain
This means making a habit of properly maintaining correct procedures. Employees must be
committed to maintaining 5S conditions. This will require hourly, daily, weekly and yearly efforts.

If your plant has already implemented the 5S discipline, introducing and implementing SMED
should be fairly straightforward. This is because many of the disciplines and cultural changes
required for 5S are also requirements for SMED. In light of this kind of thinking, we must now apply
these principals and disciplines to the reduction of setup time.

One more thought in this chapter on perspective. We should recognize the contributions
of Dr. Shigeo Shingo. Dr. Shigeo was an international consultant with the greatest impact on
manufacturing with his teachings in three concepts:

●● Just in time (JIT)

●● Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED)
●● Zero Quality Control
As part of JIT, Dr. Shigeo pioneered the concept of SMED. SMED was developed in order to reduce
the fixed cost associated with the setup and changeover of dies. The basic elements driving the
SMED concept are to reduce the setup time of dies, which directly result in smaller batch sizes of
parts. A smaller batch size translates as lower cost associated with work in process (wip) inventory
storage, as well as raw material and finished goods inventories. This concept is especially
beneficial as it allows the manufacturing system to quickly adjust to engineering design changes
with very little costs. In addition, SMED allows higher machine utilization and in turn results in
higher productivity.

Dr. Shigeo’s approach to developing the SMED concept was to isolate and identify the setup time
as two entities: internal setup time and external setup time. According to him, a simple approach
to achieving a quick setup and changeover of dies can be done in the following steps:

●● Separating internal and external as it is existing

●● Converting internal to external setup
●● Streamlining all aspects of the setup operation

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Finally, a common example of how SMED principals can be applied to shorten the time of a
changeover. How long does it take you to change a tire on your car after you have stopped? 15
minutes? Could the tire be changed in 15 seconds? How about 8 seconds?

When Dale Earnhart Jr. pulls into the pits at a NASCAR race, his four tires are changed and the
car filled with fuel in about 15 seconds.

When Michael Schumacher pulls into the pits during a Formula 1 race, he gets four tires and a
load of fuel in about 8 seconds. Of course he as twice the number of tire changers that Dale Jr.
has. Also, only one lug nut/spinner per wheel.

Implementing SMED
Implementing SMED is a team effort. Choosing the team members is very important. Each
member brings specific skills to the set-up. The pit crew analogy is very helpful in understanding
how SMED is put into practice. In fact, “Setup” Crew and Crew Chief” are the best names to use
for the various participants. Another useful analogy is to think of the set-up as theater, a one

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act play. Each actor/crew member has specific tasks to be completed in a specific amount of
time in a predetermined order. Each actor/crew member must know their activities (lines) and
timing. Preparing for the set-up requires practice, practice, practice (rehearsal), until everyone is
completely trained.

The SMED discipline is implemented in four steps.

1. Analyzing your setup operation

2. Separating internal and external setup

3. Converting internal setup to external setup

4. Streamlining all aspects of the setup

Manufacturing processes and Setup operations are very similar. Manufacturing processes are
characterized by four phases: processing, inspection, transport and storage. Processing includes all
the operations that modify the shape or quality of the casting. Inspection is simply the comparison
of the casting to a standard. Transport is the moving of the casting from one location to another.
Storage is the period of time when no work, transportation or inspection is being done.

Setup operation is the preparation or adjustment performed before and following the
manufacturing process. There are only two kinds of setup activities.

Internal Setup: this is work that must be done on the machine when it is shutdown. For
example, the stationary die half can only be attached to the stationary machine platen when the
machine is shut down.

External Setup: this work can be done while the machine is still running. For example, the
plunger tip and plunger rod can be assembled.

Traditional setup operation in a manner similar to manufacturing processing is made up of the

following four steps:

1. Preparation, after-process adjustments, checking of materials and tools.

2. Mounting and removing of tools or parts.

3. Measurements, setting and calibration.

4. Trial runs and adjustments.

Preparation, after-process adjustments, checking of materials and tools

Typically, preparation is done after the machine has stopped. This step includes making sure all
the tools are in their proper location and functioning properly. Also included are returning items to
storage and cleaning of tools and machinery. This could be as much as 35% of the total setup time.

Mounting and removing of tools or parts

This is the removal and mounting of the die and components. This must be done with the
machine shut down. This may account for about 5% of the total setup time.

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Measurements, setting and calibration

This is the measurement and calibration that is done in order for the process to operate
correctly. An example would be adjusting the shut-height of the DCM to achieve the correct
clamping force. This is usually done with the machine on and off. These types of adjustment may
account for as much as 15% of the setup time.

Trial runs and adjustments

These are adjustments to the process made after a sample casting has been made. These are for
qualifying the casting dimensionally, for internal soundness and surface finish. Depending on how
well the process has been engineered and setup in the previous step, this could be as high as 50%
of the setup time. In a typical die casting operation this is more likely to be less than 25% of the
total setup time. The objective is to eliminate trials and adjustments, the first shot should be an
acceptable casting.

Analyzing your setup operation

The first step in preparing for SMED is to establish your setup baseline. Your company probably
has copious amounts of data that show how long a setup takes. This data will vary with machine
size, casting die and process complexity, and should be used for reference only. However, data not
available and required in order to separate internal and external tasks is each of the individual
tasks required for the setup and the time for each task. In order to determine the required tasks
and their time, a setup analysis must be done. This analysis is undertaken with the following steps:

Step 1. Videotape the entire setup operation. Use the camera’s time and date function to record
elapsed time for each task. Focus on the hand, eye and body movements of the setup person(s)
Step 2. Show the video to the setup person and persons involved in the setup and determine a
description for every activity. Step 3. Study the video in detail; define the task and time for each
step of the setup.

Once the analysis is complete, the three stages of SMED implementation can begin.

Stage 1: Separating Internal and External Setup

This is the most important step in SMED. The ability to separate internal and external activities
will determine how close we can get to our SMED goal. The obvious things, such as, preparing and
staging the tooling could save as much as 50% of the baseline setup time.

Stage 2: Converting Internal to External Setup

After the obvious activities, achieving SMED will take more effort and ingenuity. First, the
operation must be re-examined to determine whether the steps were wrongly assumed to be
internal activities. Second, methods must be established to convert these activities to external
operations.

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Stage 3: Streamlining All Aspects of the Setup Operation

To further reduce setup time, each element of the setup must be analyzed in detail. Can time
be saved by doing activities in parallel with more personnel? Can the need for adjustments be
eliminated or at least minimized? Can some of the activities be mechanized? These principals as
well as others should be applied to all the internal activities in the effort to reduce the machine
down time.

Installation Steps
To understand how SMED can be installed, the setup of a 1215 DME unit die will be used as
an example. A unit die is a tooling concept used to minimize tooling and casting cost. It can be
described as a system of interchangeable cavities with a common mold base. In the simplest case
the items to be setup are the stationary cavities, the moving cavities and the ejector plates/
pins. Likewise, these are the items to be removed from the machine for the job that has been
completed. The unit die is used as the first example since some of the SMED techniques have
already been designed into this tooling system.

STAGE 1: SEPARATING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SETUP

A number of tasks should be completed before production at the Die Casting Machine (DCM) is
stopped. These include making repairs and assuring the casting die (CD) is ready for production,
lining up the right people for the setup (Setup Crew), and staging the CD, components and tools at
the DCM. These are all external setup items.

There are three techniques that can be used to separate internal and external tasks. They are
checklists, function checks and improving tool movement, transport.

Checklist
A checklist can be used to list everything that is required for the setup.

This includes:

●● Tools, and people

●● Operating parameters, process set points
●● Quality criteria, visual and dimensional required from the operation.
Initially, “everything” will be unknown. Video taping of the set-up will help to define what
“everything” will be.

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Equipment: 200 DCM

Operation: Die 3000 SU
Date: Jun-05
Employees trained for setup and operation

 John B.  Ted A.

 Alice Z.  China B.
Tools needed & Location

 impact wrench, 1/2 & 3/4 drivers

 2T hoist

 Tool/cleanup Cart

 Die preheat station, 30 min. or 350F.

 Prybar
Parts needed

 Vee clamps, use from existing SU

2x-3/4 x 2 SHCS for ej. Plate, use from

 existing SU

 4x-Hose disconnects, use from existing SU

vacuum, scraper, solvent, brushes for clean-

 up
Standard Operating Procedure

 SOP 001 (setup)

 SOP 002 (cleanup)

 SOP 003 (preheating)

Example Checklist for setup of D/N 3000.

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Function Checks
These are checks done well before the CD is staged for setup. These are done to assure the CD
is in working order and all repairs have been completed. These are done to make sure the CD is
ready to set, so no problem will be detected during the setup.

CstgDie 3000
Operation: Function Check
Date: Jun-05
Employees trained for function check

 John B.  Ted A.

Visual check

 Cover cavity: cores and mounting screws tight

 Eject. Cavity: cores, ejector pins, mounting screws tight

 Tool/cleanup Cart

 Ejector plate: Pins free and lubed, mounting screws tight

Ejector plate: Insert spacer block, check heights of all ej. Pins
 in cavity to spec.
Tools required

 3/4 Allen key

 1/2 Allen key

 1215 master ejector spacer block

Standard Operating Procedure

 SOP F3000 (Function check)

Example Function check D/N 3000

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Transport of Part and Die

Movement of dies and tools to the DCM and away from the DCM are done as external operations.
If the DCM is run manually, another member of the setup crew is required to provide for the
movement of this equipment. Tools and dies are staged near the DCM; prior to it being shut down
in order to minimize the distance these items must be moved during the internal setup.

Example:
1215 Standard DME unit die setup on the operator side of a two-station mold base.

External Activities Before DCM shutdown

1. Function check of CD, CD ready. The Function Checklist can be used as a visual tag on the
CD to confirm it is ready.

2. Notify setup crew members of anticipated setup and time. In the case of the 1215 CD
setup, only two crew persons are required.

3. A SU Crew member begins to pre-stage required CD and components in staging area, per
the information on the Setup Checklist.

4. Items that require the longest time to pre-stage are done first. For the 1215 a 30-minute
minimum or 350F requirement is specified. In this case the die preheat station is moved to
a predetermined location at the DCM, and the DN 3000 is staged and preheating is started.
Figure 4-3 is a sketch of a portable preheating station that could be moved adjacent to the
DCM.

Figure 7-3 - A portable preheating station

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a. Next the Tool/Cleanup cart is retrieved and checked for all necessary cleaning materials.
b. Impact wrench is obtained from tool board or chest, hooked-up and tested.
c. 2 Ton hoist is moved and pre-positioned above the machine.
d. Just prior to the DCM shutdown, the area around the operator’s side of the DCM that
must be accessible for the SU is cleaned up. Material handling containers are moved
out, whatever blocks access to areas where work must be done, including the control
panel, must be moved out of the way. This moving of materials is not done in a random
fashion, but in a pre-planned way. Locations for the various containers/equipment
should be marked on the floor, even if they are temporary locations. This is to make
sure that they are clear when needed
e. The Tool/Cleanup cart is moved into position and the setup may commence.

Figure7-4 - DME 1215 Unit Die

Note: keyways for locating the two die halves on the mastermold. Also, the ejector plate fits
under the ejector retainer plate of the mastermold.

Figure 7-5 - Two stastion DME 1215 Mastermold.

Note: the two wedge type clamps for die half. Also note the “C” type washers used under the
SHCS.

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Internal SU commences when the DCM is shut down.

#1 Crew Activity #2 Crew Activity

1. Leave die open, return ejector plate, change 1. Lower hoist into position above
to manual mode turn off cooling. stationary die half.

2. At stationary half, disconnect cooling lines, 2. Add slight tension to hoist.

drain first and then inlet.
3. Lift die half out of DCM and place in stage
3. Unbolt two clamps from the stationary die half in “removed die holding area”
and attach hoist.
4. Obtain the stationary half of DN 3000 from
4. Use pry bar to move die half off of keyway and the die pre-heating station and lift into
guide die out of die space. die space. Wait for operator to locate die
on keyway.
5. Clean-up die space in area of the stationary die
half. 5. Lower hoist into position above the
moving stationary die half.
6. Locate DN 3000 on keyway and clamp into
place. Disconnect hoist. 6. Add slight tension to hoist.

7. At moving half, disconnect cooling lines, drain 7. Lift die half out of DCM and
first and then inlet.
8. place in “removed die holding area”
8. Attach hoist, unbolt two clamps and unscrew
two ejector plate retaining screws. 9. Obtain the moving half of DN 3000 from the
die pre-heating station and lift into die space.
9. Use pry bar to move die half off of keyway and Wait for operator to locate die on keyway.
guide die out of die space. The moving die half.
10. Move hoist away from above the DCM.
10. Clean-up die space in area of the stationary die
half. 11. Reset DCM machine settings if necessary.

11. Locate DN 3000, moving half, on keyway and 12. Readjust die sprayers as necessary.
clamp into place. Disconnect hoist12. Insert 13. Readjust autoladle if necessary.
and install two ejector plate restraining
screws. 14. Remove Tool/Cleanup cart.

12. Insert and install two ejector plate 15. Replace material handling containers for
restraining screws. the new castings.

13. Reconnect cooling lines to the moving half.

14. Reconnect cooling lines to the stationary

die half. Adjust to low flow to fill die with
coolant.

15. Close die, check lock.

16. All satisfactory, set DCM to Semi-Auto

cycle and make first shot.

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External Activities After the DCM is restarted

1. Return portable die preheat station to its designated location.

2. Return Tool/Cleanup cart to it designated location.

3. Return impact wrench and drivers to their storage locations.

This completes the die setup. The unit die setup is pretty simple and already contains some of
the techniques that are used to reduce setup time. For example, the keyway on the mold base
that fits into the key slot in the unit die pre-positions the die half in exactly the correct location
and orientation.

STAGE 2: CONVERTING INTERNAL SETUP TO EXTERNAL SETUP

Now look at implementing Stage 2 of SMED on our current 1215 unit die example. Stage 2
consists of converting Internal activities to External activities. There are two steps to follow to get
this done:

1. Look at the true purpose of each internal activity in our current setup operation.

2. Find ways to convert the activities to external activities.

There are three practical techniques to follow in converting internal activities to external
activities. They are:

Prepare operating conditions in advance.

●● Standardization of essential functions.
●● Using intermediary jigs/fixtures.
●● Prepare operating conditions in advance
In our example, we have done a reasonable job of preparing the job site prior to the
commencement of the setup. We preheated the CD off line on a special portable table designed
for that purpose. We moved equipment out of the way and prepositioned the Tool/Ceanup cart
where it would be accessible for the setup.

Standardization of essential functions

Again the unit die example is very good in terms of standardizing essential functions. Examples
of standard functions include handling, alignment, clamping, cooling and die spray. The methods
used to standardize and simplify these functions was as follows:

Handling:
●● Permanent eyebolts are attached to each die half (they could be tack welded to
prevent their loss).
●● They are selected at a standard size to fit the hoist hook.

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●● They are installed in the top of the die to provide orientation.

●● They are located to best balance the die.

Alignment
●● The keys in the master mold base and keyways in the unit die provide alignment and
positioning of the unit dies on their respect mold base halves.
●● Additional alignment between the die halve is provided by leader pins or bushings in
each unit die half.

Clamping:
●● Two wedge clamps are used to force the die half onto the keyway and hold it against
the clamp plate or support parallel.
●● The clamps are standard and interchangeable for this unit system.
●● Clamping heights/die thickness are standard for the unit die system.

Cooling:
●● The individual cooling lines on the unit die are color coded to indicate if they are an
inlet or drain. Inlets are blue (cool water in) and drains are red (warm water out).

Die Spray:
●● Standardization of this area is difficult because casting shapes may be very different. In
our example, individual spray nozzles had to adjusted to conform to the requirements
of the casting.
●● An instruction sheet was provided, indication where the spray nozzles must be pointed
and the shape of the spray pattern. The duration of spray was fixed and the amount of
spray was the process variable.
●● Castings with similar geometries may work with standardized spray patterns.
●● The unit die system has a lot of standardization in its original design. This does not
mean it cannot be improved.

STAGE 3: STREAMLINING EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL SETUP

Finally, look at implementing Stage 3 of SMED on our current 1215 unit die example. Stage 3
consists of streamlining all aspects of the setup operation. This means streamlining External and
Internal activities.

The External activities were primarily logistical and checking. Moving the die from storage,
checking the die, procuring tools, organizing the Tool/Cleanup cart, moving and starting the die
preheat station, and moving out material handing equipment from the setup work area and moving
in the Tool/Cleanup cart. These are storage and transport functions, and can be improved using
the 5S discipline.

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First, improvement is achieved if you do not have to “look for” a required tool or component.
Every die and tool should have an easily located storage address “a place for everything and
everything in its place”.

Second, the handling and removal of items from storage should be safe and simple. For example,
if dies are stored on pallets, they must be secured to the pallet to prevent them slipping off the
pallet when handled. The dies could be uniformly oriented on the pallet and prepositioned in such
a manner the entire pallet could be set on the die preheating station, eliminating the need to
move the die from the pallet to the preheating station.

Figure 7-6 - Die storage using addresses to locate the dies.

Streamlining internal operations is next. This is done by:

1. Implementing parallel tasks

2. Using functional clamps

3. Eliminating adjustments

4. Mechanization

Implementing parallel tasks

The only factors limiting the number of persons working on a setup are safety, the sequential
nature of some tasks and the ability of each person to stay out of the way of other person.

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In our simple unit die setup example, we started with two persons working on the setup. The
internal activities sheet shows the order and task of each of the setup crew. Since no times are
assigned to each task, we are unable to determine if the tasks are balanced or there are excessive
wait times for either person. There are some activities that could be done by a third crew
member. Items 10, 11 and 12 on the crew member list appear to be candidates for a third person.
However, without times being defined, this would have to be confirmed.

Using functional clamps

Removing the four wedge clamps, four SHCS, and two ejector plate retaining SHCS is an
invitation for lost time. First, all the pieces are loose, can fall on the floor or otherwise get lost,
particularly the screws. Also, they need to be placed somewhere that make them easy to retrieve
when needed. A clamping solution that avoids these problems would be welcome.

The clamps could be revised so that they are loosened enough to clear the clamping surfaces
and then rotated 90 degrees. This would gain enough space to slide the unit die half out without
totally disengaging the clamp. The clamp would be left hanging from the SHCS in the master mold
base.

A similar technique can be applied to the ejector plate mounting screws. In this case
the objective is to have the mounting screws retained by the ejector plate. This would be
accomplished by cutting a thread in the ejector retainer plate, the ejector plate would then have
a clearance hole through it. The SHCS would be relieved of threads for a distance of two diameters
from under the head. With this technique, once the SHCS is threaded through the retainer plate, it
is captured by the retainer plate in the relieved area of the screw.

There are other types of clamping methods that can be employed to simplify the camping
operation. One way to reduce clamping time is to limit the number of turns that are required
to tighten a fastener. SHCS are notorious for requiring may turns to fasten them. A rule of them
for SHCS is to have one and one half diameters of thread engagement. Using a ½-13 SHCS as an
example, it would require 3/4ths of an inch engagement, or 1 ½ diameters. This would be 9.75
turns (0.75 x 13) If this type of fastener is required, a power driver is a necessity, preferably
battery operated, no cords or hoses. An alternative may be to develop a fastener that clamps and
tightens in one turn. The following figures show a number of alternatives for One-Turn Functional
clamping.

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Figure 7-7 - One Turn Functional Clamping

Figure 7-8 - One Motion Clamping

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Another type of clamping is referred to as One-motion methods. These are cam and clamps,
wedges and taper pins, spring stops and detents and magnets or vacuum. All of these devices have
been used in the die casting plant in various locations and many are familiar to us. These methods
are shown above.

Another method for holding two components together is to interlock them. This is similar to
using a wedge, but in this case one of the components is a wedge. This technique relies on a good
fit between the mating components and a slight amount of interference.

Figure 7-9 - The die is slid into a tapered holder to clamp the die

ELIMINATING ADJUSTMENTS
With traditional setup, adjustments and trial runs can account for as much as 50% of the setup
time. So the simple message is to adjust the machine setting correct the first time. There are
three techniques for eliminating adjustments, they are:

●● Use fixed numerical settings and make standardized settings.

●● Make imaginary centerlines and imaginary reference plane visible.
●● Using the Least Common Multiple (LCM) system.

Fixed Numerical Settings

Using numerical settings is far superior to intuition. Intuition varies among operators and even an
operator may not be consistent from day to day. One way of making numerical setting is to use a
graduated scale.

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Figure 7-10 - This graduated scale is similar to a vernier used in measurement.

This graduated scale is a numerical method for making an accurate machine setting. In the case
of the scale in Figure 7-10, a setting of –3 could be set uniformly by the operator or different
operator.

The graduated scale is similar to the types of scales one would see on a vernier caliper
measuring tool. This type of technique could be extended in order to make valve setting uniform
also. Think of the valve stem as being the thimble of a micrometer with a scale inscribed on it and
the fixed portion of the valve with a scale, again similar to the sleeve of the micrometer.

Accuracy of settings on a graduated scale are usually within 0.020 inches. Settings made with
dial gages can be accurate to within 0.005 of an inch. Digital devices can even achieve greater
precision with the proper type of transducers.

Another technique to make accurate setting is the use of gages (JO blocks) or shims. These can
be stacked to achieve accurate numerical dimensions. Spacers could be ground to a particular
height to achieve an accurate setting.

Visible centerlines and reference planes

In traditional setup centerlines and reference plane are not visible. In order to setup tools at the
machine or injection centerlines, tools have to be modified to find these locations. For example,
in hot chamber die casting a setup ring or collar is installed in the die at the sprue. The setup
ring fits into the nozzle hole in the stationary platen and aligns the die with the nozzle. Another
method for pre-positioning the die in the die space is to attach a bracket to the top of the die
that has two V-blocks attached. The die is dropped into the machine from the top, the V-blocks
straddle the tie bars and position the die in the machine die space.

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Figure 7-11 - Using V-block used to preposition a work piece.

Least Common Multiple System (LCM)

The principle for this system is to leave the machine mechanism alone and only modify its
function, and make settings not adjustments. For example, there is a tailrod attached to the
crosshead of the DCM. There is a limit switch, when activated by this tailrod, that stops the
die opening, in effect controlling the die opening. This switch must be adjusted during setup to
determine the optimum stroke. In order to eliminate this adjustment, several limit switches are
mounted to be activated by the tailrod, and then the switch closest to the optimum opening
stroke is selected for the particular die being setup. See Figure 7-12 below.

Figure 7-12 - Avoiding adjustment by placing limit switches a various die opening distances.

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A selector switch can now be used to select the limit switch closest to the optimum die spacing.
Again, this technique avoids having to adjust the limit switch position. If the DCM is run with a
PLC, the limit switch selection would be part of the program for the particular die being set.

Mechanization
Mechanization is considered only after the first three techniques have been exhausted.
Mechanization does not usually yield large savings in time because most of the time saving have
already been achieved by the time we get to mechanization. Also, mechanizing an inefficient
operation is not advantageous. Think of mechanization as a process for fine tuning, not quantum
leaps in improvement. Mechanization is essential for moving large tools including large casting
dies.

Mechanization techniques include:

●● Using forklift to place die in the DCM

●● Moving large dies on bolster plates
●● Clamping and unclamping by remote control
●● Using electric drive to change shut heights
●● Using machine energy to move dies
From the list above, all are already being done in die casting.

IMPROVING SETUP OF SELF CONTAINED DIES

The unit die example shows that some of the SMED techniques are already part of the unit die
design. How does the setup of a unit die differ from the setup of a self-contained die (SCD)?

Below is a list of the general tasks that must be completed to setup a self-contained die in a cold
chamber DCM. These are internal activities.

Activity SCD UNIT

1. Remove CD from DCM machine space Y N
2. Place next CD in machine space (both halves, together) Y N
3. Install cold chamber Y N
4. Clamp stationary half of CD onto Stationary platen of DCM Y Y
5. Close DCM Y N
6. Couple ejector system of CD to the DCM Y Y
7. Close DCM and adjust shut height of DCM to reach CD Y N
8. Clamp moving half of the CD to the moving platen of the DCM Y Y
9. Adjust DCM locking tonnage Y Y
10. Connect cooling lines (if required) Y Y
11. Connect hydraulic hoses (if required) Y Y
12. Connect electrical limit switches (if required) Y Y
13. Change DCM process settings Y Y/N

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As can be seen from the previous list, a unit die setup is simple compared to the self-contained
die. The unit die setup is simpler because of standardization and limited activities.

●● The unit die does not require coupling to the injection system.
●● Clamping is standard, both the type of clamp and their location, and there are only
four clamps.
●● The unit die is coupled to the ejector system with two SHCS (socket head cap screw).
●● The unit die does not require shut height adjustment because this dimension is fixed.
●● The use of hydraulics and electrical interlocks depends on the complexity of the casting
and could be required of either type of die.
Now lets look at the setup of a self-contained hot chamber die, starting with traditional setup
and then convert the setup using SMED techniques. We will use the setup that is enumerated in
Chapter 6 of the “Operating the Die Casting Machine” handbook. This setup lists 33 sequential
steps beginning with:

1.
Deactivate shot 18. Heat nozzle

2.
Open DCM 19. Connect cooling lines

3. Clean die mounting surface 20. Set safety ratchet

4. Clean mounting surfaces of die 21. Set deceleration

5. Insert eyebolts into die 22. lubricate die

6. Install cooling line pipes 23. Install die heating

7. Attach crane or chain fall 24. Install release spray

8. Install bumper pins 25. Close safety doors

9. Place die in DCM 26. Tighten nozzle

10.
Close DCM 27. Replace shot plunger

11. Install ejector pinion 28. Set all timers and metal temperatures

12.
Secure die 29. Check Hydralic lines

13. Remove crane 30. Check machine lube system

14. Check die closing 31. Turn off die heating torches

15. Set DCM stock 32. Check lock-up sequence

16.
Set ejector 33. Make shot

17. Install nozzle

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How can this setup sequence be improved using the techniques that have been discussed the
previous sections? First, setup begins when the last shot of the previous run is complete. Second, we
will use a setup crew to do the job; the number of crew members required is not limited except by
practical considerations of space and safety.Third, we will define the activities as external or internal
activities.

Listed above are all 33 activities that were internal activities in the traditional setup as first
enumerated.

Stage one of SMED is to sort these activities into external and internal activities. The column
shown as stage 1 shows how the activities have been separated. The following items have been
sorted as external activities:

5. Insert eyebolts into die - Eyebolts will be installed into each die half permanently, they
could be tack welded to make sure they do not get lost and also prevent rotation.

6. Install cooling pipe in die - All cooling pipes are installed into the die as it comes from die
repair; the only time cooling pipes are removed is for repair and maintenance.

18. Heat nozzle - Nozzle can be pre-heated just as the die is pre-heated off-line.

20. Set safety ratchet - Operation of the safety ratchet can be observed as an external
activity. Adjustment is not necessary.

22. Lubricate die - Die lubricated as part of die maintenance.

23. Install die heating - Die is pre-heated at the die pre-heat station and will be set hot.

27. Replace shot plunger - Plunger does not have to be removed for the setup as long as it is
physically blocked and cannot move or drift.

29. Check hydraulic lines - Hydraulic lines are checked as part of a preventative maintenance
program

30. Check machine lube system - The machine lube system is checked as part of a
preventative maintenance program

31. Turnoff die heating torches - Die is pre-heated at the die pre-heat station and will be set
hot.

LARGE CASTING DIES

For purposes of this publication, large “CD’s” are CASTING DIE’s run on 2000 ton or larger
machines.

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The same SMED principles applied to small dies are used for large dies. The issue with large
dies is they have a large mass and must be moved and adjusted carefully. A large mass moving
at high speed has a lot of momentum (mass x velocity = momentum). You do not want the CD
becoming a pendulum. When moving large dies, mechanically aids, as opposed to manpower, are
required. If the movement can be controlled robotically through programming, that is even better.
Then accelerations and decelerations can be controlled and the large CD mass can be positioned
accurately without impacting the DCM. Keep in mind for safeties sake, there is little that you can
move or adjust on a large die, manually.

Moving dies in and out of large die casting machines is aided by machines equipped with
automatic tie bar pullers. With tie bar(s) out of the way the assembled CD can be lowered into
the die space from above or slid in from the side. One of the first decisions to be made, when
considering SMED for large dies, is will the CD be installed from the top or a side. This will depend
on the CD configuration. If there are no appendages hanging below the CD, it should be slid or
rolled in from the side. If the CD mounts below the lower tie bars, once it is in the die space, it
can be lowered into its mounting position by use of an elevator style table or lift. Today, most
large CDs and DCMs employ automated clamping systems.

When considering External verses Internal activities for large CDs, minimizing movement of the
large mass is one of the first considerations. This means the CD is staged as closely as possible to
its terminal location. If the CD must be loaded into the die space by lifting over a tie bar or from
the top of the machine, an objective the external activities is to get the CD as close to the DCM
and as high as necessary before internal activities commence.

Once the CD is clamped into the DCM, utilities can be connected to the CD. This would include
cooling lines, electrical interlocks and any other miscellaneous requirements. To speed and
foolproof utility connections, they should be color coded, and the connector fittings, plugs and
receptacles varied to make incorrect connections improbable.

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 8 PROPER CARE AND TREATMENT
OF DIES DURING PRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn about the operation of die casting dies in production.
●● To review the many pieces of equipment utilized during production.
●● To learn about the things that can go wrong during production and how to prevent
them.

PERSPECTIVE
In the third lesson, the various components of the die casting machine were presented. In the
sixth lesson, all of the components of the die casting die were discussed. In this lesson, all of
this equipment will be put together and its combined operation is presented. How each piece of
equipment affects the process, and especially the die casting die, will be examined in detail.

Equipment in the work cell includes the:

Holding furnace

Ladle

Die sprayer

Plunger tip lubricator optional

Extractor/robot optional

Quench optional

Conveyors optional

Die heaters optional

Trim press/die optional

HOLDING FURNACE (COLD CHAMBER)

The purpose of the holding furnace is to maintain the casting alloy at a preselected temperature
within a very small tolerance, and keep the alloy free of contamination from air or other sources.
A typical holding furnace will have three distinct chambers, a charge well, the bath, and a dip
well.

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 The purpose of the holding furnace is to maintain the casting alloy at a
preselected temperature within a very small tolerance, and keep the alloy
free of contamination from air or other sources. A typical holding furnace
PROPER CARE AND TREATMENT OF
will have three distinct chambers, a charge well,
DIES the bath,
DURING and a dip well.
PRODUCTION

Figure 8-1 - AFigure 1 - A cold

cold chamber chamber
holding holding furnace
furnace

5-2
Alloy enters the furnace at the charge well. This alloy is usually delivered to the holding furnace
in liquid form, from the remelt furnace. In some cases alloy may be charged as ingot or gates and
runners. When not in use, the charge well should be covered to prevent oxidation. The cover will
also prevent any other extraneous material from getting into the alloy and covers a potential burn
hazard. Lastly, the cover will prevent heat escaping from the alloy and save energy. Covers should
be handled with care so that they can perform the function of sealing the wells.

The furnace bath is the main section of the furnace and contains the bulk of the alloy. The bath
is isolated from the charge and dip wells by arches or door blades that prevent air getting into
the main bath. This is the section of the furnace that is heated, either by a fuel fired flame or by
electrical heating elements. If the furnace is fueled by gas or oil, the ratio of the mixture between
the fuel and air is important. If the mixture is “rich”, meaning too much fuel compared to air, the
fuel is not completely burned, and the atmosphere above the alloy becomes rich in combustion
products that can contaminate the alloy. If the mixture is “lean”, meaning too much air is in the
space above the alloy, this space becomes rich in air that will cause the alloy to oxidize. This will
cause the alloy to be contaminated with oxides that will lower alloy quality and waste material. If
the fuel mixture ratio is incorrect, the alloy will require cleaning in excess of the normal schedule
and cause additional waste and alloy loss.

Furnaces that are electrically heated do not have the problems associated fuels. However, to
avoid oxidation losses, these furnaces must also be kept sealed. These furnaces are more fragile
than gas furnaces. When cleaning, alloy must not be splashed on the elements as this can destroy
them. Also, after cleaning has been completed, care must be taken to make sure the doors and
covers are properly placed to prevent air getting into the bath area.

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Figure 8-2 - Electric furnace

Finally, the dip well is the third alloy chamber. This is the well from which the alloy is ladled or
dipped and then transported to the cold chamber. This well should be covered when not in use.
Alloy quality can be improved if a filter is placed between the main alloy bath and the dip well. As
alloy flows from the bath to the dip well, it passes through the filter, which removes contaminants
and oxides.

As the operator, you should be aware that many areas around the furnace can be hot and be
burn hazards. Also, spilled and dripped alloy can form sharp drips of frozen alloy that can cut or
puncture you. You should be continually collecting this spilled alloy, to recycle it and keep the
work area neat and clean. Gas fired furnaces will have a lot of piping and controls outside them.
Care must be taken that these devices and piping are not abused or damaged. Leaking gas can be
poisonous and cause fires and explosions. The piping and controls should never be used in place of
a ladder.

Figure 8-3 - Typical gas fired holding furnace

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The holding furnace temperature is controlled with a thermocouple, for most holding furnaces
this thermocouple is located in the dip well. This will give you best control of the temperature
closest to the machine. As the operator, you need to make sure the thermocouple is plugged in
and operating correctly. The thermocouple is enclosed in a long sheath known as the “protection
tube”. This tube is usually cast iron, a material that can be dissolved by the aluminum in the alloy.
The thermocouple tube should be inspected every shift to make sure it is not eroded or washed
out; a failure could cause the alloy temperature to go out of control. The thermocouple protection
tubes are usually coated with a die wash to prevent erosion. This coating must be totally dry
before the thermocouple is immersed in the alloy.

Metal temperature and quality are two of the important die casting process variables. You, as
Operatoroperator
the Trainingmust
Bookdo everything possibleThe
to maintain the metal
Die Casting quality
Process at its highest
– Lesson 5 level, and
you must do everything possible to keep the temperature in the furnace constant.

Figure 8-4 - Thermocouple cutaway

Figure 4 - Thermocouple cutaway

Holding Furnace (Hot Chamber)

HOLDING FURNACE (HOT CHAMBER)
The holding furnace at a hot chamber machine is quite a bit simpler than the
cold chamber holding
The holding furnace.
furnace Hot
at a hot chamber
chamber alloys,
machine with athe
is quite bitexception ofthe cold chamber
simpler than
magnesium, are less reactive with oxygen than cold chamber alloys. Theseless reactive with
holding furnace. Hot chamber alloys, with the exception of magnesium, are
oxygen
furnaces than cold
typically arechamber alloys. These
open crucibles. They furnaces typically
can either are open
be fuel crucibles. They can either
or electrically
be fuel or electrically heated. They generally are not covered. They would benefit from being
heated. They generally are not covered. They would benefit from being
covered, both in terms of energy and oxidation losses.
covered, both in terms of energy and oxidation losses.
As with cold chamber holding furnaces, the objective is to maintain a consistent alloy
As with cold chamber
temperature holding
and good furnaces,
alloy quality. thenot
When objective is toshould
in use they maintain a
be covered, or shut down
depending on production requirements.
consistent alloy temperature and good alloy quality. When not in use they
should be covered, or shut down depending on production requirements.

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Figure 8-5 - Hot chamber holding furnace

Ladle
When you are ladling the alloy, you should have several objectives in mind. First, you want to
ladle the correct amount of alloy. The correct amount of alloy is that amount that will completely
fill the cavity and runner system and end with a biscuit that is thick enough to remain liquid as
the casting freezes so pressure can be applied to the casting through the gate. Generally, the
biscuit should be 1½-2 times thicker than the main runner leading from the biscuit. For example,
if the runner going away from the biscuit is ½ inches (13mm) thick, then the biscuit should be
¾-1 inches (19-25mm) thick as a rule of thumb. The cooling at the biscuit, the plunger tip and
the biscuit block is very effective and you want the biscuit to freeze last. If the biscuit or runner
freeze before the alloy in the die cavity does, you will be ineffective in applying intense metal
pressure to the casting as it solidifies. This will result in defects if this happens.

Next, the amount of alloy to be ladled must be consistent. When the shot is made, the transition
point from slow to fast shot, and the point of intensification depend on the alloy volume. The
transition from slow to fast shot takes place after the sleeve has filled with alloy and before the
alloy reaches the gate. Similarly, intensification is started as soon as the cavity is completely filled
with alloy. The settings for these transition points, slow to fast shot and intensification, are usually
determined by positioning a limit switch along the plunger travel. When the plunger passes the
(slow to) fast limit switch, it trips the arm and activates the fast shot. Similarly, near the end of
the injection stroke, another limit switch is tripped activating the intensifier. If too much alloy is
ladled, the sleeve will fill quickly and alloy will also fill the runner and gate before the plunger
reaches the (slow to) fast limit switch. In this case the alloy could start filling the cavity at very low
velocity causing defects and possibly freezing at the gate. If too little alloy is ladled, the plunger
will arrive at the fast shot limit switch before the chamber is filled with alloy. This could result
in lots of turbulence and mixing air with alloy in the sleeve and porosity defects in the casting. A
biscuit size difference as small as 1/4 inch (6mm) can be very significant with respect to forming
defects; for this reason it is important to ladle a consistent amount of alloy.

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Another objective of ladling is to pour clean alloy. Since the dip well of the holding furnace is
usually not covered during operation, the alloy is exposed to air. When this happens, the alloy in
contact with the air oxidizes, or forms a chemical bond with the oxygen on the air. In the case
of aluminum it forms aluminum oxide and with zinc it forms zinc oxide. It is undesirable to have
these oxides in the casting. For the most part, these oxides float on top of the alloy bath and are
referred to as “dross”. Avoiding the oxides is usually not a problem in hot chamber die casting
because the gooseneck filling holes are below the alloy level in the holding furnace. However, in
cold chamber die casting, ladling can be a problem because the alloy is dipped from the top of
the bath in the dip well. In this case the dipping technique is important. You must make sure the
accumulated oxides are not allowed into the ladle. The recommended procedure is to use the
ladle to push the dross back from the surface and dip out clean alloy.

If ladling is done manually, you must be aware of the proper ladling technique and use it
consistently. You will notice that the dross in the dip well will build up over time. This occurs
slowly, every cycle, as you push the accumulated dross out of the way to dip out clean alloy, a
fresh alloy surface is exposed to the air and a new layer of oxide forms. This cannot be avoided,
but the amount of build-up can be minimized by disturbing a minimum of the alloy at the surface
and by how you dip out the alloy. Your technique should be smooth and fluid with little disruption
to the alloy surface. Every once in a while the build-up of dross will have to be skimmed from the
top of the bath. Again this should be done with smooth and fluid motions to disrupt the surface of
the bath as little as possible. It would be a good idea to leave a thin layer of dross on the surface
of the bath to act as a cover from further oxidation as opposed to trying to achieve a bright and
shiny surface on the alloy.

As noted earlier, ladling the correct and consistent amount is important. One technique used by
operators that are ladling manually to assure a consistent amount is to cut a notch at the back of
the ladle to spill off excess alloy.

Figure 8-6 - Notched ladle

If you are using an autoladle, its dipping technique will also push the dross out of the way to dip
out clean alloy. Periodically, the dross must be skimmed from the top of the dip well, or eventually
it will get into the ladle. Autoladles are very good at pouring a consistent amount of alloy unless
something goes wrong. It is part of your responsibility as the cell operator to learn what variables
in the autoladle process cause problems, and anticipate and prevent them from causing failures
and downtime.

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Once alloy is removed from the holding furnace, it begins to give-up heat, or loose temperature.
If too much heat is lost the alloy will begin to solidify and may become difficult to cast. This means
that the amount of time that ladling takes could become an important process variable. If the
ladling process takes a long time, heat is given up by the alloy, it begins to freeze and become
slushy, it is difficult for the plunger to push this alloy through the gate and fill the cavity, resulting
in poor filling defects.

Autoladles usually operate at a slower pace than a man, particularly, in the case of small
shots, less than 5 pounds. Setting up the autoladle sequence and monitoring the consistency of
operation is important. The autoladle should dip out the alloy, transfer to the cold chamber, and
pour the alloy without any delays. You do not want the ladle to wait, with alloy loosing heat and
temperature, while the machine is completing its cycle.

Figure 8-7 - Ladle above cold chamber, waiting, loosing heat

Die Spray
The appliances for die spray can be a manually held spray wand, individual spray nozzles
mounted in fixed positions on the machine or die, or a series of spray nozzles mounted on a
moving arm that reciprocates in and out between the open die faces. The reciprocating arm could
be mounted to the machine, or the floor, or the boom of an extractor. Each of these application
methods has advantages and disadvantages.

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Figure 8-8 - Reciprocators

The objective of the die spray is to apply a protective coating of release material on the die face
with a minimum of die spray. A secondary objective is to provide cooling in areas that cannot be
reached internally. At the end of die spray, you must make sure that any excess die spray is blown
out of the die cavity and flash or build-up is blown from the die face. Excess spray if left in the
die cavity will turn to steam and end up as gas porosity in the casting. Excess build-up and flash at
the parting line could cause the vents to plug. Excess flash can also hold the parting line open and
cause dimensional problems and spitting.

As with ladling, a key to successful die spray application is consistency. If spraying is done with
the manual spray wand, several important process variables are under your control. They are:

●● Spray pattern
●● Spray time
●● Spray amount

The spray pattern is important to assure that the release material is getting to the die cavity
surfaces that need release material. These surfaces are features that are directly in the metal flow
path, in front of the gate, where the metal has high velocity and the cavity is prone to washout.
Such as surfaces perpendicular to the parting line that have minimal draft and surfaces that are
not adequately cooled and need additional cooling. As an operator you have probably learned the
spray pattern by experience, you spray the die, and over a period of time and cycles you watch
to see how the die surface and casting respond. For example, you would watch for the beginning
of soldering, or for cold defects on the casting. In time you develop a pattern that minimizes
problems.

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The time that it takes to apply the die spray is very important because it directly affects the
total cycle time. Cycle time is another of die casting’s major process variables. It controls the
temperature balance between the die and casting. The relationship between die spray time and
cycle time is “direct”. This means that as die spray time increases, cycle time increases, and as
die spray time decreases, cycle time decreases. The overall objective of cycle time is; to run as
short a cycle as possible, keep the die as hot as possible, and use as little die spray as possible.
Consistency in spray time will lead to consistency in cycle time because spray time is one of the
elements of the cycle that is under your control if the die spray application is manual. The amount
of time spent spraying also has a direct relationship to the amount of heat that is removed. The
amount of heat removed will double if the time spent spraying doubles, and conversely, the
amount of heat removed will be halved if the spray time is cut in half.

The amount of die spray applied is also another important process variable. You should apply the
minimum amount. Die spray works best when applied at temperatures of 450-550°F (230-290°C).
If you keep the die hot, castings will have a better finish and the die surface will last longer.
Die spray should not be running from the face of the die flooding the floor. If a lot of cooling is
needed, this should be done with clear water. Excessive flooding with die spray will only wash the
die spray off. You must also make sure that the excess die spray is blown out of the die prior to the
die closing.

Fixed position sprayers that are mounted to the die or machine platens have seen lots of success
in hot chamber die casting. Hot chamber alloys have little or no aluminum in them, reducing the
amount of die spray that is necessary. In some cases, the die can be sprayed intermittently, every
3, 4, or 5 cycles. Fixed head sprayers are also limited as to the areas that they can reach. A major
advantage of the fixed head sprayer is that it can apply spray quickly. It is always in position to
spray when the die is open. If high shot rates are to be achieved (short cycle times), 300-400+
shots per hour, a fixed sprayer is the only alternative, for a maximum of 1-2 seconds spray in an
overall cycle of 10 seconds.

Figure 8-9 - Fixed head spray pattern

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A reciprocator has the advantage of multiple nozzles. If a large area has to be sprayed, a
reciprocator should be the fastest. It is also the most flexible. A reciprocator can be programmed
to position itself at various locations between the die faces, it can spray and blow-off for various
time periods, and even multiple liquids can be used, such as die spray and water.

In recent years, robotic spray units have been introduced. These are the most flexible of the
machines and can emulate an operator. They are most consistent, but not necessarily the fastest
alternative.

Figure 8-10 - A reciprocator at various positions between the die faces

Plunger Lubricator
Lubricant must be applied to the plunger tip when using a cold chamber. There is a host of
methods available for applying tip lube from a simple brush and pail to sophisticated methods for
applying liquids, beads, and powders.

The objective of the plunger lube is to lubricate the tip without leaving excess in the sleeve that
will mix with and contaminate the alloy. This is most easily accomplished with lubricants that are
applied behind the tip, with the excess being wiped out of the sleeve on the return stroke.

Some methods of application include mounting a fixed nozzle above the cold chamber pour hole
and spraying a water based lube into the cold chamber. An alternative and similar method is to
drill the plunger rod with exit holes behind the tip, connect this line to a spray nozzle, and spray
lube into the sleeve during the return stroke. Newer methods in various stages of development and
practice include dropping small beads of lube into the pour hole and spraying powdered lubricant
inside the sleeve. Other common practices include brushing heavy petroleum lubes into grooves in
the plunger tip or dripping the lube on the tip every cycle.

Lack of proper plunger tip lube is the most common cause for erratic shot end performance. As
the operator, it is your responsibility to confirm that lube is being applied effectively in order to

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prevent shot end problems. If you are applying the lube manually, you may determine that it is
not necessary to apply lube every cycle. This would be consistent with your overall objective of
minimizing waste and conserving resources.

Casting Removal
Casting removal can be accomplished manually, with a mechanical aid, or with a mechanized
extractor or robot. Manual removal is still most common.

With manual removal, you as the operator are aware of the safety hazards you are exposed to
any time you reach into the die area. You can minimize this exposure by using tongs or a gripping
tool to reach the casting and take it out of the die. If you must reach between the die faces be
aware of the burn hazard presented by the hot die. Also, pins and components projecting beyond
the parting line can be puncture and snag hazards. In addition to your safety concerns, the casting
must be removed without damage to the casting or damage to the die. Sometimes the castings will
stick to the ejector pins, due to flash or shrinkage. It may be necessary to strike the shot to break
it free. Care should be taken to apply this force to the biscuit or runner and not to the casting.

If your die casting cell uses an extractor to remove the casting from the die, you must become
familiar with all the important variables of the extractor. For example, the extractor has to have
enough strength to pick the casting off the ejector pins. It cannot reach in, slap the shot and grab
it. You will have to learn the things that control the extractor. On many extractors, the reach
(stroke), rotation, pivoting and other motions are controlled and regulated by limit switches,
similar to the fast shot and intensifier of the die cast machine. Newer extractors use encoders
to determine the position of the boom and various other functions. These are the same types of
encoders that are used in shot monitoring equipment.

Again, it is your responsibility to learn about these pieces of equipment, so you can anticipate
and prevent breakdowns and problems.

Figure 8-11 - Manual part removal

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Figure 8-12 - An extractor removing a casting

Quenching
Quenching is the forced cooling of the die casting. Quenching is used to achieve dimensional
stability. As the casting cools to room temperature from its ejection temperature it is changing
size, getting smaller. If the die cast cell includes trimming and other secondary operations, it is
best to do them on castings that are dimensionally stable. If the castings are force cooled to room
temperature they will be dimensionally stable. The most common form of quenching is to dip
the hot casting into cold water. This has the advantage of working very quickly. There are several
disadvantages. After the quench all water must be removed from the casting or it will oxidize and
possibly corrode. Inhibitors can be added to the quench water to minimize this problem. A water
quench can be very messy; water gets on the floor, gets tracked all over, and becomes a slip-fall
hazard. Additionally, spilled water must be cleaned-up and disposed of properly. Lastly, a very
rapid quench can cause high levels of internal stress.

Figure 8-13 - Water quench tank

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In recent years, forced air quenching has gained in popularity. Forced air quenching is blowing
cool air over the hot castings to cool them. This takes a little longer to cool the casting, but this
appears to be offset by the advantages of eliminating the water mess and disposal problems.

Figure 8-14 - Air quench conveyor

Conveyor/Material Handling Equipment

The die casting cell may include conveyors, chutes, and slides for moving the castings to the
next operation, or to move scrap back to the remelt furnaces. Or it may have baskets or pallets
for stacking castings in batches for subsequent operations. There may be other containers for
accumulating scrap. All this equipment, in your cell is your responsibility.

Conveyors that do not work when rollers are broken because of carelessness, or chutes and slides
that nothing will slide down because they are full of dirt and grease hinder your ability to work
effectively. You must take the initiative to make sure your tools are not abused or destroyed.

Die Heaters
Die heaters are important to the die casting process. Their first function is to preheat the casting
die prior to startup. Their second function is to maintain the die temperature during production.

Figure 8-15 - Hand torch

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Figure 8-16 - Stick torch

Figure 8-17 - Electric radiant die heater

Some die heaters are used exclusively to preheat the die prior to production. These can be
stick torches, hand torches, or electric radiant heaters. The importance of die preheating can
not be understated. The objective of preheating the die is to get it to a minimum temperature of
350°F (175°C) before subjecting it to the thermal shock of the first shot. Putting hot metal into
a cold die is a considerable shock. A mechanical property of steel known as the impact strength
is a measure of the steels ability to withstand a shock. This characteristic, impact strength,
varies with temperature. Simply stated, at low temperatures, impact strength is low, and at high
temperatures, impact strength is high. This means the die temperature should be high in order to
have high impact strength and resist thermal shock.

272 OPERATOR TRAINING BOOK

 before subjecting it to the thermal shock of the first shot. Putting hot metal
into a cold die is a considerable shock. A mechanical property of steel
known as the impact strength is a measure of the steels ability to withstand
PROPER
a shock. This characteristic, impact strength, varies CARE AND TREATMENT OF
with temperature.
DIES is
Simply stated, at low temperatures, impact strength DURING
low, andPRODUCTION
at high
temperatures, impact strength is high. This means the die temperature should
be high in order to have high impact strength and resist thermal shock.

Figure 8-18 - Graphic of Figure

brittle 18
to -ductile transition curve for H-13 steel
Graphic of brittle to ductile transition curve for H-13 steel

If you preheat the die with gas torches care must be taken to avoid overheating parts of the
If you preheat the die with gas torches care must be taken to avoid
cavity
overheating andofnot
parts adequately
the cavity and notheating other
adequately areas
heating of areas
other the cavity.
of the For example, if a stick torch is resting
on the leader pins in a partially open die, the flame will
cavity. For example, if a stick torch is resting on the leader pins in a partially impinge on projections from the cavities
open die,andtheno
flame
heatwill
willimpinge
reachon projections
the recesses.from
If athe cavities andsuch
projection, no heat
as a core pin were to get so hot that it
will reach the recesses.
begins to change If a color,
projection, suchcherry
a deep as a core pinthis
red, werecore
to gethas
so hot
been overheated, and its heat treatment
that it begins to change
destroyed. Care color,
musta deep cherrywith
be taken red, this
thecore
openhasflame
been not to overheat die components. If a hand
torch is used, not acetylene, it must be moved continuously to avoid excessive heating.
5 - 20
Electric radiant heaters should heat the cavities more uniformly, from top to bottom, but will
have some difficulty in heating deep pockets. If you have an electric heater at your disposal, treat
it with respect. Electric heaters operate at voltages 2-4 times greater than household voltages and
can be a shock hazard. Always make sure wires are in good condition, not frayed or bare, and that
all connectors are secure and all boxes covered. Do not stand on a wet floor when working with
electric die heaters.

Probably the best option to achieve die preheating is to use some form of internal heating,
either electric cartridge heaters or circulating hot oil. These will heat from the inside to the
outside and also have some sort of temperature control associated with them.

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 PROPER CARE AND TREATMENT OF
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Figure 8-19 - Cartridge heaters in a nozzle

Figure 20 - Hot oil heater

If the die is large it will be difficult to preheat. Several alternatives could be used. The die
can be preheated off line and then set hot. This is not any different than pulling a hot die. Also,
the machine does not become a big heat sink. Another idea is to cover the die with an insulating
blanket. And lastly, make sure that no fan is blowing cold air over the die.

A second job of die heaters is to maintain the die temperature once the die is in production.
This is best accomplished with internal cartridge heaters or hot oil circulating in cooling lines. The
die casting process is a heat exchange process, heat is put into the metal to melt it in a furnace,

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the metal is injected into the die, and the metal solidifies, cools and gives up heat to the die.
The more uniform this process becomes in term of temperatures and times; the more predictable
it will be in terms of dimensions and defects. Uniform cavity temperatures will yield uniform
shrinkage and predictable dimensions.

Trim Press/Secondary Machines

It is not uncommon for the die cast work cell to include a trim press or other machinery and
equipment. Your job as operator may include running the trim press or additional secondary
machining equipment, such as a drill press, tapper, or grinder.

You must be come familiar with this equipment to operate it in a safe and efficient manner.

Cell Environment
In addition to the machinery and equipment in the cell, you need to be concerned with the
utilities provided to the cell, housekeeping, and the set-up of the work stations.

Utilities such as high pressure air and electricity are delivered in hoses and wires. You are
responsible to make sure that the hoses and wires are not damaged and become a hazard. These
utilities are best tied down and secured.

The floor space must be kept free of safety hazards such as wires, hoses, piping, grease and dirt.
In general, housekeeping must be maintained. Work platforms must be elevated to the proper
height in order to ease the strain on you. The work station should be arranged to minimize the
Operator
amount ofTraining Book
work that The Die Casting
must be done. Convenience Process
trays and–tables
Lessonare
5 arranged to simplify and
ease the work load. Remember, the definition of work is carrying or moving a mass through a
distance.

Figure 21 - Complete die 21

Figure casting work cell
- Complete die casting work cell

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SELF TEST 1
True or False

1. The purpose of the holding furnace at the machine is to maintain the metal temperature
within a narrow temperature range for casting.

True False

2. Biscuit thickness is not an important variable with respect to ladling.

True False

3. Applying as much spray as possible is more effective with respect to cooling than extending
the time spent spraying.

True False

4. Lack of proper plunger lubrication can cause the need for excessive hydraulic pressure
during injection.

True False

Multiple choice:

5. Several of the important process variables with respect to die spray are:

a. spray concentration
b. spray duration
c. spray location
d. all of the above

6. Improper casting removal from the die will result in:

a. damage to the die

b. damage to the casting
c. injury to the operator
d. all of the above

7. The purpose of a hot oil die heater is

a. to preheat the die at start-up

b. to maintain the die temperature during breaks
c. to reduce the amount of heat flow out of the die
d. to heat treat the die cavities

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ELEMENTS OF A TYPICAL DIE CASTING CYCLE (COLD CHAMBER)

Having reviewed the machinery in a typical die casting work cell or station, one typical die
casting cycle will be run. A typical cycle consists of:

●● Machine close
●● Making the shot
●● Dwell
●● Machine opening

Machine/Die close
The machine cycle starts with the die open and the machine at rest. Prior to initiating the cycle
start, you must check to make sure several tasks have been completed.

●● The die cavity is clean, there are not stuck pieces in the die.
●● The die does not have any broken cores, ejector pins or components.
●● The vents and die faces are clean.
●● Die release has been applied.
Starting the machine cycle may be accomplished in a number of ways, depending on the
conventions in your plant. Several accepted methods are listed. Some plants start the machine
cycle by having the operator close the safety door. Once the safety door is closed a limit switch is
activated, telling the machine that you are ready for the die to close. The machine then checks
all its safety limit switches, limit switches that assure all the other parting line doors and covers
are in place, and that the barriers in front of the toggle linkage are in place. When the machine
proves all the safeties correctly, it closes the machine. The limit switches are safety devices and
must not be tied back. If a safety device is broken, it must be repaired before production can
proceed.

Figure 8-22 - Safety door and limit switches

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Another variation for starting the cycle is for you to close the safety door and then press a “cycle
start” push button to actuate the machine.

Figure 8-23 - Cycle start push-button

A third variation is for the operator to hold in two cycle start palm buttons while the safety door
closes and proves the limit switches. Once the machine acknowledges that all the parting line and
toggle guards are closed, the machine will start to close.

Figure 8-24 - Two palm button start push-buttons

You need to be aware that the closing safety door and closing machine can be pinch hazards.
Once the machine has closed and locked, a signal light at the shot end illuminates signaling that
the die is locked.

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Making the shot

The next step in the machine cycle is injecting the metal or “making the shot”. Prior to making
the shot, you should inspect the shot end to make sure no hazards exist.

●● The die must be locked, note the signal light.

●● The plunger must be at “home”, completely withdrawn to the end of the cold chamber.
●● The pour hole must be clear, free of metal drippings.
●● The plunger tip should have been lubed
Once you are satisfied that the machine is ready, a ladle of alloy is drawn according to the
practice that was previously discussed to minimize the inclusions. The ladle of alloy is poured into
the cold chamber pour hole. The “shot” button is pressed and the plunger starts past the pour
hole, into slow shot, then fast shot, and intensification.

Figure 8-25 - Shot push button

The purpose of the slow shot is to push the air, trapped in the cold chamber, out through the
runner system, die cavity and die vents. You will notice, after the alloy has been ladled into the
cold chamber, it is only partially filled with alloy. The rest of the space in the cold chamber is
filled with air. If this air is mixed with the alloy, it will end up as porosity in the casting. In order to
avoid mixing this air with the alloy in the cold chamber, the plunger must travel at a “critical slow
shot” speed, to form a wave front that will push the air out in front of the advancing alloy. The
critical slow shot speed is dependent on the size (diameter) of the cold chamber and the amount
of alloy in the cold chamber (% of fill).

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Operator Training Book The Die Casting Process – Lesson 5

Figure 26 -
Figure 8-26 -Schematic
Schematic showing
showing path ofpath
air outofofair
coldout of cold chamber
chamber

At a predetermined point of plunger travel, the machine shifts to fast shot.

Theafast
At shot is used to fill the
predetermined cavityof
point with alloy andtravel,
plunger get this done
theinmachine
the shifts to fast shot. The fast shot is
minimum fill time required by the casting geometry. In addition to filling the
used towithin
cavity fill the cavity
the fill with alloy
time requirement, the and getof this
velocity done in the minimum fill time required by the casting
alloy traveling
geometry. In addition
through the gate toenough
has to be fast fillingto the cavity
achieve within
atomization. the fill time requirement, the velocity of alloy
Atomization
means the alloy has been broken up into a fine particle spray with lots of
traveling through the gate has to be fast enough to achieve atomization. Atomization means the
energy to flow throughout the cavity and fill the far corners and thin walls.
alloy has been broken up into a fine particle spray with lots of energy to flow throughout the
cavity and fill the far corners and thin walls.

5 - 31

Figure 8-27 - Various wave forms in the cold chamber

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Once the cavity is filled the plunger comes to an abrupt stop. The alloy begins to freeze and
shrink. When most liquid metals freeze, become a solid, they shrink and occupy less space. When
100 cubic inches (100cm3) of aluminum freezes, it occupies 94 cubic inches (94 cm3), 6% of the
volume is lost. An example of this is the ingots of alloy that are charged into the remelt furnace. If
you turn an ingot over, with the wide end up, you will see cracks and voids that run the length of
the ingot. These are shrinkage voids that formed when the ingot solidified. These shrinkage voids
will form in the last areas of the casting to freeze. Once the cavity is full of alloy, the plunger
stops, then the intensifier is turned on to generate a high metal pressure. The objective of this
high metal pressure is to squeeze more metal through the gate and push it into the cavity to make
up for the shrinkage taking place.

Figure 8-28 - Photo of the top of an ingot showing shrinkage

Figure 8-29 - Intensifier

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Machine Dwell/Hold
After intensification the machine remains closed for a predetermined amount of time while the
casting cools and gains strength in the die. You would like the dwell time to be as short as possible in
order to reduce cycle time and increase production. The dwell time is determined by several factors.
The casting must have enough “hot strength” to be able to withstand the forces of the die opening. You
do not want the casting tearing apart leaving pieces stuck in the stationary die half. The casting must
have enough hot strength to withstand the force of ejection. You do not want the casting to stick in the
ejector half with the ejector pins poking through. Lastly, you do not want the machine to open and have
the biscuit blowing up and spraying metal all over as soon it is free of the cold chamber.

Figure 8-30 - Blown up biscuit

Machine Opens
As the machine opens, the plunger follows through to the end of its stroke and pushes the biscuit
out of the cold chamber. The initial die opening should be slow enough to allow the plunger to
keep pressure on the biscuit until it is free of the cold chamber. If the biscuit sticks in the cold
chamber, this can cause problems in twisting and bending the runner and casting resulting in
dimensional problems.

At die opening, the casting is expected to stay in the ejector half. When the machine is fully
open the casting is ejected from the cavity. At this time the machine cycle is complete with
respect to making the casting. In the background, the machine will now get ready for the next
cycle. Oil will be pumped back into the accumulator and it will be recharged. You now remove the
casting from the die. You must be aware the casting is hot, and will have flash and sharp edges
that can be hazardous. The casting is set aside for further inspection.

At this time you inspect the die and apply die spray. Watch the spray turn to steam and after
cooling is complete, watch the liquid wet and coat the die cavity. Also making sure that the excess
spray is blown out of the cavity and that flash is blown from the die parting line and vents.

There may be some additional tasks or elements of the machine cycle that take place during die
opening.

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Special Considerations

Stationary core slides

If the die has slides that are mounted on the stationary die half, these slides must be extracted
before the machine opens. They are usually hydraulically operated and controlled with limit
switches.

Mid-die Stop
Some machines incorporate a feature known as mid-die stop. This would be better described as
mid-open stop. The machines stop when it is half open to hydraulically pull ejector half slides or
shear a biscuit on a three plate die. After the function is complete, the machine opens fully.

Cast in inserts
Some castings require the metal to be cast around special inserts. These inserts must be loaded
every cycle. As the operator you are required to load the insert before the start of the next
machine cycle.

ELEMENTS OF A TYPICAL DIE CASTING CYCLE (HOT CHAMBER)

Having reviewed a typical cold chamber die casting cycle, a typical hot chamber cycle will be
run.

●● Machine close
●● Making the shot
●● Dwell
●● Machine opening

Machine/Die close (same as cold chamber)

The machine cycle starts with the die open and the machine at rest. Prior to initiating the cycle
start, you must check to make sure several tasks have been completed.

●● The die cavity is clean, there are not stuck pieces in the die.
●● The die does not have any broken cores, ejector pins or components.
●● The vents and die faces are clean.
●● Die release has been applied.
Starting the machine cycle may be accomplished in a number of ways, depending on the
conventions in your plant. Below are several accepted methods.

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Some plants start the machine cycle by having the operator close the safety door. Once the
safety door is closed a limit switch is activated, telling the machine that you are ready for the die
to close. The machine then checks all its safety limit switches, limit switches that assure all the
other parting line doors and covers are in place and that the barriers in front of the toggle linkage
are in place. When the machine proves all the safeties correctly, it closes the machine. The limit
switches are safety devices and must not be tied back. If a safety device is broken, it must be
repaired before production can proceed.

Figure 8-31 - Safety door and limit switches

Another variation for starting the cycle is for you to close the safety door and then press a “cycle
start” push button to actuate the machine.

Figure 8-32 - Cycle start push-button

A third variation is for the operator to hold in two cycle start palm buttons while the safety door
closes and proves the limit switches. Once the machine acknowledges that all the parting line and
toggle guards are closed, the machine will start to close.

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Figure 8-33 - Two palm button start push-buttons

You need to be aware that the closing safety door and closing machine can be pinch hazards.
Once the machine has closed and locked, a signal light at the shot end illuminates signaling that
the die is locked.

Making the shot

The next step in the machine cycle is injecting the metal or “making the shot”. The hot chamber
machine will make the shot as soon as it has detected that the machine has locked. A manually
operated shot function is available, but rarely used.

Figure 8-34 - Shot push button

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Some, but not all, hot chamber machines have a slow shot function. The purpose of the slow
shot is to push the air, trapped in the gooseneck above the metal level in the furnace, out through
the runner system, die cavity and die vents.

Figure 8-35 - Schematic showing path of air out of hot chamber

At a predetermined point of plunger travel, the machine shifts to fast shot. The fast shot is used
to fill the cavity with metal and get this done in the minimum allowable fill time required by the
casting geometry. In addition to filling the cavity within the fill time requirement, the velocity of
metal traveling through the gate has to be fast enough to achieve atomization.

Once the cavity is filled the plunger comes to an abrupt stop and holds pressure on the metal
for a specified time, usually several seconds. When the shot timer times out, the plunger returns
to the “home “ position. Immediately the metal begins to freeze and shrink. Hot chamber alloys
exhibit less shrinkage than aluminum. Zamak #3, the most common zinc alloy shrinks 2.98%. This is
about half that of the common aluminum alloys. Additionally, the freezing range of Zamak #3 is so
small that intensification is not practical.

Machine Dwell/Hold
After the plunger returns, the machine remains closed for a predetermined amount of time
while the casting cools and gains strength in the die. You would like the dwell time to be as short
as possible in order to reduce cycle time and increase production. The dwell time is determined by
several factors. The casting must have enough “hot” strength to be able to withstand the forces of
the die opening. You do not want the casting tearing apart leaving pieces stuck in the stationary
die half. The casting must have enough hot strength to withstand the force of ejection. You do
not want the casting to stick in the ejector half with the ejector pins poking through. Lastly, you
do not want the machine to open and have the sprue be partially solidified and run out onto the
stationary die face and floor.

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Machine Opens
At die opening, the casting is expected to stay in the ejector half. When the machine is fully
open the casting is ejected from the cavity. At this time the machine cycle is complete with
respect to making the casting. In the background, the machine will now get ready for the next
cycle. Oil will be pumped back into the accumulator and it will be recharged. You now remove the
casting from the die. You must be aware the casting is hot, and will have flash and sharp edges
that can be hazardous. The casting is set aside for further inspection.

At this time you inspect the die and apply die spray. Make sure that the excess spray is blown out
of the cavity and that flash is blown from the die parting line and vents.

There may be some additional tasks or elements of the machine cycle that take place during die
opening. Refer to the cold chamber cycle for details of the following elements:

●● Stationary core slides

●● Mid-die Stop
●● Cast-in Inserts

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DIES DURING PRODUCTION

SELF TEST 2
True or False

1. You must know what happens when you hit the emergency stop button.

True False

2. The purpose of the critical slow shot is to slowly mix air with the metal to cushion the
impact.

True False

3. Hold or dwell is required to remove heat from the casting.

True False

4. If the die opens prematurely, the casting may tear apart.

True False

Multiple choice - Identify all correct answers:

5. Before the die closes, you must check to make sure:

a. that there are no stuck pieces left in the die

b. that the parting line is clean and vents are open
c. that the excess die spray has been blown off the die
d. that the accumulator has been recharged

6. In order to successfully make a shot, the following conditions must be satisfied :

a. the die must be locked

b. the plunger must be returned
c. the cold chamber must be charged
d. the accumulator must be charged

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 9 RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING
FLOW DEFECTS

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn the causes for surface defects.
●● To learn what the operator can do to control surface defects.

PERSPECTIVE
You can consider the die casting process in control when you are producing acceptable castings
(castings without rejectable defects) at the proper rate of production. An acceptable casting is
a casting that your customer will buy without a complaint or rejection. This does not imply that
the casting is perfect. In many cases a casting may have what may be considered to be a defect
in one application and not a defect in another application. For example, a handle casting for
cabinet hardware may be finished as a chrome plated handle and in another application may be
powder painted. Surface defects such as cold flow will show through the chrome plating. These
same defects would not be considered rejectable for a painted casting where the paint covers
the cold flow. Another example of an acceptable defect could be heat checking. Heat checking
is the deterioration of the die surface due to fatigue; the surface is wearing out. In many cases
heat checking is acceptable. Although the casting surface is no longer smooth, the minor surface
roughness may not impair the castings’ fitness for use. In other cases, if a specific maximum
surface roughness is specified and the heat checking exceeded the roughness specification, the
casting would be rejectable.

DEFECTS
A major problem we have as die casters is that we have a limited number of defects, but the
defects can have a number of root causes. For example, we cannot say that all cracks are due to
uneven ejection. Cracks could be due to shrinkage, or a cold die, or some other cause. In the next
portion of this lesson, you will look at a number of common defects in die casting and discuss their
probable root causes. First we will look at surface defects.

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Surface Defects
Common names for defects that appear on the surface of a die casting are:

1 Cold flow

2 Cold shut

3 Flow marks

4 Cold

5 Chill

6 Severe chill

7 Non-fill

8 Poor-fill

9 Laps

10 Flow lines

11 Swirls

12 Knit lines

13 Mis-run

14 Blisters

15 Cracks

16 Solder

This is by no means a complete list. The list may vary by shift, by plant, by state or by country.
Within a given plant, the list should be simplified, with everyone understanding a particular
defect.

Metal Flow Defects

Many of these surface defects are a result of how metal flows to and within the die. Many times
these defects can be influenced by adjusting process variables. Other times you may not have any
control over the causes for flow defects.

Flow defects that can be influenced by adjusting process variables occur when the alloy begins
to freeze before the casting is completely filled out, or when several alloy flows converge but do
not weld completely together. In both of these cases the alloy does not have enough heat energy
to remain completely liquid during the fill time. These defects are usually surface blemishes that
range widely in severity, from a deep crease to a barely discernible line. Or they may be as severe
as a hole in a thin wall or a completely missing feature.

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The list following is a number of factors that affect flow defects. Following the list is an
explanation of each of the factors and then a discussion of who is responsible for this factor and
how it may be controlled.

Factors affecting flow defects:

1 Fill time

2 Wall thickness

3 Die temperature

4 Alloy temperature

5 Flow distance

6 Gate velocity

7 Alloy type

8 Venting

Fill time
Fill time is the maximum allowable time to fill the die cavity resulting in an acceptable casting.
It is assumed that if the fill time is exceeded, the casting will have some unacceptable defect.
Fill time is a factor that engineers will calculate when establishing the die casting process
specification. Once a fill time is established, the engineers can calculate the various combinations
of plunger sizes and plunger velocities that will satisfy the fill time requirement. The fill time
calculation is based on the alloy being cast, the alloy temperature, the die temperature, and the
casting geometry. If any of these changes, the fill time also changes.

Figure 9-1 - Graphic of shot trace showing fill time

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When the fill time is calculated the first time, estimates or assumptions of die and alloy
temperature must be made. These are based on experience with your operation. The estimate
of die temperature may be made based on a history of measurements of similar castings in your
plant. The alloy temperature is approached the same way. If you run different alloys in your plant,
chances are that each alloy has a preferred holding temperature. For example, you may hold 380
alloy at 1195°F (646°C) and 413 alloy at 1235°F (668°C). This would be based on experience with
your plant.

Figure 9-2 - Photo of furnace pyrometer showing metal temperature

Casting geometry is a very important factor when determining fill time. Some castings are
chunky, while others may be skinny. The engineer has to look at the casting geometry and make an
estimate of how well the casting will give up heat to the die, or how well the casting will retain
heat. If a casting has lots of volume and little surface area, similar to a casting with thick walls,
this would be interpreted as a casting with a lot of heat (volume) and little ability to give up the
heat (low surface area). If a casting has little volume and lots of surface area, this is interpreted
as a casting with little heat (volume) and lots of ability to give up this heat (large surface area).

Figure 9-3 - Sample of chunky casting verses skinny casting

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For purposes of calculating fill times, the engineer must come up with a numerical value for the
casting geometry. Some methods for determining this numerical value are to calculate an average
wall thickness, determine the thinnest wall thickness or to use a nominal wall thickness. Whatever
system is used, it should be used consistently, and then modified based on experience.

A final factor to consider when calculating fill time is the alloy. Alloys behave differently when
being cast. Some alloys are fluid and flow readily. Others lack fluidity and must be cast at higher
temperatures. Some alloys tend to solder more readily than others. Some alloys freeze quicker
than others. The alloy factor is also accounted for when calculating the fill time. As an operator,
you have control of most of the factors that determine the fill time. (For the NADCA Fill Time
Formula, see Appendix A.)

Alloy temperature you can observe by the furnace temperature. You know when it goes up and
down, and you know what causes it to go up and down. As for die temperature, you know that die
temperature is a result of how you run or manage the casting cycle. Actual fill time is a result of
the combination of plunger speed and plunger size when the alloy is filling the cavity. As for the
casting geometry, you cannot change the part, but you may have the opportunity to advice on
factors that may make the part easier to manufacture.

Wall thickness
As an operator, you cannot designate the wall thickness of the casting. For the most part wall
thickness is part of the geometry of the casting that you can not control. However, you can
observe and note the varying wall thicknesses in the casting. As such, you can figure out what
the different heating and cooling requirements in the die are. Heavy wall sections equate to a lot
of heat and high cooling requirements. Thin walls equate to very little heat and minimal cooling
requirements. This knowledge will help you to determine where and how long to spray. It will also
help you determine which waterlines need to be turned on with full flow, reduced flow or no flow.

Figure 9-4 - Cut section of casting showing varying wall thickness

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The die temperature

Die temperature, in the most inclusive sense, is the time averaged temperature of the die during
sustained production. For aluminum dies, we would say we want a die temperature of 500°F
(260°C). We know that the cavity surface temperature is changing all the time. We know that
the temperature in the die cavities is not constant, but varies depending on the proximity to the
cavity surface and cooling lines. So the concept of die temperature is somewhat nebulous. It is not
something you can measure any time at any place in the die. If you are trying to solve a problem,
you may try to determine a die temperature at a particular location in the die at a particular
point in the casting cycle. Ideally, die temperature will be as high as possible, and still permit
making the casting, and vary as little as possible over the entire cycle. It is not unusual to see time
averaged temperature variation of over 100°F (55°C) in a die cavity.

Figure 9-5 - Illustration of die temperatures

The alloy temperature

The alloy temperature is the temperature of the alloy as it begins to fill the die cavity, as the
alloy passes through the gate. This has proven very hard to measure in real time as the casting
is being made. Most people make an estimate of this temperature for the purpose of fill time
calculations. Reasonable estimates are that the alloy looses 50-90°F (28-50°C) as it is transferred
from the holding furnace to the cold chamber and injected. These temperature losses can be
minimized by avoiding any delays in the alloy transfer. If the alloy is ladled automatically, there
should not be any delays in the ladle cycle. The ladle should not have to wait for the machine to
complete any functions.

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Flow distance
Flow distance is an important variable. This is the distance that the metal must flow once it
passes through the gate. It is important because you want the alloy to flow to its terminal location
without freezing. If the flow distance is too long and if the alloy speed is too slow, it will be
difficult for the metal to fill the cavity without beginning to freeze. As the alloy begins to freeze it
is much more difficult to get it to flow.

The gate velocity

The gate velocity is the speed that the alloy travels as it passes through the gate. This is a
critical variable for several reasons. First, if this velocity is not controlled it can be detrimental to
the tooling causing washout and erosion. If the gate velocity is too low the alloy may not atomize
and not have enough energy to reach the ends of the casting or to properly weld together.

Now that the definitions of the various factors affecting flow defects have been discussed, who
has responsibility for maintaining them in control?

Let’s start with alloy temperature and alloy type and follow the process for a cycle. As an
operator, you should keep track of alloy temperature. Your process specifications will call for
the alloy to be within a temperature range that results in the best quality and productivity. This
temperature may range 20-50°F (10-25°C). If the temperature is excessive, has a lot of superheat,
it flows readily and may have a tendency to spit. Additionally, the alloy will have too much heat
and could extend the cycle time because it will require additional time to remove this heat. If the
temperature is too low, too little superheat, the alloy may be partially solidified before it is cast,
causing flow difficulties.

How and when does the alloy temperature get out of control? The holding furnace must be
charged frequently enough to avoid upsetting the temperature balance in the furnace. Most
holding furnaces are sized to maintain the alloy temperature, not melt it. If the furnace is allowed
to run down to far, the next charge of alloy will increase the holding furnace temperature above
the upper limit for temperature. Metal distributed from the breakdown furnace is usually 50-100°F
(25-50°C) hotter than the holding furnace temperature.

Figure 9-6 - Holding furnace run too low and large charge needed to replenish it

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Another problem that may occur is the inability of the holding furnace and remelt furnace to
keep up with production. When this occurs it is not uncommon to cold charge or add some ingots
to the holding furnace. Again, this furnace does not have the capacity to melt and superheat the
alloy. This will dramatically drop the furnace temperature and may prevent casting because the
metal will not flow.

Figure 9-7 - Illustration with ingot stuck in the charge well of the holding furnace

If the alloy level in the holding furnace gets too low, air could pass under the arch at the dip well
or under the door blade at the charge well. If this happens the alloy in the main bath will oxidize
and you will have a whole series of problems related to casting alloy that is full of oxides and
difficult to make flow. Additionally, getting large amounts of air into the bath area will also cause
excessive cleaning problems.

The alloy type that is being cast also has an effect on flow. Your customer specifies the alloy
type, based on the casting application. As the operator, you are responsible for the condition
of the alloy. Both the chemistry of the alloy and its cleanliness will affect flow. If the alloy is
maintained in a good condition it should cast without difficulty. Various chemical constituents
in the alloy will affect the castability of the alloy. For example, aluminum alloys with increased
amounts of silicon tend to flow better. Aluminum alloy with high amounts of iron (still within
specification) are more sluggish. The most important thing you can do as an operator is to maintain
the alloy as clean as possible. All the alloys, when in contact with air will oxidize. This oxidized
material is no good and must be kept out of the casting. If you are manually ladling the alloy, the
proper procedure is to use the ladle to push back the oxide layer and dip clean metal. When the
oxide layer in the dip well gets too thick it must be removed. Auto-ladles automatically push the
oxide out of the way when dipping. If the layer is too deep it must be removed from the autoladle
dip well also. Always cover the furnace well when not in use to prevent oxidation and energy loss.

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Figure 9-8 - Illustration showing air getting under the door blade or arches

Figure 9-9 - Illustration showing furnace wells covered

The wall thickness specification, like casting geometry, is beyond the control of the operator.
This is something that the customer’s engineers specify to satisfy the needs of their product. If
your company has a proactive die casting sales function, your die casting engineers may be able
to work with your customer in order to help design the casting for manufacturability. This means
striving for uniform walls and minimizing excessively thick or thin wall sections. There are some
instances in which the operator has control over wall thickness.

Here are several examples:

Walls that are formed across the parting line will become thicker if the die is allowed to blow, or
if flash is left on the parting line.

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Figure 9-10 - Sketch of parting line wall section

Walls formed by slides will become thicker as the slide is allowed to back out.

Figure 9-11 - Sketch of slide wall section

Misalignment or die shift between the stationary and moving die halves can cause walls to
thicken or thin out dramatically.

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Figure 9-12 - Sketch of wall sections due to die misalignment

As the operator you must be aware of these causes and prevent them.

You, the operator, have direct control of die temperature. Die temperature is a direct result
of cycle time and cooling, heat in verses heat out. You control the heat going into the die by the
temperature of the alloy being cast, the volume of alloy that you ladle each shot and volume
of alloy that you put through the die every hour. You control the heat going out of the die by
adjusting the cooling lines, both flow rate and coolant temperature, by spraying die release on the
die cavity, both duration of spray and volume of spray, and finally, by adjusting the machine dwell
or hold time to control the casting ejection temperature.

Flow distance will be a function of the mold design, runner and gating layout. Once these
have been established in the casting die they are difficult to change. Defects related to the
flow distance will be difficult to overcome, and will probably not respond to the normal range
of process changes. The best result with defects related to this cause will be with the machine
at maximum performance, and maximum gate velocities. The corrective action may require
reworking the entire filling plan for the casting.

You, the operator, also control fill time and gate velocity. These are a result of the plunger
speed, and plunger size, together with the gate size. Long fill time is one of the primary causes of
surface defects. After the die casting engineer has calculated a maximum fill time for a particular
casting, he has to identify a machine that will be able to pump the alloy fast enough to meet the
fill time requirement. This means, he has to find a machine that is capable of pumping a particular
volume of alloy in a specific amount of time.

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For example, if you have a 10 pound (4.54kg) 380 aluminum casting and a fill time of 0.060
seconds, what is the minimum pumping capability required of the machine?

Figure 9-13 - Sketch of plunger showing diameter and high lighting plunger area

The machine must pump (or inject) the volume of a 10 pound (4.54kg) aluminum casting in 0.060
of a second (or 60 milliseconds).

The volume of a 10 pound (4.54kg) aluminum casting is the casting weight divided by the alloy
density. The density of 380 aluminum is 0.095 pounds per cubic inch (2.75 g/cm3).

Volume = weight ÷ density = 10 lbs ÷ 0.095 lbs/in3

Volume = 101 in3

Volume = (4.54 kg) (1000g/kg) ÷ (2.75 g/ cm3)

Volume = 1652 cm3

The machine pumping requirement is the casting volume divided by the fill time. This is also
known as a filling rate, or rate at which the cavity must fill.

fill rate = 101 in3 ÷ 0.060 seconds

fill rate = 1683 in3/sec

fill rate = 1652 cm3 ÷ 0.060 seconds

fill rate = 27,533 cm3/sec

This example requires a machine that can pump alloy at 1683 cubic inches per second (27,533
cm3/sec).

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Once the machine has been identified, the engineer must then determine a combination of
plunger tip size and plunger speed to meet the filling rate. The machine pumps alloy by moving
the plunger at a given speed, in other words, the plunger tip has an area (square inches),
depending on its diameter, as this area is moved at a given speed (inches/second), a filling rate
(cubic inches per second) is achieved. Plunger tip area times plunger speed is the filling rate. In
the above example, if a 4 inch (15.75 cm) diameter plunger (area = 12.6 in2) (81.27 cm2) is used, it
would have to travel at a speed of 134 in/second (340.4 cm/second) to meet a 1683 cubic inch fill
rate (27,661 cm3/sec).

Figure 9-14 - Sketch of 4” dia. plunger moving at 134 ips

fill rate = plunger area x plunger speed

fill rate = 12.6 in2 x 134 in/sec

fill rate = 1683 in3/sec

fill rate = 81.27 cm2 x 340.4 cm/sec

fill rate = 27,661 cm3/sec

This is one plunger diameter and plunger speed combination that meets the filling rate
requirement.

Gate velocity is the other injection variable that is of major interest. Once the gate has been cut
into the die, the gate velocity is a function of filling rate. The filling rate at the gate is equal to
the gate area (square inches) times the gate velocity (inches per second).

filling rate = gate area x gate velocity

Or if you know the filling rate and gate area, you can calculate the gate velocity:

gate velocity = filling rate ÷ gate area

For our example, if the gate area is 1.5 in2 (9.68 cm2), the gate velocity is 1122 inches per
second (2850 cm/sec).

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Figure 9-15 - Sketch of metal flowing through 1.5” gate at 1122 ips

gate velocity = 1683 in3/sec ÷ 1.5 in2 = 1122 in/sec

gate velocity = 27,579 cc/sec ÷ 9.68 cm2 = 2850 cm/sec

What is the effect of increasing the plunger size to 4.5 inches (11.43 cm) in diameter (area is
15.9 in2) (102.6 cm2) if the plunger speed remains at 134 in/sec (340.4 cm/sec)?

Figure 9-16 - Sketch of 4.0 and 4.5” dia. plungers

fill rate = plunger area x plunger speed

fill rate = 15.9 in2 x 134 in/sec

fill rate = 2130 in3 /sec

fill rate = 102.6 cm2 x 340.4 cm/sec

fill rate = 34,900 cc/sec

A half inch increase in plunger diameter results in an increased filling rate of 2130 in3/sec
(34,900 cc/sec) from 1683 in3/sec (27,580 cc/sec), a 26% increase.

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Figure 9-17 - Sketch of 4.5” dia. plunger moving at 134 ips

The gate velocity also increases:

gate velocity = filling rate ÷ gate area

gate velocity = 2130 in3/sec ÷ 1.5 in2 = 1420 in/sec

(gate velocity = 34,900 cm3/sec ÷ 9.68 cm2 = 1420 in/sec)

And the fill time decreases:

Figure 9-18 - Sketch of filled cavity and stopwatch at 47ms

fill time = volume ÷ filling rate

fill time = 101 in3 ÷ 2130 in3/sec

fill time = 0.047 seconds or 47 milliseconds

fill time = 1655.1 cc ÷ 34,900 cc/sec

fill time = 0.047 sec

As you can see from the above example, both the gate velocity and the fill time are related to
the plunger speed and size. Some conclusions can be drawn about these relationships.

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For a given plunger size,

●● as plunger speed increases gate velocity increases

●● as plunger speed increases fill time decreases
For a given plunger speed,

●● as plunger size increases, gate velocity increases

●● as plunger size increase, fill time decreases

Figure 9-19 - Graphic of plunger relationships with velocity and fill time

You have seen that plunger speed is a very important variable, it directly impacts fill time and
gate velocity. There are some other variables that are also affected by plunger speed that need to
be mentioned, they are impact pressure (spitting) and venting.

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What causes plunger speed to change?

Plunger speed is controlled with some sort of a speed valve. This may be a large gate valve with
a hand wheel, or it could be a series of solenoids actuating a binary valve at a manifold. However
this is done, you should know how this valve is set. Each job should have an optimum valve setting.
Unless you have a shot monitoring system, you will not know what the plunger speed is. Plunger
speeds cannot be measured accurately by eye or sound.

Figure 9-20 - Shot speed valve

The most common reason for plunger speed changes is lack of or improper tip lubrication. If
the tip is not lubed, the machine does not have enough power to maintain the plunger speed and
overcome the increased friction.

Other reasons for loss or plunger speed are improper cooling of the plunger tip. Inadequate
cooling will cause the tip to expand and seize in the cold chamber. A worn tip will trap flash
around it making it difficult to push the plunger. Mis-alignment between the cold chamber and
machine will cause the plunger tip to wear excessively and possibly seize in the cold chamber.
Partial loss or loss of the nitrogen charge in the accumulator will result in a loss of plunger speed.

Figure 9-21 - Sketch of shot end mis-alignment

In a hot chamber machine, mis-alignment of the plunger and shot cylinder will result excessive
friction and plunger speed losses. Worn or missing plunger rings could result in an unexpected
increase is plunger speed due to reduced friction at the shot. This will result in filling problems
due to a loss in metal pressure.

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Reviewing flow defects

The major causes for flow defects are too long a fill time, too cold a casting die, and too cold
alloy. As has been noted, all of these factors are under your control to some extent, or you are in a
position to influence them.

APPENDIX A
NADCA Cavity Fill Time Formula

Fill time = k x (Ti - Tf + S x Z) x T

(Tf - TD)

k = alloy constant

T = wall thickness factor

Ti = metal temperature entering cavity

Tf = metal minimum flow temperature

TD = die temperature

S = estimate of % solids at end of cavity filling

Z = solids factor for units conversion

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 10 RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING
POROSITY

OBJECTIVES
●● To learn the causes of porosity in die castings.
●● To learn what the operator can do to control porosity defects.

PERSPECTIVE
In lesson nine, the various types of flow defects in die castings and their causes were discussed.
In this lesson, various types of porosity defects that frequently occur in die castings are presented.
These defects are voids inside the casting that can cause the casting to leak, crack, or even fail
after being assembled into a final product. Since the injection of molten metal into the die occurs
very rapidly, the control of porosity is a critical part of the process.

POROSITY
Porosity is a void in the casting. This is a problem typical to all die casters. Porosity has two root
causes, a trapped gas or the result of shrinkage.

Gas porosity
Trapped gas porosity has a distinctive appearance. It is round and smooth and looks like bubbles.
Trapped gas causing gas porosity can come from many sources. If you are trying to solve a gas
porosity problem you have to look at all sources of gas generation.

Figure 10-1 - Gas porosity

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The common gas sources are:

1. Air mixed with the alloy in the cold chamber.

2. Air trapped in the die cavity because the vents are blocked.

3. Gas from excessive die lube left in the die.

4. Gas from plunger lube left in the cold chamber.

5. Steam from water leaking into the die cavity due to cooling line leaks, or leaks from
cracked die cavities.

6. Gas from hydraulic fluid leaking into the cavities from leaking cylinders or connections.

Trapped Air
Trapped air is always present to some extent in conventional die casting because of the
turbulent method used to fill the die cavity. We atomize the alloy flow at the gate using high gate
velocities.

In addition to the air trapped in the die cavity at the moment of die filling, the most common
source is air in the cold chamber. Obviously, filling the cold chamber with alloy can minimize
the amount of air in the cold chamber. This may not be practical as you may have competing
requirements for minimum fill times. If your process has any adjustment in it for reaching a
greater percentage of fill in the cold chamber, this adjustment is recommended. If possible, the
cold chamber should be 50-70% filled if trapped air porosity is a problem.

Other sources of trapped air are any time the alloy is subjected to turbulence in the presence
of air. Ladling practices should stress minimizing the amount of turbulence when picking up
and transporting alloy to the cold chamber. Pouring should be from minimum heights to reduce
splashing. With autoladles the pour distance and pour rate should be evaluated and controlled.

The slow portion of the shot cycle must be controlled. First, the timing of the plunger start
should be optimized. As the alloy is poured into the cold chamber, it runs down the sleeve to the
parting line and is reflected at the die parting line. This wave comes back to the pour hole, and
the pouring is complete, the plunger should start as soon as the wave reflects at the plunger tip. In
this way the motion of the tip and wave are synchronized. The initial acceleration of the plunger
is adjusted to get past the pour hole without spitting alloy. Once the plunger tip is past the pour
hole, it should be accelerated to keep the crest of the wave moving down the sleeve without
folding over and trapping air. The critical slow shot speed must be used at this time. Once the
sleeve is filled with alloy, and the air is being pushed out through the runner system, cavity and
vents, a smooth acceleration to the fast shot speed should follow.

All these things must be considered if the amount of trapped air in the cold chamber is to be
reduced. Each step may seem to be small and insignificant, but taken together they can account
for a major reduction in trapped air.

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Some air can be trapped by improper runner design. As an operator, you are limited as to any
action you can take to change a runner. But you can observe what happens and make suggestions
if the opportunity presents itself. Properly designed runners have large smooth corners with area
reductions, and no turbulent flow. This will mean the runners are large compared to the casting, if
the runners are too small, the flow in them will be turbulent and the air will mix readily with the
alloy. The transition from biscuit/sprue to the gate is constantly reducing and the alloy flow in the
runner is always accelerating.

Figure 10-2 - Improper runner design

Improper venting is another cause for trapped air. You have a lot of control over venting. In
fact, one of the most important jobs an operator can perform is keeping the vents clean, free of
flash or lube build-up. The vents must be open to allow the air trapped above the alloy in the cold
chamber to escape. If the vent is working properly, you should see a puff of air coming out of the
vent as the plunger moves forward.

Trapped gas from excessive lubricants

Lubrication is a common cause for trapped gases. If die release is put on the cavities in an
excessive manner it can result in gas from two sources. First, some of the die lube will burn up
when the alloy hits it. This will result in the release of combustion products. A second problem is
the most releases are diluted with water. If excess lube is left in the die, the water in the lube
will turn to steam and produce a great volume of gas. For these reasons you should use adequate
lube, but it should be controlled. After the lube has been applied to the cavities, any excess that
has collected in low spots or becomes trapped in the die should be blown out with air. Another
source of gas due to excessive lubrication is plunger tip lube. Plunger lube is a common source
of trapped gas. This gas usually forms when the alloy runs over lube that has puddled in the cold
chamber. The problem with this gas is that a lot of it is immediately trapped in the alloy and has
little chance to escape in front of the alloy wave front. Just as with die release, the minimum of
plunger lube should be used. If plunger problems occur and lube has been adequate, the solution
is not to lube excessively, but solve the real problem.

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Other sources
Cracks in the die cavity might allow fluid from the cooling line to leak into the die cavity. Water
or oil in the cavity, when hit by alloy will form gas. There are several solutions to this type of
problem. One is to abandon the cooling line by turning the coolant off. If cooling is critical and
must be used the alternatives are to fix the leaking crack or to use a local cooling system that
pulls the coolant through the die as opposed to pushing it through.

Sometimes the source for leakage into the cavity is not easily identified. All fluid sources need to
be checked. Hydraulic cylinders can leak, and if they are above of the die cavities, hydraulic fluid
can run into the cavities. Sources of leakage at the cylinder can be the seals at the rod or hose
connections. Care must be taken when preheating the die to make sure the seals at the cylinder
are not burned up.

Hydrogen gas is always discussed as a source for porosity. In die casting this is not a great source
for porosity because of the minimal solubility of hydrogen in die casting alloys. At temperatures
less that 1250°F (677°C) hydrogen solubility is very low. With other casting processes that require
higher alloy temperatures, hydrogen gas porosity is a more significant problem.

Shrink Porosity
Shrink porosity or shrinkage is porosity that occurs if the alloy solidifies without pressure on it. As
the alloy cools, it gives up its latent heat of fusion, it also shrinks. That is, it takes up less volume.
Pure aluminum shrinks 6.6% by volume. If you start with 100 cubic inches (1638.7 cm3) of liquid
aluminum, and it freezes, similar to alloy freezing in an ingot mold, the frozen aluminum will only
occupy 93.4 cubic inches (1530.5 cm3) (100 in3 - 6.6 in0 = 93.4 in3) (1638.7 cm3 - 108.2 cm3 = 1530.5
cm3). Aluminum die casting alloys shrink from 3.8 to 6.5%, zinc alloys around 3-4%, and copper
alloys around 4-5%.

In high pressure die casting, you try to force additional alloy into the die cavity as the alloy
solidifies. This is accomplished by using intensifiers or other methods to dramatically increase the
alloy pressure once the cavity has been filled with alloy. It is not uncommon for this pressure to
be as high as 10-15,000 pounds per square inch (705-1060 kg/cm2). For intensification to work,
the alloy pressure must be transmitted from the biscuit through the gate. If the gate, runner, or
biscuit freeze, the alloy pressure can not be applied to the cavity. You must pay attention to the
cooling in these areas. Cooling that causes the gate to freeze prematurely needs to be reduced.
Cooling at the biscuit is usually the most effective in the entire die. The plunger tip is made of
a material that conducts heat readily, and the coolant flow in the tip is usually turbulent and
unrestricted. For this reason the biscuit must not be too thin. A rule of thumb is to make sure the
biscuit is at least 30-60% thicker than the runner behind the biscuit. This should assure that the
biscuit freezes after the runner.

Shrink defects occur at the last place in the casting to freeze. They are easy to recognize. Shrink
porosity is characterized by a rough and jagged appearance, in contrast to the smooth appearance
of gas porosity. This rough appearance is caused by the alloy tearing apart as it freezes.

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Shrink porosity tends to be continuous by nature. This means the porosity tends to string
together into long groups of long interconnected voids. These voids can form a leakage path if
they break through the surface.

As mentioned previously, shrink porosity will occur at locations that freeze last. For example, if
a heavy section or boss is surrounded by thin walls, the thin wall freeze quickly and then the boss
freezes without any chance of high pressure alloy reaching it. A void will then form in the boss as
shrinkage occurs, of maybe a sink will occur at the surface.

Blisters
Blisters are bubble like bumps on the casting. They are caused by gases trapped in the casting,
near the casting surface. These gases are under very high pressure. After all, you use high metal
pressure or intensification at the end of the shot in order to compress the trapped gases. When
the casting is ejected the casting surface over the blister is not strong enough to withstand the gas
pressure of the blister. The surface yields and the blister forms.

Figure 10-3 - Photo of a blister

The solution to blistering is to determine the source of the trapped air, and eliminate it. The
discussion of internal defects will cover trapped gases in detail.

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SELF TEST 2
True or False

1. Internal and external defects are a major cause for scrap.

True False

2. Many external defects are due to the way metal flows in the cavity.

True False

Multiple choice; Identify all correct answers.

3. Cavity fill time for a casting depends on:

a. the casting shape, its geometry

b. the temperature of the die release
c. the surface temperature of the die cavity
d. the temperature of the alloy being cast

4. A casting having varying wall sections will require:

a. different die temperatures to cool it uniformly

b. more cooling in the heavy walled areas
c. no internal cooling at all
d. no intensification, the heavy sections will feed the thin walls

5. The operator can reduce gate velocity by

a. slowing the plunger

b. decreasing the cavity fill time
c. reducing the tip size (no other changes)
d. increasing the metal pressure

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 11 ELIMINATING SOLDER AND FLASH
INTRODUCTION
DEFECTS

OBJECTIVES
• To learn the causes of solder and flash defects in die castings.

• To learn what the operator can do to control solder and flash defects.

PERSPECTIVE
This is the third lesson on the various types of die casting defects. In Lesson 9, flow defects
were discussed. In Lesson 10, porosity defects were presented. In this lesson, solder and flash
defects are discussed in detail. In particular, those things that the die cast operator needs
to watch for to minimize these types of defects are presented. In addition, other types of
dimensional control issues that arise during the production of die castings are discussed.

OTHER SURFACE DEFECTS

Soldering
Soldering is simply the fusion of aluminum in the die casting alloy with iron from the steel
surface of the cavity. Typically, the die cavity will have an oxidized coating on it. This coating,
analogous to anodizing, protects the cavity surface from the aluminum. If the alloy impinges on
a portion of the die or on a core pin to the extent that a hot spot develops, the aluminum will
break down the oxidized interface between the die surface and the casting. Once this happens,
the aluminum will dissolve and alloy with the iron in the steel or the aluminum molecules actually
penetrate and bond with the iron. Generally this is the same type of bonding that you get when
you solder wires together using a lead-tin solder. When soldering occurs in the die casting die, the
casting sticks in the cavity. The only way to get the casting out is to tear it away from the stuck
surface. This is why the soldered surfaces have such a rough appearance. The alloy has been torn
away. If the soldering is not removed it will leave a blemish on the casting. The only effective way
to remove the soldered spot is to remove all the aluminum and steel that has been penetrated.

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Figure 11-1 - Soldering

Soldering is frequently seen on cores or walls that are in the path of the incoming alloy. This
situation is aggravated by higher than usual die temperatures, high gate velocities and high metal
pressures.

Soldering is also enhanced if the iron content in the casting alloy is low. For aluminum alloys,
the minimum iron content should be 0.8% iron. If the alloy has sludged, it is possible that the iron
content is below the recommended minimum.

Insufficient draft angles will also lead to soldering. When the draft angle is small, areas of the
cavity will be abraded by the casting at die opening and ejection. This rubbing action will remove
any protective oxide film and actually “prime” the die surface for soldering.

Lastly, the purpose of die release is to provide a protective barrier. If the die release is
ineffective, or casting conditions are such that the die release cannot get to the cavity surface or
wet the surface, conditions for soldering will be present.

Remedies for soldering such as “the best anti-soldering coating” are usually unknown. The best
fixes are to avoid conditions that promote soldering. If hot spots in the die cause soldering, then
the cooling plan for the die should be re-evaluated to determine if any thing can be improved. If
impingement or high velocities at the gate are causing soldering, can something be done to change
the flow direction or speed? Can the injection parameters be changed while still maintaining
critical metal flow conditions?

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Dimensional Defects
Dimensional defects are another category of defect that the operator has a great deal of control
over. Most dimensional defects will be related to die temperatures, the condition of the die, or
the force of injection.

Dimensions and Die Temperatures

You know that a metal rod will get longer when it is heated. This is thermal expansion. Thermal
expansion for the rod is related to the type of material

the rod is made from, the length of the rod and the temperature change experienced by the rod.
In other words:

Δ L = C x L x ΔT

ΔL = change in length

C = coefficient of thermal expansion

L = length

ΔT = change in temperature

As objects cool they get smaller, this is called contraction. This behavior also acts in accordance
with the above formula. The only difference is that instead of having a positive temperature
change and adding length, the temperature change is negative, getting colder, and the object gets
shorter or smaller. When a casting is ejected from the die and cools to room temperature, it gets
smaller.

Generally all the dimensions on the casting also get smaller (there may be some specific
instances where this does not happen, but those are special circumstances). The change is
predictable according to the formula for thermal expansion/contraction. If you control your
process and the casting always ejects at the same temperature, then it will always cool the same
and the dimensions will be consistent and repeatable.

Do you ever have problems with dimensional repeatability? For example, you are making an
aluminum casting with a 5.000 in. +/- 0.005 in (12.7 cm +/- 0.013 cm) tolerance on it and during
the course of a shift the ejection temperature would vary from 600 to 700°F (315 to 370°C) should
the be a cause for concern? In other words, how much change in length would a 100°F (370°C)
temperature difference cause on a 5.000 in. (12.7 cm) dimension in an aluminum die casting?

The coefficient of thermal expansion for die cast aluminum is 0.0000122 inches for each inch of
length and each degree of temperature change (0.000022 cm/cm-C°).

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Evaluating the formula for thermal expansion:

ΔL = C x L x ΔT

ΔL = change in length

C = 0.0000122 in/in-°F

L = 5.000 in

ΔT = 100°F

ΔL = (0.0000122 in/in-°F) x (5.000 in.) x (100°F)

ΔL = 0.0061 inches

ΔL = (0.000022 cm/cm-C°) x (12.7 cm) x (55.5°C)

ΔL = 0.0155 cm

This could be a cause for concern. If a casting that ejected at 700°F (371°C), cooled to room
temperature, and measured 5.000 inches (12.7 cm); then a casting ejected at 600°F (316°C),
cooled to room temperature would not contract as much. It would contract 0.0061 inches (0.0155
cm) less and measure 5.0061 (12.716 cm) inches and be out of tolerance. Your objective then is
to get the casting to eject at a consistent temperature. To do this you must maintain a consistent
cycle.

Another problem is when one half of the die is a lot hotter than the other half. This can be a
problem for the die and the casting. If the stationary die half is a lot hotter than the moving half,
then the guide pins will not line up with the bushings. If a casting is ejected with one half of the
casting considerably hotter than the other half, one half of the casting will contract more than the
other half. This will cause the casting to warp and bend.

The Condition of the Die

Many times the condition of the die will be responsible for a dimensional failure. If flash is
allowed to build up at the parting line. The die will not close properly and dimensions across the
parting line could be longer / thicker depending on the amount of flash. In addition to being a
hazardous condition, flash at the parting line may cause an oversize dimension.

If the die has a slide that is to be held in position with a wedgelock, and there is flash at the
parting line holding the die open, the wedgelock will not hold the slide in place, and the slide can
back out causing further dimensional problems. A similar circumstance may be the buildup of flash
in front of a slide. This could prevent the slide from going to the “ready to cast” position and hold
the die open.

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Another circumstance of die condition that may affect dimensions is soldering. Small core pins
can be very susceptible to this type of problem. On many small cores, less than 1/4 (6.2 mm) inch
in diameter, the size tolerance for features may only be three to four one thousandth’s of an inch
(0.076-0.102 mm). In these cases solder buildup and the associated roughness and dragging can
easily cause an oversize out of tolerance condition.

Other places that can result in soldering and dimensional problems may be walls. If in a
particular area impingement and soldering are a problem at a wall, the surface roughness may be
so great that the material that is missing could cause an undersize or thin wall.

Force of Injection
If the force of injection overcomes the locking capability of the die cast machine, the tie bars
will stretch and allow the die to flash. This flashing will add to the magnitude of the across parting
line dimensions and could also cause slides to back out. The force of injection at the end of the
shot is a combination of normal injection force, impact, and intensification. Of these three,
impact can be most troublesome since most machines have no way to control it. Impact is the
force generated when a mass comes to an abrupt halt. In the case of the shot end, the mass is
the shot piston, coupling, rod and plunger and hydraulic oil that is propelling the shot. The faster
that this mass slows at the end of cavity filling, the higher the impact will be. To reduce impact,
you need to try to reduce the mass and speed of the injection system. Using the minimum possible
shot speed that makes an acceptable casting is a good way to start. Reducing the mass of the
system is usually beyond the capabilities of the operator. Normal injection force is determined by
the hydraulic pressure of the machine, the shot cylinder size and the plunger size. The larger the
plunger, the smaller the alloy pressure will be and the smaller the injection force. To minimize
impact you would choose the largest suitable plunger and lowest hydraulic pressure. In most cases
these are decisions that are made by engineering when the process is setup. Your feedback to
engineering may be helpful. The final factor influencing impact is intensification. Intensification
is the multiplying or intensifying of the alloy pressure. Typical multiplication is 2-4 times. When
intensification is applied and how rapidly it builds up to maximum pressure are controls that the
operator may be responsible for. Intensification needs to be applied before the gate freezes,
otherwise you will not be able to get more alloy into the cavity to feed solidification shrinkage.
Also, this pressure is needed to squeeze gaseous porosity as small as possible.

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Arlington Heights, IL 60004
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