Training Services

Flare Systems
 Table of Contents

„ Flare Systems
– Purpose
– Flare selection
– Support structures
– Combustion theory
– Radiation theory
– Regulatory compliance
– Equipment design
– Flare design requirements
– Incineration
 Disposal System

„ Disposal of vapors and

liquids discharged

Types of Systems
„ Open System
– Discharge directly to
atmosphere
„ Closed System
– Discharge to a collection
header
– Dispose to a flare
Relief Header Sizing – Equations to Use
„ V = M * SV / A / 60
„ SV = 379.5/MW * (14.7/(Pout+14.7)*((460+T)/520)))
„ SonicV = 60 * (32.17*1.1*1546*(460+T)/MW)^0.5
„ MACH = V/SonicV

„ V = velocity in ft/min
„ M = flowrate in lb/hr
„ SV = specific volume in ft3/lb
„ A= pipe area in ft2
„ MW = molecular weight
„ Pout = outlet pressure in psig
„ T = temperature in F
„ SonicV = Sonic Velocity in ft/min
 Relief Header Sizing – 7 Steps

„ Step 1: Start at flare tip and calculate the pressure drop

across the flare tip at 0.5 MACH
„ Step 2: Determine equivalent lengths for all segments
„ Step 3: Limit relief header velocity to less than 0.7 MACH
„ Step 4: Establish properties of the gases
„ T=Σ(wi*Ti)/Σwi where T=temp and w is flowrate lb/hr
„ MW = Σwi/Σ(wi/MWi) where MW is Molecular Weight
„ Step 5: Calculate pressure drop
„ Step 6: Review allowable pressure against actual pressure
for each segment
„ Step 7: Review velocity is below 0.7 MACH in each segment
 Purpose of Flare

„ Define Loadings to be Handled

– Calculate loadings for all
contingencies
– Geographic location of each
source
– Calculate maximum load
(power failure,fire case)
• Fire case limited to a
ground area of 230 -
460 square meters
• Calculate maximum
back pressure
Major Factors Influencing Flare Design

„ Gas Composition
„ Flow Rate
„ Gas Pressure Available
„ Initial Investment
„ Operating Costs
„ Gas Temperature
„ Energy Availability
„ Environmental
Requirements
„ Safety Requirements
„ Social Requirements
 Elevated Flare System

Flare Tip

Steam Ring
Dry
Seal
Flare
Stack
Flare Knockout Drum Knockout Drum
Pumpout Pump
PI
TI LGR LIAH
Instrument Switch
Gas To
PI
Air TAH Pilot
Grade
Vent Solenoid
Valve M
(With Manual
Reset) Pilot Ignition
Systems Locate
Normal At Flare Knockout Drum
Emergency RO RO Gas Purge
Gas Purge PI
Steam PC

Purge Gas Slop To Fuel

Pressure Relief Plant
From Process Units Slop Tank Gas Air
Elevated Flare System
(Knockout Pot in Stack)
 Elevated Flare System
(Water Seal and Knockout Pot in Stack) Title Guide
Steam Ring

Flare Tip

Flare
Stack

Flare Knockout Drum

Knockout Drum And Water Seal
Pumpout Pump
Switch
PI LIAH
Instrument
Air TAH
M
LGR Gas To
Water Pilot
Vent
Solenoid Seal Grade
Valve
(With Manual
Reset)
Pilot Ignition
Emergency Systems Locate At
Gas Purge RO RO Slop to Flare Knockout Drum
Slop Tank PI
PC
Normal
Gas Purge Steam Water

Purge Pressure Relief

Gas From Process Units Fuel Plant
Gas Air
 Ground Flare
System

Knockout Drum
Flare Knockout Drum Pumpout Pump

PI

TI LGR LIAH Main

Switch Header PC Ground Flare
Instrument PI Retention Dike
Air Burners Grade
Solenoid
Vent Valve M
(With Manual
Reset) Pilot Ignition
Systems Locate At
Stage Flare Knockout Drum
Emergency PO PO PI
Header Gas To
Gas Purge
Pilot PC
Normal
Gas Purge

Purge Gas Pressure Relief Slop To Fuel Plant

From Process Units Slop Tank Gas Air
 Two Stage Flare System
(Elevated/Ground)

Flare
Tip
Seal

Flare
Stack
Knockout Drum
Flare Knockout Drum Pumpout Pump

PI

TI LGR LIAH Water

Switch Seal Enclosed
PI Ground
Instrument Gas To
Air
Pilot Plane
Solenoid
Grade
Vent Valve M
(With Manual
Reset) Pilot Ignition
Systems Locate At
Emergency Flare Knockout Drum
Gas Purge RO RO
PI
Normal PC
Gas Purge

Purge Gas Pressure Relief Slop To Water

From Process Units Fuel Plant
Slop Tank Air
Gas
Two Stage Flare System
 Flare Stack

„ Structure
– Self Supporting
– Guy Supported
– Derrick Type
 Support Structure
Self-Supported

„ Stack less than

100’ (30M)

„ Tight plot area Self-

Supported
 Self-Supportive Structures

Description When to Use When Not to Use

Self-supported flare • Stacks less than • Stacks taller

stack is utilized for 100 feet (30 than 350 feet
structures from 20 meters) (100 meters)
to 350 feet tall (6 to • Tight plot area • Cost sensitive
100 meters). • When liquid applications
Usually this design carry-over is greater than
has the lowest likely 100 feet (30
installed cost and • When integral meters
requires the smallest drum is specified
plot area.
 Support-Structure
Derrick

„ Stacks over 250' (75M)

„ Tight plot area

„ Gas temperature over

450°F(232°C) Derrick
 Derrick Structures

Description When to Use When Not to Use

Used for • Plot space is • Stacks less than

structures from tight 250 feet (75
150 to 550 feet • Stacks over 250 meters)
tall (45 to 266 feet (75 meters) • Cost sensitive
meters). • Gas applications
Relatively easy temperatures
to erect and has are over 450°F
superior (232°C)
strength when • With Offshore
assembled. systems
Support-Structure
(Guyed)

„ Stacks over 250'

(75M)

„ Low capital cost

Guyed
 Guyed Structures

Description When to Use When Not to Use

Guy wire support • Stacks over 100 • Stacks less than

flare stacks are feet (30 meters) 100 feet (30
typically the • Radius equal to meters)
lowest material stack height • Tight plot area
cost system, but available for guy • Liquid carry
they require the wires over likely
largest plot area. • Low capital cost
Used in systems is required
from 100 to 700 • Liquid carry over
feet tall (30 to 213 is unlikely
meters).
 Radiation Effects

Solar Radiation on Earth ~ 300 Btu/hr-ft2

 Radiation Theory

L2 (ft2) = (t)*(f)*(R)/(4*PI*K)

Where: t = fraction of heat intensity transmitted

f = fraction of heat radiated
R = net heat release (Btu/hr)
K = allowable radiation (500 Btu/hr-ft2)
PI = 3.14159
L = minimum distance from flare tip
Heat Release from a Flare

R = Heat Release (Btu/hr)

W = Flare Gas Flow Rate (lb/hr)
B = Net heating value (Btu/lb)
R = W*B
 7

Radiation Theory 6

4
Exposure Times Necessary
3 Threshold of Pain
to Reach the Pain Threshold
2 Safe Limit
440 Btu/(hr) (ft)2
1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Exposure Time, Sec.
Radiation Intensity
Times to Pain Threshold
Btu/hr-ft2 Kilowatts per M2 (Seconds)
550 1.74 60
740 2.33 40
920 2.90 30
1500 4.73 16
2200 6.94 9
3000 9.46 6
3700 11.67 4
6300 19.87 2
Contours of Radiant Heat Intensity

Safe Boundary
(440 Btu/Hr/Sq.Ft.)

Boundary
for Radiant
Heat Intensity
(1500 Btu/Hr/Sq.Ft.)
- Normally Fenced in with
Warning Signal

Protection
Protection Required for
Required for Personnel
Equipment
Boundary for
Radiant Heat Intensity
(3000 Btu Hr/Sq.Ft.)
„ Environmentally
acceptable
combustion
„ Tips normally
proprietary in
design
„ Flame stability
„ Ignition reliability
„ Exit velocity 1 to
600 ft/s (.3 to 183
m/s)
„ Exit velocity at
50% of sonic
velocity
„ Multiple pilot
burners
„ Surrounding
windshield Flare Tip
 Flare Tip Design

„ Flare Tip Design

Considerations
– Design for maximum
flow rates
– Design for maximum
temperatures
– Design for wind
conditions
– Design for minimum
flow rates
High and Too Low Relief Flow Rates
Can Cause Flame Instability

Air

Air Methane
Aspiration
D
Air Pipe
Intrusion

a. Flame Dip b. Flame Blowoff c. Analysis Of Flame Dip

 Flare Efficiency

„ Efficiency of flare
depends on the
following
– Type of fuel
– Flow rate of fuel
– Wind velocity
– Ambient turbulence
– Height of the stack
– Presence of HC
droplets
– Presence of water
droplets
Pilot and Ignition Systems

„ Continuously burning pilots

„ Flame front generator
– Fuel gas and air admitted
to the ignition pipe in a
combustible ratio
– Gas is ignited by an electric
spark
– Flame travels through the
pipe
 Pilot Burners

„ Automatic systems
may be activated by:
– Thermocouples
– Infrared Sensor
– Ultraviolet Sensor
(ground flare
application)
 Installation of Thermocouples
Correct Installation Incorrect Installation
 Pilot Windshield

„ Allows pilot to
operate at wind
speeds greater
than 100 mph
„ Should always be
specified
„ Prevents
misreading of the
thermocouples
 Flame Front Generator
Ignition System

Air D B A To Pilot #1
H
J To Pilot #2
Gas E To Pilot #3

C Gas To Pilots
 Flare Control Panel

„ Flare Control
Panel includes
the following:
– Pilot Gas
– Steam Control
– Pilot Ignition
System
 Pilot Gas Requirement

„ The average pilot gas consumption based on an

energy-efficient model is 70 scf/hr. The annual
pilot gas consumption (Fp) is calculated by:

− Fp (Mscf/yr) = (70 scf/hr)*(N)*(8,760 hr/yr)

− Fp (Mscf/yr) = 613*N

„ N can be calculated from the following table:

Flare Tip Diameter (IN) Number of Pilot Burners (N)

1-10 1
12-24 2
30-60 3
>60 4
 Multiple Pilots

„ Multiple pilots
allow one pilot to
fail

„ Most flares have

two to four pilots

„ Equally spaced
around the flare
 Safety Aspect

Fuel

Oxygen Ignition

„ Two of the three elements for explosion are

always present in a flare system
 Purging

„ Flare purge gas

– Any gas which cannot go to
dew point under any condition
of operation
• Fuel Gas
• Inert Gas
• Nitrogen
– Purge Rate
• Flare Stack
– Linear velocity 1FPS
to 5FPS (.3 to 1.5 m/s)
• Flare stack with
molecular seal
– 0.10 FPS to 0.20 FPS
(.03 to 0.06 m/s)
 Purge Gas Requirements

„ Prevents flashback problems

„ Flare operates at positive pressure
„ Purge all subheaders (upstream)
„ .04 feet per second to 1 feet per second
(.01 meters per second to 0.33 meters per second)

F (Mscf/yr) = (0.04 ft/sec)*((PI*D^2/4)/144 ft2))*(3600 sec/hr)*(8,760 hr/yr)

F (Mscf/yr) = 6.88*D^2
 Dry Seals

„ Molecular Seals

„ Double Seals

„ Fluidic Seals

„ Airrestors
 Molecular Seal

„ Prevents explosions
Flare
Assembly „ Prevents entry of air
„ Reduces purge gas
„ Performs silently with
Molecular small pressure drop
Seal

Liquid
Drain
Double Seal

Outlet To Flare Burner

Clean-Out
 Fluidic Seal

Flare
Air Tip Air

Flow Path
Of Flare
Gas
Smokeless Flare Operation

Smokeless Operation

Smoking
Steam Requirements and Smoke
Suppression Methods

„ In general, the following equation can be used:

Wsteam (lb/hr) = Whc (lb/hr) * [0.68-(10.8/MW)]

„ Smoke Suppression Methods

– Steam injection
– High pressure gas injection
– Low pressure air
– Internal energized flare
Tendency to Produce Black Smoke

Percent of Carbon Escaping as Black Smoke

50

40

30

20

10

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

H/C Ratio by Weight
 Automatic Steam Control
Field Of View
Steam Nozzles

Steam Control
Valve

Monitor
Flux Density
Controller Signal
Control Scheme
 Automatic Steam Control

„ Minimizes steam
consumption

„ Controlled by the
flame appearance

„ Calibrated to a
particular
frequency in the
infrared spectrum
Less Than 50 psig Steam
Wind
Flashback Protection

„ Flame Arrestors
„ Liquid Seals
 Liquid Seals

„ Flare vapor piping

submerged
approximately 4 to
12 inches below the
water level

„ Effective means to
stop a flame front
 Liquid Seal
To Flare

Flare Header

10 Ft. (3M) Minimum

Try Cocks For
Checking Hydrocarbons

Vent

Water Level
4" (10 cm)

Designed for a Minimum

Sewer Seal Should Be

Maximum Operating
of 175% of Drum’s
Submerged Weir
Water Welded On End 6" (15 cm)

Pressure
Supply Of Flare Line
FI
To Sewer

Baffle

Drain
 Flame Arrestor

„ Stop flame propagation

within a piping system
by means of breaking
the flame into very
small flames via a
crimped wound metal
grid thus quenching the
flame by means of heat
transfer and dissipation
 Liquid Seal Versus Flame Arrestor

Product Name Liquid Seal Flame Arrestor

Function Liquid seal is designed to The arrestor is designed to
stop flame propagation stop flame propagation
Product Type Active Device Passive Device
Testing Protocol Not available FM USCG API
Maintenance Switches and Cleaning of flame
cleaning cell elements
Failure Modes Switch Corrosion
malfunctions, liquid
freezing
 Knockout Drums
„ Principle Features
– Complete removal of either slugs or mists of liquid
(300 microns to 600 microns)
– Recovers valuable condensed hydrocarbons
– Ends maintenance difficulty caused by “Wet” gases
– Used as the base for the flare riser
– Ends “Wet Gas” control problems

The allowable vertical velocity

in the drum may be based on
the necessity to separate
droplets from 300-600 microns
in diameter.
 Hazards
of Burning Rain

„ Injury to Personnel

„ Damage to Equipment

„ Source of Fire
Design Considerations
Separation of Gas & Liquid
Design Considerations
Liquid Holding Capacity
 Illustrative LRGO Arrangement

First Stage
Programmable Air Assisted
Controller Flare
Rupture
Disk
LRGO
Tips Stage 2
Pressure
Transmitter
Stage 3
Flare Header
Stage 4
Control
Valve
Stage 5

Radiation Fence
LRGO – Ground Flare – Critical Location
 LRGO – Designed
for the Tundra of Alaska
 Ground Flare
Designed in Mexico
Ground Flare – Operating
 Advantages of Ground Flare

„ No structural support
required
„ Erection is relatively
straightforward
„ Maintenance is easy
„ Operating costs are
negligible
„ Flame of flare not
visible
„ Fairly quite system
 Disadvantages of Ground Flares

„ Must be well isolated

from the rest of the
refinery
„ Requires considerable
space and long
interconnecting piping
„ Combustion takes
place on ground
„ Concentration of toxic
gas at grade may
remain high
 Air-Assisted Flare

„ Select the proper

blower requirements
„ Blower to provide air
flow and gas in
proportion to each
other to properly mix
„ Should be provided
on the outside of
circular air riser
 Quiet Flare (Low Noise)

„ Qualitative sense decibels

(dB) describe the loudness
of sound and noise.
– Whisper = 20 dBA
– Conversation = 65 dBA
– Food Blender = 88 dBA
– Motorcycle = 100 dBA

„ OSHA requires equipment

to have <85dBA over 8
hour period
 Enclosed Ground Flares

„ Multi-stage burners
system in enclosed
ground flares injects the
auxiliary fuel separately
from the vapor
„ Burner features a
refractory tile to
maintain flame stability
and promote mixing
„ Three T’s – Time,
Temperature and
Turbulence
 Typical Enclosed Flare

Sample
Connection

Refractory Temperature
Lined Control
Stack
Burner
Assembly
Flame
Arrestor
Air
Control From
Louvers Blower
 Marine Vapor Control System Flare

„ Control of emissions of
hydrocarbon laden
vapors displaced from
ships
„ Combustion system must
be designed to cope with
air, nitrogen or CO2
vapors with hydrocarbon
concentrations varying
from 0 to 100%
„ Multiple burner tips for
large turndowns (up to 50
to 1)
 Truck Loading Vapor Control Flare

„ Achieve high destruction

efficiencies through the
loading cycle
„ Systems range in size
from 100 BPH to 25,000
BPH
„ Enclosed burners can be
easily tested for emissions
 Upper Steam Manifold Flare

„ High stability pilot and

flame retention system
„ Low noise steam
injection ring
„ Greater flow at lower
steam pressure drop
„ Multiple orifice steam
drilling ensures the
lowest possible
unshielded noise level
 Designer Fuels
„ Stranded natural gas, so named
because no pipelines exists to
transport it, is most prevalent
(red) in Africa, Middle East,
Asia, and Europe
„ Ultimate energy irony: Clean,
plentiful gas fuel wasted because
it blocks access to a dirty, liquid
one
„ Syntroleum process, natural gas
reacts via a catalyst to oxygen in
the air to form a synthetic gas
(Syngas) then a second reaction
coverts Syngas to a liquid diesel
fuel
 NH3 Plant
Pilots with Thermocouples Ignitor
Relief Tubes
Valves
Manual Gas Assisted
Vents Flare Burner
w/ Fluidic Seal Ignitor
Manifold

Pilot
Manifold
Assist Gas
FE
Flow
Relief & Vent Header Sensor
Pilot
Ammonia Gas
Storage
Tanks

Purge Compressed
Gas Air
Injection Ignitor
Gas

Flame Front
Ignitor Panel FS-R00-27
 Ammonia (NH3) Plant Considerations

„ Auxiliary fuel required

in ammonia flares
„ Auxiliary fuel to
combust hydrocarbon
vapors when a clean
flare gas falls below the
necessary heating
value
„ Picture to the right is
one of an ammonia
plant
 Offshore Platform

Ignitor Pilots
Flame Front Tubes
Ignitor Panel Ignitor Water Assisted
Manifold Smokeless
Compressed Air Pilot Flare Burner
Ignitor Gas Manifold w/Fluidic Seal
Pilot Gas
Gas
Disentrainment
Oil Drum
Boom

Water Assist
Offshore Platform
 Ground Level Concentrations

Average target concentration

(downwind)
0.10ppm or less

Examples of odor nuisance:

Isoamylmercaption
0.00043 ppm
Ethylmercaptan
0.00056 ppm
 Auxiliary Fuel Requirement

„ Amount of fuel required (F) is calculated based on

maintaining the vent gas stream net heating value at
the minimum of 300 Btu/scf required as described in
the United States Federal Register:
(Q * Bv) + (F * Bf) = (Q + F)* (300 Btu/scf)
Where:
– Q = vent stream flow rate, scfm
– Bv = Btu/scf of the vent stream
– Bf = Btu/scf of the fuel stream
Therefore,
F (scfm) = Q * (300-Bv)/(Bf-300)
The annual auxiliary fuel requirement (Fa) is:
Fa (Msfm/yr) = (F scfm) * (60 min/hr) * (8760 hr/yr)
Fa (Mscfm/yr) = 526 * F
 Flare Tip Diameter
„ Sizing must also comply with Federal Register (40 CFR 60.18)
for maximum velocity of steam-assisted, elevated flares:

Net Heating Value of Vent Stream Maximum Velocity

Bv (Btu/scf) Vmax (ft/sec)
300 60
300-1000 log10(Vmax) = (Bv + 1214)852
> 1000 400

„ It is standard practice to size the flare so that the design velocity

of flow rate Qtot, is 80 percent of Vmax:
Dmin (in) = 12*[((4/PI)(Qtot/60sec/min))/(0.8*Vmax)]^0.5
Dmin (in) = 1.95 * (Qtot/Vmax)^0.5
„ Where:
Qtot = Q + F (measured at stream temperature and pressure)
„ Dmin should be rounded up to the next largest available
commercial size
 Improve Flare Burner Life
Vector Diagrams
F
F

W W W
L F
G L L
G S G

W= Wind High Exit Low Exit Low Exit Velocity

F = Flare Velocity Velocity With Secondary
LP = LP Zone Energy Source
G = Gas Jet
S = Supplementary Energy
 Incinerator Design

„ Mechanism
– Oxidation reaction

„ Factors
– Time, temperature
and turbulence
 Principles of Combustion

„ Burners
– Ignite the fuel and
organic material
„ Chamber
– Appropriate residence
time
for oxidation process
„ Three T’s of Combustion
– Temperature
– Time
– Turbulence
Coupled Effects of Temperature and
Time on Rate of Pollutant Oxidation
100
1 sec
Pollutant Destruction, %

80 1.0 sec
0.01 sec
0.001 sec
60
Increasing
Residence
40 Time

20

0
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Increasing Temperature, °F

Residence time of gases in combustion chamber calculated from: t = V/Q

t = Residence Time (s)
v = Chamber Volume (ft3)
Q = Gas volumetric flow rate at combustion conditions (ft3/s)
 Schematic of a Thermal Incinerator

Fume

Fuel Exhaust

Combustion
Air
(Fume)
Typical Marine Vessel Loading System

Product
Loading Arm

Product from
Storage Tanks
Vapor Natural Gas/ Vapor
Arm Inerting Gas Mover Hydrocarbon Vapor
Enriching to Control Device
Detonation Gas
Arrestor Analyzer
Knockout
Drum(s)

Discharged Condensate
Vapors to Tanks
Sump
Ship Pump
or Barge
Dock Facilities Shoreside Facilities
Storage Tank and Tank Truck Loading
Hydrocarbon Concentration Profile
70

60
Total Hydrocarbon Vapor
Concentration in Vessel

Gasoline Vapors
(Volume Percent)

50

40

30

20 Crude Vapors

0
0 25 50 75 100
Percent of Storage Tank or Truck Filled
 Marine Vessel Loading
Hydrocarbon Concentration Profile
70

60
Total Hydrocarbon Vapor
Concentration in Vessel

50
(Volume Percent)

40

30

20 Gasoline Vapors
Crude
10 Vapors

0
0 25 50 75 100
Percent of Marine Vessel Filled
FS-R00-33
Typical Lean Oil Absorption Vapor
Recovery System
Typical Refrigeration Vapor
Recovery System
Vapor Condensing
Precooler Unit (Evaporator)
Thermostatic
Expansion
Valve
Hydrocarbon
Vapor Inlet Compressed
Refrigerant
Freon Compressor-
Blower Return Condensor
Treated
Vapor
Power
Input
Power
Input Recovered
Product
Condensate
Collection Tank
Typical Catalyst Oxidation System
Hydrocarbon Treated
Vapor Inlet Vapor Out

Thermal Burner
Zone
Heated Feed
Catalyst Air or Air or
Bed Process Process
Stream Stream

Oxidation
Zone

Preheat Optional Stack

Heat
Recovery