What Is Learning?

Learning is an adaptive function by which our nervous system changes in relation to stimuli in
the environment, thus changing our behavioral responses and permitting us to function in our
environment. The process occurs initially in our nervous system in response to environmental
stimuli. Neural pathways can be strengthened, pruned, activated, or rerouted, all of which cause
changes in our behavioral responses. 

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In
contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. The field of
behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather than
trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes.

Types of Learning

There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning,
in which associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just
as it sounds: learning by observing others.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that

frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov
conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to
associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. The conditioning is achieved
when the sound of the bell on its own makes the dog salivate in anticipation for the meat.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus
strengthening or extinguishing a response. Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect,” in
which behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more
likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely
to be repeated. B. F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting experiments with
rats in what he called a “Skinner box.” Over time, the rats learned that stepping on the lever
directly caused the release of food, demonstrating that behavior can be influenced by rewards or
punishments. He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored
the concept of extinction.

Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those
behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children
often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll
experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll
after viewing adults hitting the doll.

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes

associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a behavioral
response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is usually a biologically
significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) from the
start. The conditioned stimulus is usually neutral and produces no particular response at first, but
after conditioning it elicits the conditioned response.

Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no
longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. When presented with the conditioned stimulus
alone, the individual would show a weaker and weaker response, and finally no response. In
classical-conditioning terms, there is a gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned
response. Related to this, spontaneous recovery refers to the return of a previously extinguished
conditioned response following a rest period. Research has found that with repeated
extinction/recovery cycles, the conditioned response tends to be less intense with each period of
recovery.

Pavlov’s Famous Study

The best-known of Pavlov’s experiments involves the study of the salivation of dogs. Pavlov was
originally studying the saliva of dogs as it related to digestion, but as he conducted his research,
he noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate every time he entered the room—even if he had
no food. The dogs were associating his entrance into the room with being fed. This led Pavlov to
design a series of experiments in which he used various sound objects, such as a buzzer,
to condition the salivation response in dogs.

He started by sounding a buzzer each time food was given to the dogs and found that the dogs
would start salivating immediately after hearing the buzzer—even before seeing the food. After a
period of time, Pavlov began sounding the buzzer without giving any food at all and found that
the dogs continued to salivate at the sound of the buzzer even in the absence of food. They had
learned to associate the sound of the buzzer with being fed.

If we look at Pavlov’s experiment, we can identify the four factors of classical conditioning at
work:

 The unconditioned response was the dogs’ natural salivation in response to seeing or

smelling their food.
 The unconditioned stimulus was the sight or smell of the food itself.
 The conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, which previously had no association
with food.
 The conditioned response, therefore, was the salivation of the dogs in response to the
ringing of the bell, even when no food was present.

Pavlov had successfully associated an unconditioned response (natural salivation in response to

food) with a conditioned stimulus  (a buzzer), eventually creating a conditioned
response (salivation in response to a buzzer). With these results, Pavlov established his theory of
classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning: Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral
stimulus (bell) does not have an effect. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation
of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a
conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Thorndike’s law of effect states that behaviors are modified by their positive or negative
consequences.

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on changes in an individual’s

observable behaviors. In operant conditioning, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new
or continued consequences. Research regarding this principle of learning first began in the late
19th century with Edward L. Thorndike, who established the law of effect.

Thorndike’s Experiments
Thorndike’s most famous work involved cats trying to navigate through various puzzle boxes. In
this experiment, he placed hungry cats into homemade boxes and recorded the time it took for
them to perform the necessary actions to escape and receive their food reward. Thorndike
discovered that with successive trials, cats would learn from previous behavior, limit ineffective
actions, and escape from the box more quickly. He observed that the cats seemed to learn, from
an intricate trial and error process, which actions should be continued and which actions should
be abandoned; a well-practiced cat could quickly remember and reuse actions that were
successful in escaping to the food reward.

Thorndike’s puzzle box: This image shows an example of Thorndike’s puzzle box alongside a graph demonstrating the
learning of a cat within the box. As the number of trials increased, the cats were able to escape more quickly by learning.

The Law of Effect

Thorndike realized not only that stimuli and responses were associated, but also that behavior
could be modified by consequences. He used these findings to publish his now famous “law of
effect” theory. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that
are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by
unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. Essentially, if an organism does
something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an
organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to
do it again.

Education and Theories of Learning

Within the realm of psychology, there are several theories that help explain the ways in which
people learn. By understanding these concepts, students are better able to understand and
capitalize on how they acquire knowledge in school. Behaviorism is based on both classical
conditioning (in which a stimulus is conditioned to create a response) and operant conditioning
(in which behavior is reinforced through a particular reward or punishment). For example, if you
study for your psychology test and receive a grade of A, you are rewarded; in theory, this makes
it more likely that you will study in the future for your next test.
Cognitivism  is the idea that people develop knowledge and meaning through the sequential
development of several cognitive processes, including recognition, reflection, application, and
evaluation. For example, you read your psychology textbook (recognition), you ponder what the
ideas mean (reflection), you use the ideas in your everyday life (application) and then you are
tested on your knowledge (evaluation). All of these processes work together to help you develop
prior knowledge and integrate new concepts.

Constructivism is the concept of constructing new ideas based on previous knowledge. For
example, our prior experiences with a situation help us to understand new experiences and
information. Piaget is most famous for his work in constructivism, and many Montessori schools
are based on the constructivist school of thought.

Types of Learners

People also learn in a variety of ways. Styles of learning are generally grouped into three primary
categories: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Although most people are a combination of these
three types, we tend to have a particular strength in one area. Knowing your strongest learning
type can help you learn in the most effective way; depending on your learning style, you’ll want
to tweak your study skills to get the most of your education.

 Visual learners usually use objects such as flashcards or take and reread lecture notes.
Visual learners will highlight important passages in books or draw pictures/diagrams of
ideas to help better understand the concepts.
 Auditory  learners understand concepts best by listening; many will record a lecture and
play it back to further understand the lesson. Many auditory learners will read aloud and
tend to do well on oral, rather than written, exams.
 Kinesthetic  learners (related to kinesthesia) do best when they act out or repeat something
several times. Role-plays, experiments, and hands-on activities are great ways for
kinesthetic learners to understand and remember concepts.