LECTURES IN

ACOUSTICS ENGINEERING
(Prepared for the students by Dr. Jessebeth S. San Antonio)

ACOUSTICS
Designates something that has the properties, characteristics or physical
dimension of sound.
Derived from the Greek word “akoustikos” meaning “for hearing or ready to
hear”
Science of sound including its production, transmission and effects.

Cause Generation Propagation Reception Effects

What is SOUND?
Subjective:
Sensation produced through the ear by the state of vibration.
Objective:
Alteration in pressure, stress, particle displacement or particle velocity that is
propagated in an elastic medium.

Vibration = Oscillation
Involves:
Period (T) – time required for some phenomena to go back to its origin.
Amplitude (A)- amount of sound pressure.
Frequency- rate of vibration per unit time.

SOURCE DESTINATION

Propagation of Sound
Air cannot sustain shear force, hence vibrations are parallel in the direction of
motion, that is LONGITUDINAL.

Wave Propagation: FREQUENCY

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in
terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our ear interpret sound. What
we experienced as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure
vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second.
The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections:
a. audio b. ultrasonic c. infrasonic
Wave Propagation

PRESSURE LEVELS
In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagates as disturbance in the
ambient pressure level.
While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear.
The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the threshold of hearing.
The loudness of these disturbance is called sound pressure level (SPL), and is
measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.

Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level

Sound Pressure is the force of sound on a surface area perpendicular to the
direction of the sound. The SI units for this are Newton/m 2 or Pascal (Pa).
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is the ratio of a sound pressure with respect to a
reference pressure.
SPL= 20 Log P1/PO
where: P1 = measured pressure
P O = reference pressure
= 2 X 10-5 N/m2 or Pa
Typical Subjective Description of Sound Pressure Levels
 0 – 40 Db : quiet to very quiet
 60 – 80dB: noisy
 100 dB : very noisy
 >120 dB : Intolerable

Sound Pressure/Amplitude vs. Frequency

Sound Intensity Level (I)

Sound intensity is the sound power per unit area. The SI units is W/m 2.
Sound intensity level (I) is the acoustic power of a sound per unit area in
relation to a fixed reference.
The sound intensity level can be expressed as:
  I = 10 log (I/Iref)
where: I = sound intensity level(dB)
-12
Iref= 1x 10 W/m2
Loudness
Subjective perception of sound pressure
SONE – unit of how loud a sound is perceived.
PHON – unit for measuring the apparent loudness of sound.
Velocity
Rate at which sound travels through a conductor
Air: 1128 ft. per second
Wood: 11,700 ft. per second
Steel: 18,000 ft. per second

Room Acoustics
 The shaping and equipping of an enclosed space to obtain the best possible
conditions for faithful hearing of wanted sound and the direction and the
reduction of unwanted sound.
 Room Acoustics deal primarily with the control of sound which originates within
a single enclosure, rather than its transmission between rooms.

PRINCIPAL FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING A ROOM FOR NOISE

CONTROL

1. Type of occupancy (audience)

2. Objective (use of the room; ex. lecture, theater)
3. Room layout
4. Noise sources
5. Sound Insulation (sound absorbent material)
6. Sound Absorption

TYPES OF ROOM LAYOUT

Rectangular shape - used for small number of audience

Fan shape - used for medium size audience
Horse-shoe shape - used for very large audience

The shape of a space determines the sound path within the space.
Concave surface has source focusing effect while Convex surface has source diffusing
effect.
 Volume

Shape

Materials

The Mobility of Sound

Direct Sound

Since sound travels in all directions from

the source, each listener will hear just the
segment if the overall sound wave that is
traveling in a direct line to his ear (in a space
free from reflecting surfaces). As the distance
from the source increases, the sound pressure
at the listener's ear will decrease proportionately.

(Example: good Headphones)

The distance between listener and talker

 The level of the direct speech signal falls by 6 dB for every doubling of distance

Sound Reflection:
Bouncing back of sound.
This occurs if the receiving surface dimensions are greater than sound
wavelength then the reflection follows light reflection principles.
That is angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
The angle of incidence, angle of reflection and the normal on the point of
reflection are all on the same plane.
A Concave surface reflects light in a focused manner, whereas convex surfaces
reflects light in a scattered manner.

Reflecting Materials
• Masonry
• Wood – smooth panels
• Smooth concrete
• Glass

DIFFRACTION: The Sound Squeezes Through

 Sound waves are not always reflected or absorbed.
 When an obstacle is the same size as the wavelength or less, the sound can
bend around obstacles or flow through small openings, and continue onward.
 This is called diffraction.
 This action is more likely for deeper sounds (of low frequency, and this with
longer waveforms).
Sound Absorption:
It is the property of some materials and masses to absorb sound.
Or it is the reduction of sound level as a result of contacting/passing on a
surface.
It depends on sound frequencies, type of materials receiving sound and their
construction.
Sound absorption is different from sound Isolation, many sound absorbing
surfaces have poor sound isolation properties.

Fibrous Absorbers:
Fibrous materials are good for general sound absorption, they can be made from
metallic fibres and tissues.
Their ability for absorption depends on material thickness and sound
frequency.
With more thickness there would be more absorption especially in low
frequencies.
Thickness can be increased by increasing the gap between absorbing surface
and the fixing Wall/ceiling.

Absorption can be obtained by three primary mechanisms:

Porous materials- best for high freq.
Ex. fiberglass, open cell foam, carpet and fabric
Panel boards – best for low freq.
Ex. drywall, plywood, glass panes, sheet metal panels, metal roof decks.
Volume resonators

ROOM ACOUSTICS

An enclosed space in which the behavior of sound is analyzed in order to obtain

the optimum effects to the occupants.
Requirements
1. Adequate amount of sound must reach all parts of the room.
2. Even distribution of sound irrespective of distance
3. Rate of decay of sound must be optimum.
4. Other noise which tend to mask the required sound must be reduced.
 5. Acoustic defects must be avoided.
Acoustics defects:
Long delayed echo - caused by reflection due to long reverberation time
Flutter echo - successive noticeable sound. To avoid flutter echo:
1. Avoid parallel walls and ceiling
2. Use sound absorbent material
Sound shadow - similar to long delayed echo.
Distortion - imperfect response caused by microphones and amplifiers.

A classification of typical rooms by acoustical environments

"Dead" : Very Absorptive

"Live“: Highly Reflective

Live
Auditoriums, theaters (for music)
Obtain proper reverberation time to enhance musical quality.
Provide reflective surfaces near source to reinforce sound;
absorptive surfaces toward rear.

Medium Live
Conference and board rooms
Normal speech must be heard over distances up to about 35 ft.
Allow middle section of ceiling to act as a reinforcing sound-reflector.
Apply absorbent to periphery of ceiling or to wall surfaces (not both).
Additional treatment will contribute little to noise reduction.

Medium
Cafeterias (school or office)
Reduce overall noise level.
Use highly sound-absorptive ceiling; also use quiet equipment such as rubberized
dish trays
Gymnasiums
Instructor must be heard over background noise.
Use acoustical material over entire ceiling to reduce noise; walls remain untreated to
permit some reflected sound.

Medium Dead
Elementary-grade classrooms
Teacher must be heard distinctly; reduce noise level produced by children.
Acoustical ceiling essential. Supplementary acoustical space units on upper rear
and side walls are desirable.

Music rehearsal rooms

Unlike music hall, instructor must hear individual notes distinctly; minimum
reverberation desired.
Entire ceiling, sidewalls, and wall facing musicians would be treated; wall behind
musicians may be left sound-reflective for proper hearing. Room should be located
 away from normal use rooms.
Dead
Kindergarten
Maximum noise reduction.
Maximum acoustical treatment on ceiling; space units on available wall surfaces.

Vocational classrooms and shops

Maximum noise reduction.
Acoustical tile or lay-in panel ceiling, plus acoustical treatment of available upper wall
areas; locate away from normal use rooms.

Reverberation
The perpetuation of reflected sound within a space after the source has ceased.
The time interval between reflections is usually so short that distinct echoes are
not heard. Instead, this series of reflections will blend with the direct sound to
add "depth".
Reverberation is a basic acoustic property of a room.
It can enrich speech and music in all areas -- or it can slur speech and generate
higher noise levels throughout a room, depending upon the room volume,
timing, and absorption.

Parallel reflective surfaces generates unwanted reverberation

REVERBERATION TIME
Is the time it takes for a sound to decay by 60 dB.
Reverberation time is the single most important parameter for judging the
acoustical properties of a room and its suitability for various uses.
High reverberation (long T60 ) is desirable for music (concert halls 1.8 – 2.0
seconds).
Low reverberation (short T60) is desirable for speech intelligibility (such as in a
classroom, 0.4 - 0.6 seconds).

IDEAL REVERBERATION TIME

STEPHEN and BATES equation
Stephens and Bates, have developed a formula for optimum reverberation time.
It’s an approximation that is best suited to frequencies of 500Hz.
It is recommended to add 40% to the resulting T from this equation in low
frequencies.
3
t=r(0 . 012 √ v+0. 1070 )
t = Optimum reverberation time in Seconds.
v = Volume of hall in m3
r = 4, for Speech halls
= 5, for Orchestra Music
= 6, for Coral Music

SABINE EQUATION
(Wallace Sabine, designed the Boston Symphony Hall)

T = KV/a

T60 = .049 V/aS in English where: K = 0.05 in feet

= 0.162 in meters
T60 = 0.16 V/aS in Metric a = absorption coefficient
S = Surface area
Where: 
T60 = Reverberation Time 
V = volume of the space (ft3) 
a = sabins (total room absorption at given frequency)

LIMITATIONS OF SABINE'S EQUATION

1. It is good only for small values of absorption coefficient a (<0.2). This because
if a = 1, T should be zero.
2. For higher values of absorption coefficient this equation gives higher values of
reverberation time than the actual.
3. Eyring's formula gives the actual value of reverberation time and is valid for all
values of reverberation time.
EYRING'S EQUATION (by Carl Eyring)

T60 = 0.16 V/-S Ln(1-α) +4mV

where: V is the volume of the room

S is the sum of the areas of the materials in the room
α is the mean absorption coefficient of all the materials
4mV corresponds to sound absorption by air, where V is
the volume of the room and m is the absorption coefficient of
air, expressed in Sabines/m.

Reverberation time must match room function.

• Pure speech requires short reverberation time
• Symphony blends notes with long reverberation time

Studies based on the audibility of speech and music reveal that the most desirable
reverberation times generally fall within the ranges shown below. These values are
based on a sound frequency of 500 Hz (approximate pitch of male speech).

Reverberation time in seconds

Speech
Small offices 0.50 to 0.75
Classrooms/lecture rooms 0.75 to 1.00
Work rooms 1.00 to 2.00

Music
Rehearsal rooms 0.80 to 1.00
Chamber music 1.00 to 1.50
Orchestral/Choral/
Average church music  1.50 to 2.00
Large organ/liturgical choir 2.00 to 2.25

Reverberation is not all bad - early reflections can increase loudness without
reducing clarity.
 Before leaving the topic of reverberation it is important to note that complete
removal of sound reflection is not necessarily desirable. Early reflections - arriving
within about 30 milliseconds of the direct sound - can add to loudness without
detracting from clarity. One task of the acoustic engineer is to adjust reverberation
times for an optimal balance between loudness and clarity.
Note, however, that the knowledge base of the typical acoustic engineer is derived
from data obtained from normally hearing adults. It is not known how much
adjustment should be made to optimize the acoustic environment for children who are
very young or who have various communicative impairments.

The late components of reverberation

They arrive too late to be integrated with the direct signal or the early
components (more than 1/10 of a second).
If their level is still high enough, they interfere with the current sound by both
physical and perceptual masking.

Text analogy

Late

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Early

The
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list of
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