UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

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Program : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Mechanical (EM220/EM221)

Course : Applied Mechanics Lab
Code : MEC 424
Lecturer : PROF DR. RAMZYZAN BIN RAMLY
Group : EM220 4M1A
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MEC 424 - LABORATORY REPORT

TITLE : Bending in Beam

No NAME STUDENT ID SIGNATURE

1 Muhamad Akmal Wafiy bin Muhamad Bakri 2017508337
2 Alif Azri bin Omar 2017390929
3 Ahmad Nazirul Mubin bin Abdul Latiff 2017350351
4 Ahmad Rashdan bin Baharudin 2017395465

LABORATORY SESSION : 2 / 10 / 2018

(DATE)

REPORT SUBMISSION : 9 / 10 / 2018

(DATE)
*By signing above you attest that you have contributed to this submission and confirm that all work you have contributed to this
submission is your own work. Any suspicion of copying or plagiarism in this work will result in an investigation of academic
msconduct and may result in a “0” on the work, an “F” in the course, or possibly more severe penalties.

Marking Scheme

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
ABSTRACT

In Applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of

a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a
longitudinal axis of the element. Bending in beam test is carried out to determine the elastic
modulus (E) of beam specimen by method of deflection. Through the test, we can get the
parameter such as deflection. This parameter we use to calculate the bending moment and
elastic modulus of the specimen. We use the different specimen to differentiate which
materials that have high elastic modulus. The materials we use are mild steel, aluminium and
brass. We applied the load on the both end of the specimen and record the deflection of the
specimen. We start with 2kN of load and adding 2kN of load each until the total load exceeds
16kN. The elastic modulus that we have calculated would be compare with the theoretical
value.
TABLE OF CONTENT

Content Page

 Abstract .............................................................................................................. i
 List of Figures ……………………………………………………………...… ii
 Introduction …………………………………………………………………... 1
 Theory ………………………………………………………………………... 2
 List of Symbols …………………………………………………………....…. 3
 Procedure …………………………………………………………………….. 7
 Result …………………………………………………………………………. 9
 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………. 12
 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 13
 References …………………………………………………………………... 14

List of Figures

Figure 1: …………………………………………………………………………… 2
Figure 2: …………………………………………………………………………… 2
Figure 3: …………………………………………………………………………… 4
Figure 4: …………………………………………………………………………… 4
Figure 5: …………………………………………………………………………… 5
Figure 6: …………………………………………………………………………… 6
Figure 7: …………………………………………………………………………… 7
Figure 8: …………………………………………………………………………… 7
Figure 9: …………………………………………………………………………… 7
Figure 10: ………………………………………………………………………….. 7
Figure 11:………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Figure 12:…………………………………………………………………………. 8
INTRODUCTION

Beams are long straight members that are subjected to loads perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis. They are elements that have capability to withstand load by resisting
bending. They are classified according to the way they are supported such as, simply
supported, cantilevered, or overhanging. Bending or also known as flexure characterizes the
behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly
to a longitudinal axis of the element.

The experiment is done at the Material Strength Laboratory at Faculty of Mechanical

Engineering which was observed under our lecturer, Mr. Mohd Shaifuddin. With the suitable
wear of laboratory safety and under observation of technicians or lecturers, we can enter the
laboratory to make this experiment.

In this experiment, Young’s modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic
modulus will be determined by using deflection method. Deflection of a beam is the
displacement of a point on the neutral surface of a beam from its original position under the
action of applied loads. This deflection can be calculated using the moment of inertia,
modulus of elasticity along with other section properties that will depend on the given
situation acted on the beam.

The elastic modulus of materials depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue
deflection occurs. This property is can be found in the materials itself and must be determined
by experiment. The tests that can perform in this regard is put the load on the end of the
specimen and record the deflection occur. There are several important mechanical properties
of a material can be determined from this test, it is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the elastic modulus in many engineering materials such as metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composites.

In the engineering field, bending is a process by which metal can be deformed by

deforming the material and changing its shape. The materials are stressed beyond the yield
strength but below the ultimate tensile strength. The surface area of materials does not change
too much. But bending can be refers to deformation about one axis. There are several
methods in calculating the beam deflection such as Macaulay’s method (also known as
double integration’s method), singularity function method, super-position method and energy
method. But in this experiment we commonly use the Macaulay’s Method (double integration
method).
THEORY

Bending In Beam

This experiment limited to beam that having a cross sectional area that is symmetrical
with respect to an axis, and the bending moment is applied about an axis perpendicular to this
axis of symmetry.

Bending moment causes the material within the bottom portion of the bar to compress
and the top part to stretch. Consequently, between these two regions there must be a surface,
called the natural surface, in which longitudinal fibers of the material will not undergo a

change in length.
Figure 1: Bending Beam

Through these information, we can make three assumptions regarding the way the
stress deform the material :

1. The longitudinal axis x, which lies within the natural surface does not experience any
changes in length. ( The moment will tend to deform the beam so that this line becomes a
curve that situated in x-y plane of symmetry.)
2. All cross sections of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
during the deformation.
3. Any deformation of the cross section within its own plane will be neglected.

Due to the deformation, the longitudinal strain varies linearly from zero at the neutral
axis to the maximum at the outer fibres of the beam. Provided the material is homogeneous
linear elastic, then the stress also varies in a linear fashion over the cross section.
The natural axis passes through the centroid of the cross sectional area. This result is
based on the fact that the resultant normal force acting on the cross section must be zero.
 Figure 2: Stress Through The Centroid

The flexure formula is based on the requirement that the resultant internal moment on the
cross section is equal to the moment produced by the normal stress distribution about the
neutral axis.

Flexure Formula

M E σ
= =
I R y

σmax = Mc/I

• σmax = maximum normal stress in the member, which occur at a point on the cross
sectional area farthest away from the neutral axis.
• M = resultant internal moment.
• c = point where σmax acts. ( from neutral axis)
• I = the cross sectional area about the neutral axis.

Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature, R, of a curve at a point is a measure of the radius of the circular arc
which best approximates the curve at that point. It is the inverse of the curvature. In the case
of a space curve, the radius of curvature is the length of the curvature vector. In the case of a
plane curve, then R is the absolute value of

L2
R=
8y

Moment of Inertia
The Area Moment Of Inertia of a beams cross-sectional area measures the beams ability to
resist bending. The larger the Moment of Inertia the less the beam will bend. The moment of
inertia is a geometrical property of a beam and depends on a reference axis. The smallest
Moment of Inertia about any axis passes through the centroid. The following are the
mathematical equations to calculate the Moment of Inertia:

I x =∫ y 2 dA ..................................................................................... Ix equation (1)

I y =∫ x 2 dA ..................................................................................... Iy equation (2)

y is the distance from the x axis to an infinitesimal area dA.

x is the distance from the y axis to an infinitesimal area dA.
Figure 3: Moment of Inertia of Beam

❑
A
I¿ I x ' =∫ y dA
A
h
¿ 4∫ y2
0
( b2 dy )
h
b y3
¿4
2( )[ ]3
2

0
3
bh
¿
12

Modulus Of Elasticity

A Modulus of Elasticity, E is a mathematical expression to show the tendency of an object or

material to deform elastically when a force is applied to it.

MR
E=
I

Modulus of elasticity can be defined as a rate of change of strain as a function of stress.

Figure 4: Graph of Modulus of Elasticity
Pure Bending

Pure bending is a condition of stress where a bending moment is applied to a beam without
the simultaneous presence of axial, shear, or torsional forces. Pure bending occurs only under
dM
a constant bending moment (M) since the shear force (V), which is equal to =V , has to
dx
be equal to zero. In reality, this state of pure bending does not practically exist, because such
a state needs an absolutely weightless member. The state of pure bending is an approximation
made to derive formulas.

Pure bending is a condition of stress where a bending moment is applied to a beam

without simultaneous present of axial, shear or torsional forces.

Figure 5: Pure Bending

2
L
2 2
R = ( R− y ) + ()
2
2
2 2 2 L
R =( R −2 Ry + y ) +
4
Then we cancel out y2 because it will become smaller (maybe what my representative lecturer
means the value of y2 are very small). So:
L2
R= ................................................................................................. (1)
8y

Then:
EI
R=
M

𝑀=(𝑥) so,
 EI
R= ................................................................................................. (2)
W ( x)

Then combine both equation (1) and (2) together:

L2 EI
=
8 y W (x)

W EI 8
∅= =
y L2 x

Figure 6: Slope of the Pure Bending

PROCEDURE

1. Firstly, measured all of the beams (aluminium, mild steel, brass) started from the length,
width and height by using meter ruler.

Figure 7: Beams and meter ruler

2. Measured, marked and recorded the lengths from the side wall to the center of the beam.
Make sure the dial caliper was set at the center of the beam which can followed the
guide’s rod.
3. Put the aluminium’s beam on the cantilever beam setup followed the marking that had
been made before to make it at center.

Figure 8: Put beam on the cantilever beam setup Figure 9: Dial caliper
4. Locked the hanger at the displacement of 15 cm from the edge of the cantilever beam
setup.

Figure 10: Locked hanger.

5. Then set the reading of the dial callipers to zero.
6. For the first experiment, put the weights started from 2 N to both weight-hangers at the
same time. It is to prevent the reading of the dial calliper run.
 Figure 11:Put 2N

7. Took the reading of the dial caliper by multiplied by 0.01 mm.

8. And then increased the weights by addition of 2 N at both side at the same time until 16
N both.

Figure 12: Weights

9. Recorded all the value for weight (W) and measured the deflection max at every
increment.
RESULTS

Load Deflection (m)

(N) Mild Steel Brass Aluminium
0 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 0.260 0.160 0.145
4 0.520 0.340 0.400
6 0.760 0.510 0.605
8 1.040 0.680 0.815
10 1.280 0.820 1.020
12 1.540 1.010 1.230
14 1.750 1.180 1.430
16 2.100 1.350 1.630

Table 1: Tabulated results

Load (N) vs Deflection (m) of Brass

18

16

14

12

10
Load (N)

0
0.000 0.160 0.340 0.510 0.680 0.820 1.010 1.180 1.350

Deflection (mm)

Table 2: Graph of load vs deflection of brass

 Load (N) vs Deflection (m) of Aluminium
18

16

14

12

10
Load (N)

0
0.000 0.195 0.400 0.605 0.815 1.020 1.230 1.430 1.630

Deflection (mm)

Table 3: Graph of load vs deflection of aluminium

Load (N) vs Deflection (m) of Mild Steel

18

16

14

12

10
Load (N)

0
0.000 0.260 0.520 0.760 1.040 1.280 1.540 1.750 2.100

Deflection (mm)

Table 4: Graph of load vs deflection of mild steel

CALCULATIONS

Formula Material
Mild Steel Aluminium Brass
Slope

dy 4−2 4−2 4−2

ϕ= ¿ ¿ ¿
dx 0.52−0.26 0.400−0.195 0.34−0.16

N N N
¿ 7690 ¿ 9756.1 ¿ 11111.1
M M M
Moment of Inertia

b h3 (0.0203)(0.004)3 ¿¿¿ (0.02)(0.006)3

I= ¿ ¿
12 12 12
= 4.65 x 10-10 m4
= 1.083x 10-10 m4 = 3.6 x 10-10 m4
Modulus of

Elasticity ¿(7690) ¿ ¿ ¿( 9756.1) ¿ ¿ ¿(11111.1)¿ ¿

ϕx L2 =213.0 x 109 Pa =62.9 x 109 Pa =92.6 x 109 Pa

E=
8I

Table 5: List of sample calculations

Percentage error

Theoritical−Experimental
Percentage error = ×100 %
Theoritical

Mild Steel:

210GPa−213 GPa
×100 %=−1.42 %
210 GPa

Aluminium:

70GPa−62.9 GPa
×100 %=10.14 %
70 GPa

Brass:

100GPa−92.6 GPa
×100 %=7.4 %
100 GPa
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

DISCUSSION

The theoretical value of elastic modulus for each beam specimen is calculated from
the theoretical formula first. The experimental values for elastic modulus is then calculated
from the data in experiment. For aluminium, the theoretical value is 70×109 Pa while its
experimental value is 62.9×109 Pa. Next, for mild steel, theoretical values is 210×109 Pa
meanwhile the experimental value is 213.0×109 Pa. Then, for brass the theoretical value for
elastic modulus is 100×109 Pa and its experimental value is 92.6×109 Pa. The error for
aluminium is 10.14%, while mild steel is -1.42% and finally brass 7.4%. The most deflection
at 16N load is aluminium and the least deflection is brass.

There are some error during the experiment. Various error may have occur and one of
them is human error. This error usually occur during experiment especially during taking data
or calculation. Then, double checking when data writing and calculating is important in order
to prevent that error occur. Another common mistake occur during experiment is parallax
error. This is due our eyes not perpendicular to the scale when taking data resulting to
inaccurate reading. This can be prevented by make sure our eyes properly aligned when
taking reading. Last not least, systemic error due to faulty machines or apparatus. The
machine used in the experiment have been used for a long time, may cause it give an
inaccurate reading. Then, service the old machine and replacing old tools with new ones.
Defects of the specimen used also includes in systemic errors.

The deflection method used in this experiment is just one of the way to determine
Young’s modulus. There are several different ways to determine Young’s modulus of a
material. The other method is using stress-strain curve. Next, Resonant Frequency Damping
Analyzer also one of the method. Besides, ultrasonic pulse echo technique can be use to
determine Young’s modulus. These other methods are far more accurate than the deflection
method but requires special equipment that are mostly expensive. The deflection method is
more suitable be used for students.
CONCLUSION

From the experiment, we have successfully to find out the elastic modulus of
aluminium, mild steel and brass. We manage to obtain the value of Young’s modulus and can
be considered valid as they only slightly differs from the theoretical values. Meanwhile, the
percentage of error is rather small. The deflection method is just one of the many methods
that can be used to determine the elastic modulus of a material. Therefore the objectives of
the experiment are achieved.