English Learning and Teaching

1. Who is Studying English?

English is not the most widely spoken language by number

of native speakers, but it is by far the most widely used and
learned. A good way of showing how English learning is
spread over the world is to use the Krachu model. Braj
Krachu is an Indian linguist who put forward his three-circle
model to explain ‘World Englishes’ in the early 1990s. In
this model, a useful distinction is made between countries
where English is the first language of its speakers (The Inner
Circle) and in other countries where English is spoken as a
second language but still widely used as an official
language in media, politics and education (The Outer
Circle). Countries in which English is taught as a foreign
language at school are represented in the outer layer (The Expanding Circle).

According to the British Council, approximately 1.7 billion people were learning and using
English worldwide in 2015. Most of these learners are in non-native English-speaking
countries where English is used as an official language in education, politics and media, e.g.
China, India, Nigeria. Because there are so many people learning English, different terms
have been developed to describe different learner situations. For example, terms like ESL or
EFL are popular, but what do they mean and how are they different? Below you can find the
common terminology for English learners, along with examples of each.
English Learning and Teaching
2. Why Learn English?

While everyone is different, a few common reasons motivate people to learn English. Most
people around the world are learning for school or work. While many people want English
for travel or fun, these people often study in their own time. People taking English courses
often also need English for Academic or Professional Purposes.

English for academic purposes (EAP) is specifically for people who need the language for
school. You will find different types of students in EAP courses:

●      Students in non-English-speaking countries take EAP courses to have a sufficient

proficiency level to be accepted into English-speaking universities. This may include
preparing for proficiency exams like the TOEFL or IELTS.

●      International students in English-speaking universities take EAP courses to improve

their English. This may be alongside regular studies or before beginning their programs, e.g.
pre-sessional courses.

●      EAP can also be high school or university students in non-English-speaking countries

who are learning in their elementary, secondary, or post-secondary programs.

English for specific purposes (ESP) is for people learning English for a specific reason, most
commonly for work. A few different types of ESP courses exist:

●      General business English students learn basic English for the workplace.

●      English for specific professions, for example: English for nursing, engineering, or
accounting.

●      Newcomers in English-speaking countries take ESP courses to develop their

communication skills for applying for work.

3. Knowing Your Learners

You need to know why your students are learning English. At Acadsoc, we generally have a
very clear idea why an individual student has enrolled with us. This is done when they first
contact our company.

Many courses are designed based on a learner needs analysis. This helps teachers focus
lessons on the needs and wants of the students. As you get to know a student, you may
want to ask questions like these:

●      Why are you learning English?

●      How do you want to use the language in the future?

●      Have you taken classes before?

●      What are your biggest challenges using English? (e.g. reading, pronunciation, etc.)

While your students will tell you their motivations, you may need to look a little deeper.
Remember, not every student wants to use English in the future. You will encounter some of
these students too:

●      Some students simply want to pass their elementary or high school English classes so
they can go to university.

●      Some students are forced to take classes by their parents.

●      Some students aren’t sure why they are taking classes.

●      Young learners unable to express themselves, or their reasons for learning English, if
any.

4. 21st Century Skills

Education and learning are constantly evolving. As a teacher, you need to be aware of
general trends in education, especially in the English language learning field. A good
illustration of this would be the Partnership for 21st Century Learning, an American non-
profit organization that outlined the skills people need to communicate in the 21 st century.
This report and subsequent work have been widely adopted by businesses, governments,
and schools around the world. The most well-known part of their work was the four C's,
which are now recognized as the crucial skills people need for school or work. They are as
follows:

●      Communication

●      Critical thinking

●      Collaboration

●      Creativity

Let’s look at these four skills in more detail.

5. Communication

Communication is the ability to explain your ideas clearly. In the 21 st century, people need to
be able to communicate in a variety of ways. Some modern examples include writing emails,
reading graphic texts, or using social media.

As an English teacher, you need to give your students more than the basic language skills.
You also need to help them with 21st century communication. Examples could include: active
listening, using social media in English, creating presentation slides, or comprehending a
subway map.

6. Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking is the ability to solve problems and think critically. Thinking critically
involves evaluating information and considering purpose and bias. In a world of mixed
news, media literacy and critical thinking is now more important than ever.

 
Apart from teaching media literacy and critical thinking skills, you also need to encourage
your English students to think about what they are learning each day. These are some
examples of English learners using critical thinking:

●      Analyse why a grammar rule exists.

●      Justify their answers to reading comprehension questions.

●      Consider their audience and purpose before writing.

●      Reflect on their strengths and weaknesses.

●      Recognize how the four communication skills are interconnected.

●      Find patterns in different language rules.

7. Collaboration

Collaboration is working with others to achieve a common goal. This is a crucial skill in the
modern workplace, so it is now emphasized in the classroom. English learners need the
language to collaborate with others at school, work, or in life. You can help your students
build communication skills they can use with others. These are some good examples:

●      Use polite language to disagree.

●      Give and receive advice and feedback.

●      Take turns in casual conversation and small talk.

●      Ask for clarification.

8. Creativity

Creativity is the ability to see multiple perspectives and find innovative solutions to
problems. Students today are expected to show more than a simple understanding of facts
or rules. They need to demonstrate creativity as well.
Your English students should be able to use the language in creative ways. For example,
they could use hand gestures to show a word they can’t explain. You should also give them
creative ways to demonstrate their understanding of the language. As an example, they
could create a graphic text instead of writing a paragraph. People today communicate in
creative ways, and you should give your students the opportunities to do the same.

9. Personalized Learning

Another major trend in education, highly relevant to Acadsoc teachers, has been the rise of
personalized learning and the learner-centered classroom. The premise is that students all
learn in different ways and at a different pace, so curriculums and teaching should reflect
that.

While you can’t always have a different learning plan for every student, you can use features
of the learner-centered classroom. Here are some:

●      Students can work at their own pace.

●      Students only progress to the next lesson when they demonstrate mastery of a specific
competency.

●      The teacher provides multiple and varied ways for students to demonstrate
understanding.

●      Students can explore their own interests.

●      Students can talk about themselves or their family.

●      Lessons have real-world applications, e.g. to work.

●      Topics are drawn from the student’s background and experience.

●      Students always know why they are learning something, so activities have clear goals
and instructions.
9. Personalized Learning

9.1. Reflection Exercise

When teaching online, some learners, especially younger learners and/or learners at lower
levels may feel more comfortable following class material closely. ‘Personalized learning
strategies’ need to take this into account.

Think about what kind of learners would benefit from the following personalization
strategies:

●      Students can work at their own pace.

●      Students only progress to the next lesson when they demonstrate mastery of a specific
competency.

●      The teacher provides multiple and varied ways for students to demonstrate
understanding.

●      Students can explore their own interests.

●      Students can talk about themselves or their family.

●      Lessons have real-world applications, e.g. to work or debates.

●      Topics are drawn from the student’s background and experience.

●      Students always know why they are learning something, so activities have clear goals
and instructions.

●      Ask students what areas of language they want to work on.

Being a TESOL Teacher

1. English Teaching

Every teacher is different, and there isn’t an exact template to be a good English teacher.
However, good English teachers often share many of the same qualities. Here is an outline:

2. English Teaching Online

Online language learning has its own further set of strategies and best practices. Take time to
read through the following:
3. Reflection Exercise

‘Teachers who are able to speak their students’ first language are more effective TESOL
teachers.’

How much do you agree or disagree with this statement, and what do you think the benefits
and drawbacks are of teachers being able to communicate with their students in their first
language?

Language Acquisition Theory

1. Second Language Acquisition

Second-Language Acquisition (SLA) is the process of learning a second language. The term
most often describes the scientific study of the language learning process. In this regard,
SLA is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics. In this section, three highly influential theories
are introduced briefly.

1.1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of psychology that believes all human actions are a result of positive or
negative feedback. The most famous example is Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs. Pavlov
showed how he could alter the behavior of dogs through classical conditioning. Starting in the
1930s, B.F. Skinner expanded on this idea with his theory of operant conditioning whereby
learning is brought about by changes in behavior. Skinner outlined a method of learning
determined by positive and negative reinforcement feedback, including rewards and
punishment. Through the 1950s and 60s, Skinner applied this theory to language learning, most
specifically in his 1957 book Verbal Behavior. Later his theory became highly influential in the
development of Audiolingualism as a methodology during the 1970s and 80s, used to teach
English as a foreign language. (You will learn more about the history of TESOL methodologies
later on in this unit.)

Skinner's Stimulus -
Response - Reinforcement (SRR) Model applied in the TESOL Classroom.

1.2. Universal Grammar

Universal grammar was a reaction of behaviorism, as it argued that humans have a natural
ability for learning languages. Universal grammar is the idea that people have an innate,
biological set of structural rules to help them learn languages. This theory is most often
attributed to Noam Chomsky.

In universal grammar, Chomsky argued that all languages have an essential structure, which
is something humans are genetically predisposed to. As an example, all languages
distinguish between actions (verbs) and things (nouns). Children must then use this
universal grammar to learn their target language. Chomsky is well known for his criticism of
Skinner and behaviorism. For Skinner, language learning was a product of the environment
(from nurture), while for Chomsky, language learning was innate (from nature + stimulus).
The nature vs nurture debate is a major component of psychology and one that has
shaped language learning and teaching theories for decades.

1.3. Reflection Exercise

For those wishing to become a TESOL teacher, knowing how to identify and compare
behaviorist and innatist perspectives on SLA is useful. This is because it helps teachers be
more ‘reflective’.
 SLA Theory Central Idea Linguist
Behaviorism Children imitate adults. Their correct      Skinner
utterances are reinforced by positive
(behaviorist perspective) feedback (praise) when they
successfully make themselves
  understood.
Universal Grammar Language is an innate capacity that all      Chomsky
humans possess. Every child’s brain
(innatist perspective) possesses a special language-learning
mechanism from birth.
 

Based on your language teaching and learning experiences, which of the two perspectives
on SLA shown in the table above do you agree with the most? Do you view language as a
learned behaviour or as an emergent phenomenon, or both? If you are new to teaching,
please reflect on the theory that makes most sense to you.

1.4. Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Stephen Krashen is an American linguist who put forward a set of five hypothesis to explain
second language acquisition, developed in the 1970s and 80s. This model of second language
acquisition has been extremely influential and continues to help TESOL teachers better
understand the language learning process. Krashen’s model offers a powerful perspective in that
it argues second language acquisition is similar to first language acquisition, and that there is
a difference between learning a language and acquiring it. The model also stresses the
importance of comprehensible input, which argues listening and speaking as being more
important than reading and writing (as it is for infants). 'Comprehensible input' means language
input that is understandable to the learner – Input that is only a little more difficult than their
current level, so that they are able to understand, but still feel challenged enough to improve.
Word Formation and Relationships
1. Word Relationships

As a teacher, you should know how words relate to each other in terms of meaning.
Describing these relationships is often helpful for learners of English. Consider the following
terms:

Synonyms are two words that have the same meaning, e.g.

Excellent/Great

Awful/Terrible

Antonyms are two words that have opposite meanings, e.g.

Excellent - Awful

Large - Small

Compound words combine two words together to make one, e.g.

Watermelon

Sunflower

Moonlight

2. Word Structure

Knowing how to break words down into their component parts is a useful skill for any
TESOL teacher. Consider the following terms:
Roots are the base part of the word (root and base are terms often used interchangeably),
e.g.

Act

Dress

Normal

Prefixes are small grammatical units placed before a word, e.g.

Unhappy

Misplace

Suffixes are small grammatical units placed at the end of words, e.g.

Playing

Normally

3. Prefixes

These are small combinations of letters we can add to the beginning of words. Prefixes
change the meaning of the word. For example, the word “play” can change completely by
adding a prefix - “replay” or “misplay”.

 The table below has common prefixes with their meanings and examples.

Prefix Meaning Example

Anti Against Antibacterial
Bi Two Bipedal
Bio Life Biosphere
De Reverse Degrade
Dis Not Disagree
Im/In Not Impossible
Extra Beyond Extraterrestrial
Micro Small Microeconomics
Mis Incorrect Misconception
Mono One Monolingual
Non Not Nonsense
Over Too much Overprotective
Post After Postgraduate
Pre Before Prenuptial
Re Again Replay
Semi Half Semicircle
Sub Under Subterranean
Trans Across Transcontinental
Tri Three Tricycle
Ultra Extremely Ultrasound
Un Not Undone
Under Not Enough, Below Underground
Up Higher Upgrade
4. Suffixes

Suffixes are combinations that go at the end of words. They are more common than
prefixes, and you can see them in many types of words.

While prefixes change the meaning of the word, suffixes change the form of the word.
Depending on the suffix, a word can change to a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. When you
know the suffix, you may know the part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb):

Learners biggest suffix challenge is making part of speech errors. It’s common for an English
learner to say something like, “I think it’s a really safety city.” In this example, they have
confused the adjective (safe) with the noun (safety). This can be corrected by a better
understanding of suffixes.

You want your students to understand that suffixes can help them expand their vocabulary.
If they know the base word, they can also recognize the word with different suffixes. For
example, if they know the word “play”, they should also know “playful” and “playfully”. You
can encourage your students to notice (not necessary learn by heart) suffixes as a way to
expand their vocabulary and language awareness.

5. Reflection Exercise

Think of any simple vocabulary activity (or task) based on a knowledge of prefixes and/or
suffixes for an intermediate-level, adult learner.

Parts of Speech
1. Verbs

Verbs show actions, states of being, or occurrences. They are one of the most important
types of words. Every sentence in English must have a verb!

Since they are so common and diverse, verbs create a wide variety of challenges for
learners, for every challenge you will develop an appropriate strategy. The following table
describes some areas where you will need to help your students.

2. Nouns

Nouns are people, places, and things. This can be a proper noun, like: Mike, Paris, or
Huawei. Or, it can be a general noun, like: man, city, or company. Along with verbs, nouns
are the most important parts of speech in English. Every sentence needs a noun. You will
find them as subjects (The dog eats) or objects (I like the dog).

Nouns are not as difficult as verbs, but your students will still have significant challenges
using them. For every challenge you will develop an appropriate strategy. The following
table describes some areas where you will need to help your students.

3. Pronouns

Pronouns are words we can use instead of nouns. These are the English pronouns:

Your students need to learn the pronouns in the table above, which is a challenge since
there are so many. It is common for English learners to mix up these pronouns. You also
need to help your students develop the ability to use pronouns correctly. These are some
areas you can focus on:
4. Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns, so they help us describe people, places, and things. For example,
we can say a person is tall, skinny, nice, helpful, smart, etc. We can also use adjectives to
compare things. These are called comparatives (smaller, taller, bigger)
and superlatives (the smallest, the tallest, the biggest).

5. Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs or adjectives. We use them to describe how something is, or how it is
done, including information about time and frequency. Here are some basic examples of
adverb use: He ran away quickly; She is very tall; I often play soccer.

6. Prepositions

These are little ‘grammatical (functional) words’ that have many uses in English. Mainly they
help English grammar make sense. Prepositions can:

●      Show time and place (in the morning, at the bank)

●      Show direction (go through, move toward)

●      Join other words together (I like to run, A basket of flowers)

●      Make prepositional phrases and phrasal verbs (talk about, put on, take off)

7. Articles

We have three articles in English: a, an, the. Articles go before nouns, and they help us know
if the noun is singular, plural, specific, or general.

●      A is for one, general noun (a cat, a car)

●      An is for one, general noun that starts with a vowel sound (an apple, an orange)

●      The is for one or many specific nouns (the cat, the oranges)

8. Conjunctions

Conjunctions are small words that join parts of sentences together. These are the three groups of
conjunctions with a few examples for each:

 
 1. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so)
2. Correlative conjunctions (both, either, neither)
3. Subordinating conjunctions (although, since, if)

9. Reflection Exercise

The most common form of English sentence is subject/verb/object, e.g.

1. The boy kicked the ball.

2. I have a dog.
3. She will buy a computer.

However, once sentences become more complicated, you start to see more parts of speech
(e.g. adverbs and prepositions), e.g:

1. The cat sleeps in my bed.

2. I saw a really great movie last night.
3. She quietly walked down the street.

Divide these 5 sentences by marking the subject, object and other parts of speech.

      1. The boy kicked the ball.

        2. I have a dog.
        3. She will buy a computer.
        4.  The cat sleeps in my bed.
      5. I saw a really great movie last night.

Verb Tenses
1. Verb Tense and Aspect
English has 12 verb tense-aspect combinations broken into three tenses: present,
past, and future, each with four aspects: simple, continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous.
You can see the English verb tenses in the table below.

Note: The word ‘tense’ is commonly used to include both tense and aspect, but
grammatically speaking, tense and aspect are different and used in combination when
describing events. This is a grammatical knowledge point that TESOL teachers need to be
aware of, but not necessarily their students!

2. Simple Present

This is the basic verb tense in English, so it is often the first one students learn. The simple
present is for routine actions or unchanged situations, e.g. I live in China.

3. Simple Past

This is often the second verb tense people learn in English. The simple past is for completed
actions in the past. You use it with times like yesterday, last week, or 1985, e.g. I bought a
jacket yesterday.
4. Simple Future

We use this verb tense to talk about future plans. For this, we can use will or going to  (e.g. I
will eat at 7 pm / I am going to eat at 7 pm.).

5. Present Continuous

The present continuous is for actions that are happening now. This can be right now (e.g. I
am talking on the phone.) or generally now (e.g. I am working in a bank.)

6. Past Continuous

This verb tense is for actions in the past that were continuing before another action
happened. This is most common with interruptions, like in: “I was sleeping when you called
me.” It is also for two actions occurring in the past at the same time, as in: “I was cleaning
while she was doing her homework.”
7. Future Continuous

We use this tense for actions that will continue in the future. This often means what we will
be doing during a certain time frame in the future, e.g. I will be working when she arrives.

8. Present Perfect

The present perfect is one of the most common and most difficult tenses in English. As such, it is
probably the most taught verb tense in English classes. It is for actions in the past that happened
at no specific time (e.g. I have eaten dinner.) It is also for actions in the past that continue into
the present. (e.g. I have lived in this house for five years.)

9. Past Perfect
The past perfect is for actions in the past that happened before other actions. It is not a common
English verb tense, but there are certain times when you need it (e.g. We had finished by the time
you arrived).

10. Future Perfect

This is a less common verb tense, but it does have some important uses. It is for actions that
will be completed by a specific time in the future (e.g. I will have graduated by 2020).

11. Perfect Continuous

The three perfect continuous tenses are not very common in English. The present perfect
continuous has some common uses (e.g. I have been speaking for 10 minutes), but the past
perfect continuous (e.g. I had been speaking for 10 minutes) and future perfect continuous
(e.g. I will have been speaking for 10 minutes) are rarer.

12. Reflection Exercise

TESOL teachers should be comfortable with recognizing and explaining tense to their students.

Identify the tense for the following 3 sentences.

 
1. I have eaten pizza many times. _______________

2. She will be shopping at the mall later today. _______________

3. She was sleeping when I arrived. _______________

Write three sentences matching the tense given in brackets 

1. (simple past)
_______________________________________________________________________

2. (present perfect continuous)

_______________________________________________________

3. (future simple)
_____________________________________________________________________

Challenges for Chinese Speakers

1. Plural Nouns

Using English plural nouns is perhaps the most common challenge for Chinese speakers. It
is both a grammar and a pronunciation issue. This challenge exists because Chinese does
not use plural forms of nouns. Therefore, it is normal for Chinese speakers to drop the final
“s” on a plural noun, like in these example errors, e.g. “There are three pen.”

2. Articles

Articles don’t exist in Chinese, so students find them difficult to use correctly. These are some
common errors your Chinese students will make:

 
They omit the necessary article.

●      “We should buy new table.”

●      “Where is classroom?”

They insert unnecessary articles.

●      “I went to the Hong Kong.”

●      “Does she like the geography?”

They confuse the definite and indefinite articles.

●      “I am a tallest person in my class.”

●      “My father is the accountant.”

3. Pronouns

English uses pronouns more frequently than Chinese. In Chinese, pronouns tend to be left out
when they are implied. Hence, a Chinese speaker might say something like: “I put the money
in right pocket.” In this case, the “my” is implied, but in English it is necessary.

Chinese also does not distinguish between subjective and objective pronouns. That creates errors
like these:

●      “I told she.”

●      “My mother helped he.”

In Chinese, word particles are attachment to pronouns to show possession instead of changing
the form of the pronoun itself – in Chinese, words do not change their form. This can lead to
overuse or simplification of English pronoun use:

●      “The book is my.”

●      “That is they house.”

Chinese does not differentiate between male and female pronouns. This leads to Chinese
speakers mixing up the gender pronouns, like this:

●      “I have a brother. She is an accountant.”

●      “My father lost her phone.”

4. Word Order and Sentence Structure

Chinese uses the same word order in sentences and questions. Therefore, you can commonly see
errors like these:

●      “When she will go?”

●      “You are happy?”

This also creates errors with auxiliary verbs in questions:

●      “You have a brother?” (do)

●      “You went to the park?” (did)

This challenge with word order impacts advanced students too. They will have difficulty using
indirect speech, so you will find errors like these:

●      He asked me what does she like.

●      She wondered where was her friend.

5. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Chinese does not have uncountable nouns. For example, it is possible in Chinese to say, “I have
three interesting newses.” Considering this difference between Chinese and English, it is quite
challenging for Chinese speakers to use uncountable nouns.

6. Other Challenges

The language issues just mentioned cover the most common challenges for Chinese
learners, but not all. Here is a list of some other notable examples:

Verbs

The English and Chinese languages share dramatically different verb systems. Your Chinese
students will have difficulties with many types of tense, and the only way to overcome this
will be by both natural and targeted practice.

Chinese has zero conjugation, that is, verbs do not change their form for tense. This leads to
a general lack of correct conjugation when speaking English, and oversimplification of the
English verb system.
 

●      “I go to the store yesterday.”

●      “I spoked to him last week.”

Conjunctions

In Chinese, conjunctions usually appear in pairs, while English sentences may only use one
conjunction and are more flexible in how they are arranged.

●      “Because I didn’t know the answer, so I kept quiet.” (unnatural sentence structure)

Adjectives

In Chinese, the same word (character) may be used for different parts of speech. And
adjectives in Chinese do not take different forms.

●      “The exam is difficulty.” (noun being used instead of adjective)

●      “My work is very tired.” (-ed adjective used instead of -ing adjective)

Spelling and Punctuation

English is not a phonetic language. This means that in English there is no direct and

consistent relationship between how a word is spelled and how it is spoken. This poses a
challenge for all learners of English, but can be even more difficult for Chinese speakers
whose own language is character-based and non-alphabetic. Rules about punctuation and
capitalization are therefore also problematic, especially for lower level learners.

●      Diner instead of dinner
●      Biger instead of bigger

●      new york instead of New York

Pronunciation
1. Syllables

A syllable is a unit of organization for the sounds of speech. You can think of syllables as the
‘pieces of sound’ we build words with. Every word can be divided into syllables.

As an example, the word “tiger” has two syllables. (ti, ger) The word bicycle has three
syllables (bi, cy, cle). The list below shows words with different numbers of syllables.

2. Syllable Stress

Once your learners understand what syllables are, they need to know how to pronounce
them correctly by using correct stress. Syllable stress is how speakers give emphasis to
different sounds in words by making them longer, louder or higher in pitch.

In every two-syllable word, one syllable is stressed. In words with multiple syllables, only one
carries ‘primary’ stress, the others carry weaker ‘secondary’ or ‘tertiary’ stress.

Look at these examples:

1. Sugar – primary stress at beginning (SUgar)

2. Supply – primary stress at the end (suPPLY
3. Partnership – (PARTnerSHIP)

‘Part’ primary stress at the beginning

‘ner’ reduced, unstressed syllable

‘ship’ secondary stress at the end

3. Unstressed Syllables and the Schwa

Syllables can also be ‘unstressed’. Unstressed syllables are those that are not pronounced as
strongly as the stressed syllable. This is often done for vowel sounds when people speak
naturally and marked by the phonetic symbol /ə/ - the schwa sound, which sounds like ‘uh’.

Recognizing the schwa sound and pronouncing it correctly are two pronunciation
challenges learners of English have. Very often, English learners don’t pronounce the schwa.
So, for example, they will pronounce the “o” in “police” like the “o” in “go” - this sounds
unnatural! Look at the following words and imagine how they would sound if you did NOT
use the schwa sound for the vowel sounds underlined.

4. Reflection Exercise

Syllable stress can be a useful part of English-speaking training. As a teacher, you can help
students recognize syllable stress in exercises and activities that help them determine stress
and pronunciation patterns in English. Not only can this help learners sound better, but it
also offers variety in classes.

Take the word 'pronunciation':

 How many syllables does this word contain?

 On which syllable does the primary stress fall?
 Does the word contain the schwa sound, if so, where?

A note on Young Learners:

Although younger learners (and many lower level adult learners) shouldn’t be expected to
know what a ‘syllable’ is, they can be encouraged to find the ‘loudest’ part or sound in a
word when spoken by a teacher. They can also be asked to exaggerate syllable stress
themselves as part of a sound game or exercise.

Sentence Stress

1. What is Sentence Stress and How is it used?

Sentence stress is the emphasis of a specific word within a sentence. It can be achieved by
speakers when they do the following:

●      Slow your speed (increase the length of the word)

●      Raise your pitch (make the word sound higher)

●      Increase your volume (make the word sound louder)

2. Which Words Do We Stress in a Sentence?

There are no set rules on which words to stress. You can stress different words in a sentence
depending on the situation. Here’s an example sentence with different meanings implied:

●      I  would never go to that restaurant again. (Someone else might, but I won’t)

●      I would never go to that restaurant again. (I will go to others.)

●      I would never go to that restaurant again. (I went before, but never again)

Sentence stress is not an exact science. Decisions about how to use sentence stress depends
on the speaker – how they feel and what they are trying to say. However! There is one
general rule about sentence stress worth mentioning that relates to the type of words within
a sentence:

Content words are usually verbs (actions) and nouns (things). They are the most important
words in sentences because they carry the most meaning, they are therefore often stressed.

Function words are needed for grammar, so include words like articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs. They are not as important as content words, and therefore
carry less stress when speaking naturally.

3. Why Do We Use Sentence Stress?

You saw some example sentences above, and you should be starting to get an idea of why
we use sentences stress. However, it is a complicated topic, and many reasons for sentence
stress exist. Here are some of the important ones.
4. Reflection Exercise

Watch this video. Think about how voice speed, pitch and volume relate to meaning (what the

speaker is trying to express).

How are Volume and Pitch different? 

If an advanced level student asked you what 'sentence stress' was, what would you say?

Intonation
1. Defining Intonation

Intonation is a pronunciation technique that involves raising or lowering the pitch of the
voice. It is mainly used to show the attitude and emotion of the speaker or to signal
grammatical functions. Intonation generally falls into two categories: rising and falling.

1.1. Rising Intonation

This is when the pitch of your voice rises at the end of a sentence. It is most common in the
situations below (rising intonation marked with italics).
1.2. Falling Intonation
This is when your pitch falls at the end of a sentence. It is not as dramatic as rising intonation,
and it can often be distinguished by a lack of rise than a noticeable drop. These are the common
situations for falling intonation (falling intonation marked with italics). 

1.3. Why Teach Intonation?

You need to teach intonation because it is a vital part of spoken English. While native speakers
learn naturally over many years, your students will need direct instruction to learn the details of
English intonation.

Intonation is crucial for communication and is an important part in sounding ‘natural’. It also
plays an important part in meaning. Imagine how sentence stress and intonation may vary over
these two example sentences:

1. “You have eight sisters.” (falling-flat intonation)

2. “You have eight sisters?” (rising intonation)

The only way to know the difference between these sentences is by considering intonation and
stress. In terms of intonation, the statement sentence (1) falls and the question sentence (2) rises.
The word 'eight' would also probably be stressed because having eight siblings of the same
gender is quite rare!

Another reason to teach intonation is because intonation patterns vary across languages and
learners will need to practice the sound patterns in their target language so that they can become
to sound more natural and be better understood.

1.4. How to Teach Intonation?

The following strategies can help you start to think about how to create intonation lessons
for your classes.

Challenges for Chinese Speakers

1. Consonant and Vowel Sounds

The differences in sounds between Chinese and English create a set of difficult vowels and
consonants. Here is a summary of the most difficult English vowels and consonants for
Chinese speakers to pronounce.
1. Consonant and Vowel Sounds

1.1. Teaching Strategies

Teaching pronunciation is a long and complicated task. You won’t find any tricks that help
your students perfect their pronunciation in a few hours. It takes hours of instruction and
practice for them to improve. Here is a summary of strategies that can help you in your
pronunciation classes.

2. Stress and Emphasis

Chinese is a syllable-timed language, while English is a stress-timed language. In stress-timed

languages, some syllables are stressed and others are unstressed. In syllable-timed languages,
like Chinese, every syllable is pronounced with equal force.

So, what does this mean for Chinese speakers? It means that they often face challenges with the
rhythm of English sentences, and as a result, they may sound choppy when they speak as they
apply equal force to all syllables.
English Teaching Methodology
1. Language Teaching Methodology

Language learning has changed since people first started to communicate with speakers of
other languages. In this section, you can see the original methods for teaching languages,
the growth of methodologies in the 20th century, and the rise of the communicative
approach that dominates language classrooms today.

2. People Begin Learning Languages

People have been learning languages for thousands of years. However, until the 20 th century,
there was not an emphasis on learning to communicate with one another. Traditional
language learning was more about understanding and translating reading texts. For
example, people spent hours translating the bible. For most of academic history, one
language learning technique ruled – the grammar translation method.

In the Grammar–Translation Method (GTM), students learn grammatical rules and then

apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native
language. It originated from the practice of teaching Latin in the early 1500s, when students
learned the language purely as an academic discipline. When teachers started teaching
other foreign languages in the 19th century, they used the same translation-based
approach.

3. Modern Language Learning Starts

In the 19th and early 20th century, language learning started to become more than simply an
exercise in translation. People now wanted to communicate with others around the world.
European settlement, world wars, and international trade were some of the global events
that forced people to start learning languages. As such, language teaching methodologies
started to expand. Here you can see some of the most popular, introduced briefly:

The Direct Method of teaching does not use the learners' native language and uses only
the target language. It was established in England around 1900 and contrasts with the
grammar–translation method. It was adopted by key international language schools such as
Berlitz in the 1970s. In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills and uses
real-life objects or other visual materials. Grammar is often taught by inductive methods,
meaning students are guided to discover the rules rather than learning them explicitly.
Using only the target language and inductive grammar teaching are both highly influential
on teaching practices today.

The Audio-lingual Method is based on behaviorist theory, which believes that humans can
be trained through a system of reinforcement, including positive and negative feedback.
Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a
language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or
grammar. The instructor presents the correct model of a sentence and students repeat it,
receiving positive or negative feedback based on the response. The idea is for the students
to practice the construct until they can use it spontaneously.

Total Physical Response (TPR) is based on the coordination of language and physical

movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language with body
movements, and students respond with whole-body actions. Grammar is not taught
explicitly but can be learned from the language input. Total physical response is often used
alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young
learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups.

4. The Communicative Approach Takes Over

In the 1960s and 70s, the demand for language learning was increasing. Europe was
opening up, and people needed to learn languages to live and work in different countries.
At the same time, English was continuing its rise as the global language. As more people
wanted to learn a language, the teaching methodologies continued to advance. However, it
was more than rising demand that sparked change. Researchers, teachers, and students
were starting to realize that traditional methods were having little success. Methods like
grammar translation took years to achieve mastery, and modern language learners like
business professionals and school children simply did not have the time. Many language
students found that with traditional methods, they could perhaps read, write, or pass
grammar exams, but they could not use the language. In addition, linguists like Noam
Chomsky, Merrill Swain, and Dell Hymes were redefining what it meant to be able to use a
language. Thus, the communicative approach was born. Popular communicative
methodologies include:

 
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an
approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the
ultimate goal of study. Students learn and practice the target language interacting with one
another and the instructor, studying "authentic texts", and using the language both in class
and outside of class. Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and
instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar, in order to promote
language skills in all types of situations. CLT prioritizes the ability to communicate in the
target language instead of grammatical competence. CLT also focuses on the teacher being
a facilitator, rather than an instructor.

Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) focuses on the use of authentic language and on

asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include
visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is
primarily based on task outcome rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This
makes TBLT especially popular for developing target language fluency and student
confidence.

5. History of ELT Methodology

You have learned about the six most important language teaching methodologies. Of
course, throughout the years there have been more. As a TESOL teacher, you should learn
about new methodologies and continue to investigate the six you saw in this section. In the
table below, you can see the six you learned with a few other important methodologies and
their key features.
From the early 2000s onward began the ‘Post-method era’, characterized by what is known
as ‘principled eclecticism’. By this time, teaching methods and research in TESOL had
reached a level of maturity, and the TESOL community came to realize that approaches to
teaching need not be so defined. Instead, teachers should feel comfortable in mixing their
methods based on their situation and the needs of their learners.

Online Classroom Activities

1. Role Plays

Role plays are when you act out a situation by playing a role. They are great for giving students a
chance to use English in a meaningful way.

 
Examples:

●      You are a waiter, and the student is a customer. You enact a scene in a restaurant.

●      You are someone who needs advice. The student is your friend giving you advice.

●      You are a travel agent. The student is calling you for information about a trip.

Here are some teaching strategies when using role plays in class.

2. Conversations

Conversations are a less structured way to review language or explore topics. They are, quite
simply, a conversation between you and the student. They are often based on a single topic or a
set of questions. A quick Google search for “second conditional conversation questions” will
give you an idea of what a set of questions may look like.

Examples:

●      You have a warmup conversation with your student about her weekend.

●      You have a conversation with a student using a list of “have you ever” questions.

●      You have a conversation about favourite types of movies and how often the student goes to
the cinema.
 

Here are some teaching strategies when using conversations in class.

3. Tasks

This is an English-teaching term for an activity where a student needs to complete

something – an activity with a purpose. The word ‘task’ is commonly used because of the
popularity of Task-Based Language Teaching.

Examples:

●      Present for 1 minute about your city.

●      Create a survey asking about favourite types of food.

●      Draw and label a map of your neighbourhood.

 

You can learn a lot of detailed strategies for using tasks in the classroom if you investigate
task-based language teaching. For now, here is a quick summary of the key strategies.

4. Games

Games are a great way to inject excitement into your classes. Young learners especially like
games.

Examples:

●      Hangman to practice Halloween vocabulary.

●      Saying the opposite word to the teacher.

●      Puzzles to help the student describe things.

●      Finding characters on a page in a storybook.

Here are some ideas about using games effectively in your classes.
Teaching Resources
1. Resources in the Online Classroom

As a teacher, you can use a variety of resources in your online classroom. Bringing in extra ‘real’
material is a great way to make your classes more interesting. It can also make the learning more
memorable for the student. As an example, they may not remember the time you described a
pineapple, but they are more likely to remember the time you showed them a real one!

Here is a quick summary of some items often used as resources in the online classroom.
2. Physical Resources

Physical resources refer to items you have in your home instead of on the computer. This
could be a toy, a piece of clothing, food, etc. Using props and physical resources make your
lessons more interesting. They are also a nice addition to the digital resources you already
use.

Here are some interesting examples of props you can use:

●      Puppets and dolls are great for children, and you can use them to model
conversations, speaking exercises, and much more.

●      A plastic microphone works well when you want to sing or mimic an interview.

●      Food is an easy item to find in your home, and it is such a common topic when
teaching English

●      Flash cards are a fun way to practice vocabulary.

●      Photos from a magazine or book, or even from your photo album, are an interesting
and visual resource.

●      A flag from your country.

●      Your favourite item or belonging.

●      A book you are currently reading; A colouring book for young learners.

3. Learner-Centred Activities and Resources

One of your first concerns when choosing activities and resources is the impact they will
have on your student. Since you are teaching 1-to-1 classes, you can evaluate the quality of
a resource or activity based on that specific student. Your activities and resources should be
targeted toward the interests of your student. Let’s say you want to practice reading. Do
your students like to read comic books, sports articles, gossip magazines, or news reports?
4. Reading and Listening Material

You want your students to have the chance to read and listen in English, so using outside
material can help with this.

Using Authentic Material

Whenever you have the chance, try to use real-world reading and listening material. You can
find a lot of simplified material targeted to ESL students, but your students will benefit from
using authentic resources. In this case, authentic means anything that is written in English
and unedited.

When students read or listen to authentic material, they have a chance to see how English is
actually used. This will boost their confidence when they can understand “natural English”.
You can also choose material that interests your students. You won’t find examples like
these in ESL textbooks:

●      The trailer for a new action movie

●      An image from the latest anime franchise

●      A video clip from a fantasy role-playing video game

●      A social media post from a celebrity

●      A song from the hottest new band

Quite often, authentic materials are too difficult for your students, or inappropriate for
young learners. Lower levels won’t be able to read news articles and young learners will not
be interested in heavy text. Don’t let that discourage you. You can find lots of simple,
authentic English materials for your lower level students, too. Here are some examples:

●      Menus

●      Posters

●      Schedules or timetables

●      Advertisements

●      Social media posts

●      Weather reports

●      Nursery Rhymes

●      Children’s songs

5. Choosing Activities and Resources

As a TESOL teacher the activities and resources you choose need also be related to whether or
not you want your learner focus on accuracy or fluency, or whether you want them to
perform controlled or free practice.

6. Accuracy vs. Fluency

Accuracy is the ability to produce sentences with no grammar or language

errors. Fluency is the ability to produce sentences coherently and smoothly. For every
activity you do in class, you need to decide if you want students to focus on accuracy or
fluency.

 
Imagine you are teaching a lesson about cooking vocabulary. An activity to practice accuracy
could be using picture flash cards or completing a fill-in-the-blank exercise. A fluency activity
could be having a conversation about cooking.

7. Controlled vs. Free Practice

Controlled practice forces the student to use the target language. Free practice allows

them to use any language structures they want. For the most part, controlled practice
focuses on accuracy and free practice focuses on fluency.

Imagine you are teaching the first conditional (If… I will…). After explaining the structure, you
may want to give your student some controlled practice and then freer practice. Controlled
practice could be in the form of a 'gap fill' exercise, e.g. If she wins she ______ be very _____.
Free practice could be in the form of a more 'open-ended' and higher level question, e.g. If you
won the lottery, what would you do?

8. Reflective Exercise

Read the following activities listed below. Which do you think are controlled or free
practice?

 Multiple choice quiz on the present continuous

 Using the simple future to make sentences about weekend plans
 Having a conversation about evening plans
 Using modal verbs to give advice
 Conducting a role play for shopping in a shoe store
 Matching vocabulary with pictures
 Writing a letter to a friend
 Presenting a video and then comment

English Proficiency Assessment

1. Assessing English Proficiency

Governments, schools, companies, and organizations around the world assess English
proficiency in a variety of ways. For example, in Canada, government-funded organizations
use the Canadian Language Benchmarks to assess English proficiency. This benchmark
system is only used in Canada, and many other counties have a different, but similar,
version. In order to make these individual benchmarks work together, one system has
become widely adopted around the world.

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is a guideline used

to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly,
in other countries. It was put together by the Council of Europe. Its main aim is to provide a
structure of learning, teaching and assessing which applies to all languages in Europe. The
six CEFR reference levels (see the CEFR table) are widely accepted as the European standard
for grading an individual's language proficiency.

You can see the chart uses statements with “can”. This is a common feature of proficiency
frameworks. These “I can” statements help students and teachers focus on what they can do
rather than on what they can’t. The statements also easily relate to the functional
language people need in the real world (e.g. I can give advice; I can understand simple
directions).
2. The CEFR in China

Initially, the CEFR was widely used in China to assess English proficiency. However, over
time, China began to find the CEFR was insufficient for English learners in the country. First,
the CEFR was developed in Europe, so Chinese officials believed it was not as applicable to
Chinese students. Also, it was not easy to use on exams, which is essential in the Chinese
market. This eventually led to China creating its own assessment tool – the CSE.

The China Standards of English (CSE) is a national framework of English language ability
created by the Chinese Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission in 2018.
The framework has basic, intermediate, and advanced categories, with nine levels in total.
This includes criteria for reading, writing, listening, speaking, grammar, and pronunciation. A
unique aspect is the standards listed for translation and interpretation, which are seldom
seen on proficiency assessments in other parts of the world. The CSE is becoming more
widely used in China as it has recently been mapped to the IELTS and other proficiency
exams.

3. Popular English Exams in China

The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is a standardized test of English
language proficiency for non-native English language speakers. The test has two versions.
The academic test is accepted by thousands of English-speaking colleges and universities
around the world. The general training version is accepted by the UK, Canada, and Australia
for immigration purposes. The IELTS is the world’s most popular English proficiency exam.

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is a standardized test to measure the
English language ability of non-native speakers wishing to enroll in English-speaking
universities. The test is accepted by many English-speaking academic and professional
institutions. TOEFL is a trademark of the Educational Testing Service (ETS), a private non-
profit organization, which designs and administers the tests. ETS issues official score reports,
sent independently to institutions, for two years following the test.

4. Standardized Assessments

ACADSOC has a system of 16 proficiency levels that map to the CEFR, IELTS, TOEFL, and
Cambridge English Exams. You can see how these relate in the image below.
Acadsoc Levels Mapped to CEFR, IELTS and TOEFL

ACADSOC uses 16 levels to target learner needs. For example, in the ACADSOC system,
CEFR bands A1 and A2 are divided into six different levels (L1-L3 and L4-L6, respectively).
This is done because it allows Acadsoc to develop and target materials at learners more
closely. Generally speaking, having more levels in a teaching and assessment system helps
guide learners through the language learning process more steadily. 

5. Reflection Exercise

Read the following spoken sentences and decide what CEFR and Acadsoc levels they could
represent.

1. “I like red.” _____

2. “Blue is probably my favorite color.” _____

3. “I think red is a fantastic color, in my culture it represents luck!” _____

Assessment and Evaluation

1. Assessment Procedures at Acadsoc

English language programs use several types of assessments. The three most important
are diagnostic, formative, and summative.

1. Diagnostic Assessment
This is an assessment before a course, unit, or lesson. The purpose of a diagnostic test is to
determine a student’s current language level, and their strengths and weaknesses. Once
these details are known, students can be recommended to a course or program. 

At Acadsoc new students are assessed initially by a course consultant and on the basis of a
trial lesson. New students also have the option of an online assessment through Acadsoc’s
Online English Language Test (AOET) – a computerized test taken individually online.

2. Formative Assessment

This is an assessment that occurs during the learning process and is designed to measure a

student’s progress in relation to what they are learning. Results from formative assessment
help teachers modify what they are teaching and how they teach, all for the benefit of the
student. Types of formative assessment include: practice tests, quizzes, teacher observations,
journals, homework, and more.

At Acadsoc formative assessment takes the form of an ‘Achievement Test’ which appear

periodically through a student’s course of study, usually every 10 lessons or so. These are
designed to highlight progress and to identify areas of strength and weakness. Results from
achievement tests are then used to inform future study plans.

3. Summative Assessment

These assessments evaluate student learning against a benchmark or goal. They occur at the
end of a learning unit or lesson, and they impact the student’s final grade. Summative
assessments use quantitative feedback, most often in the form of a number or grade.
Examples include: exams/tests, assignments and presentations.

At Acadsoc summative assessment takes the form of a ‘Level Test’ which appears at the
end of a student’s course of study. These are delivered by Acadsoc teachers and are
designed to assess whether or not a student is ready to progress to the next level.

2. Feedback Procedures at Acadsoc

At Acadsoc, students receive two forms of feedback, one from the teacher at the end of
every lesson (the main form of feedback), and the other provided by students to teachers
and themselves about their own performance, where appropriate.

 
1. Teacher Feedback

Acadsoc teachers are required to leave constructive (not critical!) and positive comments on
learner performance for every class they teach. These comments are then available to be
seen by other teachers, and parents, at a later date.

2. Self-Feedback

This is when students give themselves feedback on their own work with the teachers help.
This type of feedback is informal and usually comes at the end of some kind of task, e.g.
talking about a picture, or writing a few sentences (or phrases) about a picture under timed
conditions.

Self-feedback is an excellent way for students to become more familiar with their own
strengths and weaknesses, and is also useful for increasing language awareness.

3. Assessing Language Communication

Communication in English is often broken into the four main skills: reading, writing,
listening, and speaking. These are the skills you see on proficiency exams like the IELTS or
TOEFL, as well as in frameworks like the CEFR. 

3.1. Assessing Reading

The ability to read can be broken into various skills. As a teacher, you will need to target
those individual skills in your assessments. Here is a list of three types of activity which you
can use when assessing reading, or when doing any kind of reading task:

1. Reading for specific detail. These questions ask learners to look for specific
information in a text, e.g. How many animals were in the story?

2. Reading for the main idea. These questions ask learners to summarize, paraphrase
or talk about something they have read. Describing something in your own words is
good proof that you have understood it.

 
 3. Reading for Inference. These questions ask higher-level learners to draw
conclusions from the text that are not explicitly stated, e.g. Do you think the writer is
being fair?

Remember!  As an online teacher you will find that reading activities are a popular way of
practicing and assessing your students. Speaking and listening assessments are done
continuously as you interact, whilst writing is a less commonly practiced skill “in class”.
Reading tasks, however, can be done comfortably in class and often form a basis on which
other skills are practiced.

3.2. Assessing Listening

The types of listening comprehension questions you see are very similar to reading. You
often find questions related to finding specific detail or to understanding the main idea.
Teachers who know about these different types of questions are able to design and carry
out better assessment. Here is a list of three types of activity which you can use when
assessing listening, or when doing any kind of listening task:

1. Listening for specific detail. These questions ask learners to listen for specific

information and are generally quite straightforward, e.g. What time does the class
begin? Where does Peter need to return the bicycle?

2. Listening for the main idea. These questions ask learners to summarize what they
hear and require some free thinking, e.g. What is this conversation mainly about?

3. Listening for Inference. These questions are generally more difficult and require
students to use information to make predications and think more deeply, e.g. What
do you think Lucia will do next? Was the person speaking angry?

3.3. Assessing Speaking

Speaking is often the most difficult of the four skills for students. It can also be the most
challenging to assess because it is subjective. Unlike reading and listening, it is difficult to
create a speaking question that has a right or wrong answer. However, you can quantify
your assessment and provide different areas for your students to demonstrate ability. Here
is a list of three things you can think about as a teacher when assessing someone’s spoken
English:
 

1. Fluency. Does the speaker speak uninterrupted? How smooth is their speech?

Fluency is often measured by the avoidance of repetition, hesitations, and fillers (uh,
um).

2. Coherence. How easy is it to understand the speaker? This can be measured by

evaluating organizational strategies, such as introductions, conclusions, and
transitional words (e.g. for example; on the other hand).

3. Pronunciation. How clear and natural does the speaker sound? This includes a

variety of features, such as vowel sounds, consonant sounds, words, intonation,
stress, and correct emphasis.

3.4. Assessing Writing

Writing is a complicated skill to assess because it brings together so many different
components, such as vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, organization, and more. Writing is
a very important skill as it gives teachers an idea of a learner’s internal understanding of
language. For new teachers assessing writing may seem like a complicated task, but it can
be made easier if teachers ask themselves the following questions when looking at a
student’s work:

        1.      Are there any spelling or punctuation errors?

        2.      Is the handwriting clear enough to read comfortably?

        3.      Are words being used in the correct way?

        4.      Is there a good range of words being used?

        5.      How many grammatical errors are there?

        6.      Is the work well organized into sentences and paragraphs?

        7.      How well does the content match the writing task or answer the question?

 
Remember!  When considering these assessment questions, teachers need to keep the
student’s age and level in mind. It is also worth noting that teachers should not over-correct
writing or offer too many suggestions, as this can overwhelm some students. In the majority
of cases, it is advisable to only focus on the most obvious problems that you think will be
most helpful in helping the student improve.

Developing Language Assessments

1. Validity

This is the most important consideration when developing assessments. When

psychological or educational researchers create tests or experiments, their first concern is if
the test is valid. Validity is how well the assessment measures a learning goal. For example,
if you want to evaluate pronunciation, does the assessment actually do that? If you give
your student a written, multiple-choice test on pronunciation sounds, you haven’t measured
the student’s pronunciation. This is an example of an invalid assessment. Another example,
common in language schools, is to do with the ability to actually communicate effectively.
Many schools have a curriculum based on communicative skills; however, their placement
test is a multiple-choice grammar and vocabulary exam. This kind of test is not a valid way
to assess communicative skills, so many students end up in the wrong level, or struggling.

2. Reliability

Reliability is how consistently the assessment measures expectations. If the student took
the test again, would they get the same score? If so, the assessment is considered reliable.
Reliability is something that takes time as you alter and improve your assessments. With
enough data, you can start to see if an assessment is reliable. If your students are getting
completely different scores on an assignment or test, you may have a reliability issue. One
concept to think about when trying to have a reliable assessment is consistency. If you are
using the same assessment with multiple students, you need the assessment to be
consistent for fairness. Here are some examples of how you can do this:

●      Give the same time to complete the assessment.

●      Use the same instructions.

●      Use the same assessment tool (e.g. rubric; mark sheet; follow the same instructions).

●      Use the same type of question and format.

3. Considerations in Assessment

It’s useful to understand more complicated concepts of assessment, like validity and
reliability, but you also need to use common sense when carrying out assessment. Here are
some final questions you should ask yourself when thinking about assessment:

Have you considered cultural differences?

You need to consider how the culture and background of your students impacts their
knowledge. You can’t, for example, give your Chinese students a reading about hockey and
expect them to know the rules of the game. You also don’t want to make cultural
assumptions. In a similar example, you can’t give your Chinese students a reading about the
Great Wall of China and expect they know the background simply because they are Chinese.

Another thing to note when considering Chinese learners is that assessment results are
viewed as being important, especially if the assessment is final (summative). Placing an
importance on examinations is the norm in Confucian cultures like China.

Have you considered motivation?

Understanding what is motivating students to learn English is important, especially when it

comes to formative assessment. For instance, a student taking an IELTS or TOEFL
preparation course will be motivated by the feedback you give them, as this can directly
improve their exam performance. Conversely, a young learner or adult learner learning
general spoken English may not view ‘assessment scores’ with as much importance.

4. Reflection Exercise

When assessing a learner's spoken English, it is common to consider how fluently they speak and
the range of words they use. What other features do you think we could comment on as teachers?