Summary Instrument D or Class E airspace.

Unless otherwise authorized, each

aircraft must establish two-way radio communications
Airspace
with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to
Airspace Classification Airspace in the United States is entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those
designated as follows: communications while in the airspace.

1. Class A. Generally, airspace from 18,000 feet mean sea 5. Class E. Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C,
level (MSL) up to and including flight level (FL) 600, or D, and is controlled airspace, then it is Class E airspace.
including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 Class E airspace extends upward from either the surface
nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
states and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all pilots controlled airspace. When designated as a surface area,
must operate their aircraft under instrument flight rules the airspace is configured to contain all instrument
(IFR). procedures. Also, in this class are federal airways,
airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet above
2. Class B. Generally, airspace from the surface to 10,000 ground level (AGL) used to transition to and from the
feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terminal or en route environment, and en route
terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. domestic and offshore airspace areas designated below
The configuration of each Class B airspace area is 18,000 feet MSL. Unless designated at a lower altitude,
individually tailored, consists of a surface area and two Class E airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over the United
or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble States, including that airspace overlying the waters
upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to contain within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states
all published instrument procedures once an aircraft and Alaska, up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, and
enters the airspace. An air traffic control (ATC) clearance the airspace above FL 600.
is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all
aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services 6. Class G. Airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D, or
within the airspace. E. Class G airspace is essentially uncontrolled by ATC
except when associated with a temporary control tower.
3. Class C. Generally, airspace from the surface to 4,000
feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) Special use airspace is the designation for airspace in
surrounding those airports that have an operational which certain activities must be confined or where
control tower are serviced by a radar approach control limitations may be imposed on aircraft operations that
and have a certain number of IFR operations or are not part of those activities.
passenger enplanements. Although the configuration of
each Class C area is individually tailored, the airspace
usually consists of a surface area with a 5 NM radius, an
outer circle with a 10 NM radius that extends from 1,200
feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation and an
outer area. Each aircraft must establish two-way radio
communications with the ATC facility providing air traffic
services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter
maintain those communications while within the
airspace.

4. Class D. Generally, airspace from the surface to 2,500

feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL)
surrounding those airports that have an operational
control tower. The configuration of each Class D airspace
area is individually tailored and, when instrument
procedures are published, the airspace normally
designed to contain the procedures. Arrival extensions
for instrument approach procedures (IAPs) may be Class
The minimum en route altitude (MEA) ensures a navigation tools, these NAVAIDs can also transmit voice
navigation signal strong enough for adequate reception broadcasts.
by the aircraft navigation (NAV) receiver and obstacle
Tactical air navigation (TACAN) channels are represented
clearance along the airway.
as the two- or three-digit numbers following the three-
The minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA), as letter identifier in the NAVAID boxes. The AeroNav
the name suggests, provides the same obstruction Products terminal procedures provide a frequency-
clearance as an MEA; however, the NAV signal reception pairing table for the TACAN-only sites. On AeroNav
is ensured only within 22 NM of the closest NAVAID Products charts, veryhigh frequencies and ultra-high
defining the route. frequencies (VHF/UHF) NAVAIDs (e.g., VORs) are
depicted in black, while low frequencies and medium
The minimum reception altitude (MRA) identifies the
frequencies (LF/MF) are depicted as brown.
lowest altitude at which an intersection can be
determined from an off-course NAVAID. Intersections along the airway route are established by a
variety of NAVAIDs. An open triangle indicates the
The minimum crossing altitude (MCA) is charted when a
location of an ATC reporting point at an intersection. If
higher MEA route segment is approached. The MCA is
the triangle is solid, a report is compulsory.
usually indicated when a pilot is approaching steeply
rising terrain and obstacle clearance and/or signal DME and GPS provide valuable route information
reception is compromised. concerning such factors as mileage, position, and ground
speed.
The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) is the highest
altitude at which the airway can be flown with assurance A Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) associated with
of receiving adequate navigation signals. a NAVAID is designated by a thin-lined box with the
controlling AFSS frequency above the box and the name
Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA) is the lowest
under the box. Without an associated facility, the thin-
altitude, expressed in feet AMSL (Above Mean Sea Level
lined RCO box contains the AFSS name and remote
(MSL)), to which a radar controller may issue aircraft
frequency.
altitude clearances during vectoring/direct routing
except if otherwise authorized for radar approaches, Mode C (Altitude Reporting) Primary radar returns
departures and missed approaches. MVA may also be indicate only range and bearing from the radar antenna
referred to as Minimum Flight Altitude (MFA), Minimum to the target; secondary radar returns can display
Radar Vectoring Altitude (MRVA) or ATC Surveillance altitude, Mode C, on the control scope if the aircraft is
Minimum Altitude (ASMA). equipped with an encoding altimeter or blind encoder. In
either case, when the transponder’s function switch is in
OROCA An off-route altitude that provides obstruction
the ALT position, the aircraft’s pressure altitude is sent to
clearance of a 2000-ft (600 m) buffer in designated
the controller. Adjusting the altimeter’s Kollsman
mountainous areas and a 1000-ft (300 m) buffer in
window has no effect on the altitude read by the
nonmountainous terrain. It may not be possible at this
controller.
altitude to receive signals from ground-based NAVAIDs
(navigational aids), ATC (air traffic control), and other Flight Service Stations (FSS) A pilot’s first contact with
communications agencies. ATC is usually through FSS, either by radio or telephone.
FSSs provide pilot briefings, receive and process flight
Types of NAVAIDs
plans, relay ATC clearances, originate Notices to Airmen
Very high frequency omnidirectional ranges (VORs) are (NOTAMs), and broadcast aviation weather. Some
the principal NAVAIDs that support the Victor and Jet facilities provide En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS),
airways. Many other navigation tools are also available take weather observations, and advise United States
to the pilot. For example, nondirectional beacons (NDBs) Customs and Immigration of international flights.
can broadcast signals accurate enough to provide stand-
Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) TRACONs
alone approaches, and DME allows the pilot to pinpoint
are considered terminal facilities because they provide
a reporting point on the airway. Though primarily
the link between the departure airport and the en route
structure of the NAS. Terminal airspace normally extends system, but the case is vented through a calibrated
30 nautical miles (NM) from the facility with a vertical orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change
extent of 10,000 feet; however, dimensions vary widely. more slowly than the pressure inside the aneroid. As the
Class B and Class C airspace dimensions are provided on aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower. The
aeronautical charts. At terminal radar facilities, the pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving
airspace is divided into sectors, each with one or more the pointer upward, showing a climb and indicating the
controllers, and each sector is assigned a discrete radio rate of ascent in number of feet per minute (fpm).
frequency. All terminal facilities are approach controls
When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer
and should be addressed as “Approach” except when
changes. The pressure inside the case becomes equal to
directed to do otherwise (e.g., “Contact departure on
that inside the aneroid, and the pointer returns to its
120.4.”).
horizontal, or zero, position. When the aircraft descends,
Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) ARTCC facilities the static pressure increases. The aneroid expands,
are responsible for maintaining separation between IFR moving the pointer downward, indicating a descent.
flights in the en route structure. Center radars (Air Route
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) An ASI is a differential pressure
Surveillance Radar (ARSR)) acquire and track
gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air
transponder returns using the same basic technology as
through which the aircraft is flying. Dynamic pressure is
terminal radars.
the difference in the ambient static air pressure and the
Mechanical Altimeter Errors A preflight check to total, or ram, pressure caused by the motion of the
determine the condition of an altimeter consists of aircraft through the air. These two pressures are taken
setting the barometric scale to the local altimeter from the pitot-static system.
setting. The altimeter should indicate the surveyed
The mechanism of the ASI in consists of a thin,
elevation of the airport. If the indication is off by more
corrugated phosphor bronze aneroid, or diaphragm, that
than 75 feet from the surveyed elevation, the instrument
receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument
should be referred to a certificated instrument repair
case is sealed and connected to the static ports. As the
station for recalibration. Differences between ambient
pitot pressure increases or the static pressure decreases,
temperature and/or pressure causes an erroneous
the diaphragm expands. This dimensional change is
indication on the altimeter.
measured by a rocking shaft and a set of gears that drives
Inherent Altimeter Error When the aircraft is flying in air a pointer across the instrument dial. Most ASIs are
that is warmer than standard, the air is less dense, and calibrated in knots, or nautical miles per hour; some
the pressure levels are farther apart. When the aircraft is instruments show statute miles per hour, and some
flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the pressure instruments show both.
level for that altitude is higher than it would be in air at
An aircraft magnetic compass, such as the one in Figure
standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher than it
5-16, has two small magnets attached to a metal float
would be if the air were cooler. If the air is colder than
sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid like kerosene.
standard, it is denser, and the pressure levels are closer
A graduated scale, called a card, is wrapped around the
together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated
float and viewed through a glass window with a lubber
altitude of 5,000 feet, its true altitude is lower than it
line across it. The card is marked with letters
would be if the air were warmer.
representing the cardinal directions, north, east, south,
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) The VSI in is also called a and west, and a number for each 30° between these
vertical velocity indicator (VVI) and was formerly known letters.
as a rate-of-climb indicator. It is a rate-of-pressure
Compass Error
change instrument that gives an indication of any
deviation from a constant pressure level. Northerly Turning Errors The center of gravity of the float
assembly is located lower than the pivotal point. As the
Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like
airplane turns, the force that results from the magnetic
the one in an ASI. Both the inside of this aneroid and the
dip causes the float assembly to swing in the same
inside of the instrument case are vented to the static
direction that the float turns. The result is a false
northerly turn indication. Because of this lead of the the magnetic compass, use the average indication
compass card, or float assembly, a northerly turn should between the swings.
be stopped prior to arrival at the desired heading. This
Magnetic Dip error: the compass dial will tend to align
compass error is amplified with the proximity to either
itself with the geomagnetic field and dip toward the
pole. One rule of thumb to correct for this leading error
northern magnetic pole when in the northern
is to stop the turn 15° plus half of the latitude (i.e., if the
hemisphere, or toward the southern magnetic pole
airplane is being operated in a position around the 40° of
when in the southern hemisphere. At the equator this
latitude, the turn should be stopped 15° + 20° = 35° prior
error is negligible. As an aircraft flies closer to either pole
to the desired heading).
the dipping error becomes more prevalent to the point
Southerly Turning Errors When turning in a southerly that the compass can become unreliable because its
direction, the forces are such that the compass float pivot point has surpassed its 18 degrees of tilt. Magnetic
assembly lags rather than leads. The result is a false dip is caused by the downward pull of the magnetic poles
southerly turn indication. The compass card, or float and is greatest near the poles themselves.
assembly, should be allowed to pass the desired heading
prior to stopping the turn. As with the northerly error,
this error is amplified with the proximity to either pole.
To correct this lagging error, the aircraft should be
allowed to pass the desired heading prior to stopping the
turn. The same rule of 15° plus half of the latitude applies
here (i.e., if the airplane is being operated in a position
around the 30° of latitude, the turn should be stopped
15° + 15° + 30° after passing the desired heading).

Acceleration Error The magnetic dip and the forces of

inertia cause magnetic compass errors when
Gyroscopic System
accelerating and decelerating on Easterly and westerly
headings. Because of the pendulous-type mounting, the Attitude and heading instruments operate on the
aft end of the compass card is tilted upward when principle of rigidity. For these instruments, the gyro
accelerating, and downward when decelerating during remains rigid in its case and the aircraft rotates about it.
changes of airspeed. When accelerating on either an Rate indicators, such as turn indicators and turn
easterly or westerly heading, the error appears as a turn coordinators, operate on the principle of precession. In
indication toward north. When decelerating on either of this case, the gyro precesses (or rolls over) proportionate
these headings, the compass indicates a turn toward to the rate the aircraft rotates about one or more of its
south. The word "ANDS" (Acceleration- axes.
North/Deceleration-South) may help you to remember
Attitude Indicators The first attitude instrument (AI) was
the acceleration error.
originally referred to as an artificial horizon, later as a
Acceleration Errors (ANDS); on a East or West heading gyro horizon; now it is more properly called an attitude
the compass will show a turn towards the north if indicator. Its operating mechanism is a small brass wheel
accelerated and a turn toward the south if decelerated. with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high speed by either a
Turning Errors (UNOS); on a North heading a turn to the stream of air impinging on buckets cut into its periphery,
right will indicate a turn to the left and on a south or by an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a double
heading a turn to the right will indicate a accelerated turn gimbal, which allows the aircraft to pitch and roll about
to the right. There is no turning errors on the east west the gyro as it remains fixed in space.
heading
Attitude Indicator (Vacuum driven)
Oscillation Error Oscillation is a combination of all of the
• A pilot determines the direction of bank from the
other errors, and it results in the compass card swinging
attitude indicator by the relationship of the miniature
back and forth around the heading being flown. When
airplane to the deflected horizon bar.
setting the gyroscopic heading indicator to agree with
• The only instrument that give both pitch and bank info. and the axis of the gimbal parallel with the longitudinal
• The most noticeable errors occur when the aircraft rolls axis. [Figure 5-34] When the aircraft yaws, or rotates
out of a 180 degree turn and cancels after 360 of turn. about its vertical axis, it produces a force in the
horizontal plane that, due to precession, causes the gyro
• During acceleration, the horizon bar moves down,
and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbal’s axis. It is
indicating a climb, and during deceleration, the
restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration spring; it
instrument may indicate a slight descent.
rolls over just enough to cause the pointer to deflect until
Attitude Indicator Errors- Vacuum Driven it aligns with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the
dial, when the aircraft is making a standard rate turn.
• Accelerate - Indicates a climb
Turn Coordinator The major limitation of the older turn-
• Decelerate - Indicates a descent and-slip indicator is that it senses rotation only about the
• 180 Turn to Right - Shows slight left turn and nose up vertical axis of the aircraft. It tells nothing of the rotation
attitude upon rollout around the longitudinal axis, which in normal flight
occurs before the aircraft begins to turn.
• 180 Turn to Left - Shows a slight right turn and nose
up attitude upon rollout A turn coordinator operates on precession, the same as
the turn indicator, but its gimbals frame is angled upward
about 30° from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. This
Heading Indicator: The gyro in a heading indicator is allows it to sense both roll and yaw. Therefore, during a
mounted in a double gimbal, as in an attitude indicator, turn, the indicator first shows the rate of banking and
but its spin axis is horizontal permitting sensing of once stabilized, the turn rate. Some turn coordinator
rotation about the vertical axis of the aircraft. Gyro gyros are dual-powered and can be driven by either air
heading indicators, except for slaved gyro indicators, are or electricity.
not north seeking, therefore they must be manually set Rather than using a needle as an indicator, the gimbal
to the appropriate heading by referring to a magnetic moves a dial that is the rear view of a symbolic aircraft.
compass. Rigidity causes them to maintain this heading The bezel of the instrument is marked to show wings-
indication, without the oscillation and other errors level flight and bank angles for a standard rate turn.
inherent in a magnetic compass.
Turn Coordinator (Vacuum driven)
Turn-and-Slip Indicator The inclinometer in the
instrument is a black glass ball sealed inside a curved • Provides an indication of the aircraft’s rate of
glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid for damping. movement about the yaw and roll axes.
This ball measures the relative strength of the force of • During taxi turns, the ball should move to the outside
gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn. When of the turn, and the needle should deflect in the direction
the aircraft is flying straight-and-level, there is no inertia of the turn. Skids and Slips
acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the tube
between two wires. In a turn made with a bank angle that • The inclinometer is part of the turn indicator that tells
is too steep, the force of gravity is greater than the inertia whether you are using the correct angle of bank for the
and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the rate of turn. Step on the ball to correct a slipping or
turn is made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is skidding condition.
greater than gravity and the ball rolls upward to the
• Allows you to establish and maintain standard-rate
outside of the turn.
turns of 3 degrees per second.
The inclinometer does not indicate the amount of bank,
• During a constant-bank turn, an increase in airspeed
nor does it indicate slip; it only indicates the relationship
results in a decreased rate of turn, and an increased turn
between the angle of bank and the rate of yaw.
radius.
The turn indicator is a small gyro spun either by air or by
Electronic Systems
an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a single gimbal
with its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) The • The PFD mounts to the front surface of most
function of an AHRS is the same as gyroscopic systems; instrument panels.
that is, to determine which way is level and which way is
2. Configuration Module (CM)
north. By knowing the initial heading, the AHRS can
determine both the attitude and magnetic heading of the The Configuration Module contains an EEPROM device
aircraft. that retains system configuration and calibration data
and provides two primary functions:
An Air Data Computer (ADC) is an aircraft computer that
receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, Retains aircraft-specific configuration information,
and temperature to calculate very precise altitude, IAS, calibration data, and user
TAS, and air temperature. The ADC outputs this
information in a digital format that can be used by a • settings, allowing the PFD to be swapped for
variety of aircraft systems including an EFIS. Modern service purposes without re-entering or re-calibrating
ADCs are small solid-state units. Increasingly, aircraft the installation.
systems such as autopilots, pressurization, and FMS Contains a license key that configures the PFD software
utilize ADC information for normal operations. features.
Aspen Components • The CM is typically attached to the wire bundle
1. Display Unit coming out of the D-sub connector on the system unit.

The EFD1000 system unit is a digital system that consists 3. Remote Sensor Module (RSM)
of a high resolution 6” diagonal color LCD display, user The Remote Sensor Module (RSM) is an integral part of
controls, photocell, and Micro SD data card slot. The the EFD1000 system and works together with the display
three-inch diameter, four-inch deep can on the back of unit sensors as part of the AHRS and ADC. The RSM looks
the display contains a non-removable electronics module and mounts like a GPS antenna, and is mounted on the
which includes: exterior of the fuselage, typically aft
A Sensor Board with solid-state Attitude and Heading of the cabin.
Reference System
The RSM contains the following sub-systems:
• (AHRS) and digital Air Data Computer (ADC).
3D magnetic flux (heading) sensors.
A Main Application Processor (MAP) board with Central
Processing Unit (CPU), • Orientation accelerometers.

• graphics processor and system memory. • Outside Air Temperature (OAT) sensor.

An Input-Output Processor (IOP) board for integrating • Emergency backup GPS engine and antenna.
communications with • The RSM communicates with the EFD1000
• other aircraft systems. system unit via a digital cable connection.

Also on the rear of the unit are 4. Analog Converter Unit (ACU)

An access cover for removing and replacing the built-in The Analog Converter Unit (ACU), included with most Pro
backup battery. PFD systems, enables the all-digital EFD1000 system to
interface to analog avionics when required. The ACU
• Pneumatic connections to the aircraft’s pitot converts multiple analog interfaces to the digital ARINC
and static systems. 429 buses supported by the PFD. Control parameters,
• 44-pin D-sub connector for electrical such as desired heading, are also sent from the PFD to
connections to the EFD1000. the ACU for conversion to analog format for autopilot
support. The ACU is required when any of the following
• A cooling fan, to cool the electronics and LCD capabilities are required in a Pro PFD installation:
backlights.
Interface to supported autopilots. pressure inputs from the aircraft pitot-static system.
Failures or incorrect input from any one of these sensors,
• Interface to conventional VHF navigation radios.
such as might occur if the pitot tube or static system
• Interface to legacy (non-ARINC 429) GPS became blocked, will affect the attitude solution. These
navigators. conditions are sensed by the system and a “Cross Check
Attitude” annunciation is presented (Figure 4-5). It is
• Interface to supported radar altimeter decision possible for the attitude performance to be affected
height annunciations. before the “Cross Check Attitude” annunciation,
• If ARINC 429-based digital radios, such as the especially when there are accelerations imposed, such as
Garmin 400/500-series GPS/nav/comm radios, are during steep turns or abrupt pitch changes. An ADAHRS
installed in the aircraft, and no other aircraft interfaces attitude discrepancy is generally obvious to the pilot,
are desired, the ACU is not required. either by an anomalous behavior cross-checked against
the standby attitude, or by annunciation.
ASPEN
Operationally, it is important to preflight the aircraft to
The EFD1000 PFD is a panel-mounted Electronic Flight assure proper performance of the pitot and static
Instrument System (EFIS) that presents the pilot with systems, especially when anticipating low IMC. If there
displays of attitude, altitude, indicated airspeed, are issues with airspeed or altitude that are consistent
heading, rate of turn, slip/skid, and navigation course with an obstructed pitot or static line, the pilot should
deviation information. The system also displays recognize that the attitude indication will soon be
supplemental flight data such as winds, TAS, OAT, etc., compromised. If in IMC, immediately use the backup
moving maps, pilot-selectable indices (“bugs”), and indicator to fly the airplane. If at any time, there is even
various annunciations to increase situational awareness a momentary “Cross Check Attitude” warning, use the
and enhance flight safety. Moving map situational backup attitude indicator until the cause of the warning
awareness information is displayed when the unit is is corrected.
connected to compatible GPS equipment.
In summary, loss or degradation of the attitude solution
The EFD1000 PFD system components include the is unlikely. If the pitot or static system becomes blocked,
EFD1000 PFD display head, a Remote Sensor Module an ADAHRS internal sensor fails, or the “Cross Check
(RSM), a Configuration Module (CM), and the optional Attitude” indication is presented for even a moment, the
Analog attitude indication on the PFD should be considered to
Air Data and Attitude/Heading Reference System be compromised. In this circumstance the pilot must use
(ADAHRS) the backup attitude indicator for attitude reference until
the cause of the problem is resolved.
The Aspen ADAHRS uses Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) technology to provide attitude An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that
reference. The technology is different from legacy gyro will measure acceleration forces. These forces may be
systems and an understanding of the capability and static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at your
limitations can be helpful to the operator. feet, or they could be dynamic – caused by changes of
the speed and the direction of the movement
Generally, MEMS attitude solutions use multiple inputs (acceleration – deceleration, turns).
to derive and validate the attitude solution. The Aspen
System uses more than a dozen inputs to determine and These systems use Accelerometers Gyroscopes and
monitor the aircraft attitude. In this way the system can electronic circuitry to provide accurate Guidance,
validate the derived attitude indication by cross-checking Navigation, Position calculation, Speed measurement
the various inputs to the solution for consistency with and Attitude determination, factors absolutely necessary
one another. for the auto pilot operation on sea and air vehicles. On
airplanes the Flight Data Recorder use Accelerometers to
The Aspen ADAHRS solution uses inputs from its internal measure and record acceleration forces on the three axis
three-axis accelerometers, rate gyros and of the vehicle, and on cars the accelerometers are used
magnetometers, supplemented by pitot and static to deploy the air bags at the right time.
An accelerometer usually uses a concentrated mass degrees per second. A standard rate turn, although
(seismic mass), which resists movement because of its always 3 degrees per second, requires higher angles of
inertia. The displacement of the seismic mass relative to bank as airspeed increases. To enter a standard rate level
its supporting frame or container is used as a measure of turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressures in
acceleration. the desired direction of turn. Pilots commonly roll into
turns at a much too rapid rate.
A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetism—
the direction, strength, or relative change of a magnetic
field at a particular location. The measurement of the
magnetization of a magnetic material (like a
ferromagnet) is an example. A compass is one such
device, one that measures the direction of an ambient
magnetic field, in this case, the Earth's magnetic field.

Rate Gyros, sometimes called Angular Rate Sensors,

output a voltage that is proportional to the rate of turn Unusual Attitudes
about its sensitive axis.
Nose-High
Crosscheck and errors
• Your objective is to avert a stall
Cross-checking is the continuous observation of the
indications on the control and performance instruments. • Add Power; Lower the nose; Level the wings; and
It is imperative that the new instrument pilot learn to return to the original attitude.
observe and interpret the various indications in order to Nose-Low
control the attitude and performance of the aircraft.
• Your objective is to avoid overstressing the airplane
Common Errors structure.
Fixation or staring at one instrument, is a common error • Reduce Power; Level the wings; Raise the nose to a
observed in pilots first learning to utilize trend indicators. level attitude.
The pilot may initially fixate on the trend indicator and
make adjustments with reference to that alone. Trend Navigation System
indicators are not the only tools to aid the pilot in A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM) wave with
maintaining the desired power or attitude; they should frequency characteristics that make it useful. The wave
be used in conjunction with the primary and supporting travels long distances through space (in or out of the
instruments in order to better manage the flight. atmosphere) without losing too much strength. An
Omission Another common error associated with antenna is used to convert electric current into a radio
attitude instrument flying is omission of an instrument wave so it can travel through space to the receiving
from the cross-check. Due to the high reliability of the antenna, which converts it back into an electric current
PFD and associated components, pilots tend to omit the for use by a receiver.
stand-by instruments as well as the magnetic compass A ground wave travels across the surface of the Earth.
from their scans. Ground waves are usable for navigation purposes
Emphasis In initial training, placing emphasis on a single because they travel reliably and predictably along the
instrument is very common and can become a habit if not same route day after day and are not influenced by too
corrected. When the importance of a single instrument many outside factors. The ground wave frequency range
is elevated above another, the pilot begins to rely solely is generally from the lowest frequencies in the radio
on that instrument for guidance. range (perhaps as low as 100 Hz) up to approximately
1,000 kHz (1 MHz). Although there is a ground wave
Turns component to frequencies above this, up to 30 MHz, the
Standard Rate Turns A standard rate turn is one in which ground wave at these higher frequencies loses strength
the pilot will do a complete 360° circle in 2 minutes or 3 over very short distances.
The sky wave, at frequencies of 1 to 30 MHz, is good for Systems
long distances because these frequencies are refracted
or “bent” by the ionosphere, causing the signal to be sent
back to Earth from high in the sky and received great
distances away. Used by high frequency (HF) radios in
aircraft, messages can be sent across oceans using only
50 to 100 watts of power. Frequencies that produce a sky
wave are not used for navigation because the pathway
of the signal from transmitter to receiver is highly
variable. The wave is “bounced” off of the ionosphere,
which is always changing due to the varying amount of
the sun’s radiation reaching it (night/day and seasonal
variations, sunspot activity, etc.). The sky wave is,
therefore, unreliable for navigation purposes.

For aeronautical communication purposes, the sky wave

(HF) is about 80 to 90 percent reliable. HF is being
gradually replaced by more reliable satellite The nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) is a ground-based
communication. radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all
directions. The ADF, when used with an NDB, determines
Space Wave When able to pass through the ionosphere, the bearing from the aircraft to the transmitting station.
radio waves of 15 MHz and above (all the way up to many The indicator may be mounted in a separate instrument
GHz), are considered space waves. Most navigation in the aircraft panel.
systems operate with signals propagating as space
waves. Frequencies above 100 MHz have nearly no The aircraft’s magnetic heading (MH) is the direction the
ground or sky wave components. They are space waves, aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic north. The
but (except for global positioning system (GPS)) the magnetic bearing (MB) is the direction to or from a radio
navigation signal is used before it reaches the ionosphere transmitting station measured relative to magnetic
so the effect of the ionosphere, which can cause some north.
propagation errors, is minimal. GPS errors caused by NDB Components The ground equipment, the NDB,
passage through the ionosphere are significant and are transmits in the frequency range of 190 to 535 kHz. Most
corrected for by the GPS receiver system. ADFs also tune the AM broadcast band frequencies
Space waves have another characteristic of concern to above the NDB band (550 to 1650 kHz).
users. Space waves reflect off hard objects and may be
blocked if the object is between the transmitter and the
receiver. Site and terrain error, as well as propeller/rotor
modulation error in very high omnidirectional range
(VOR) systems, is caused by this bounce. Instrument
landing system (ILS) course distortion is also the result of
this phenomenon, which led to the need for
establishment of ILS critical areas.

Generally, space waves are “line of sight” receivable, but Function of ADF The ADF can be used to plot your
those of lower frequencies “bend” somewhat over the position, track inbound and outbound, and intercept a
horizon. The VOR signal at 108 to 118 MHz is a lower bearing. These procedures are used to execute holding
frequency than distance measuring equipment (DME) at patterns and nonprecision instrument approaches.
962 to 1213 MHz. Therefore, when an aircraft is flown Orientation The ADF needle points TO the station,
“over the horizon” from a VOR/DME station, the DME is regardless of aircraft heading or position. The RB
normally the first to stop functioning. indicated is thus the angular relationship between the
aircraft heading and the station, measured clockwise
from the nose of the aircraft.

Station Passage When you are near the station, slight

deviations from the desired track result in large
deflections of the needle. Therefore, it is important to
establish the correct drift correction angle as soon as
possible.

Homing The ADF may be used to “home” in on a station.

Homing is flying the aircraft on any heading required to
keep the needle pointing directly to the 0° RB position.

Tracking uses a heading that maintains the desired track

to or from the station regardless of crosswind conditions.
Interpretation of the heading indicator and needle is
done to maintain a constant MB to or from the station.

Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) VOR

is the primary navigational aid (NAVAID) used by civil
aviation in the National Airspace System (NAS). The VOR
ground station is oriented to magnetic north and
transmits azimuth information to the aircraft, providing
360 courses TO or FROM the VOR station. When DME is
installed with the VOR, it is referred to as a VOR/DME and
provides both azimuth and distance information. When
military tactical air navigation (TACAN) equipment is
installed with the VOR, it is known as a VORTAC and VOR Checks
provides both azimuth and distance information. VOT Transmits 360 deg radial 180/TO 4 degrees
VOR Components The ground equipment consists of a Ground Check Point 4 degrees
VOR ground station, which is a small, low building topped Airborne Check 6 degrees
with a flat white disc, upon which are located the VOR
antennas and a fiberglass cone-shaped tower. Airway Check 6 degrees

VOR facilities operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz Dual Nav Check (air/Grd) 4 degrees between Bench
frequency band and assignment between 108.0 and Check
112.0 MHz is in even-tenth increments to preclude any VOR signal I.D. every 15 seconds DME signal I.D. every
conflict with ILS localizer frequency assignment, which 30 seconds
uses the odd tenths in this range.
VOR Errors

Cone of confusion: Those red lines represent areas

where the VOR signal is ambiguous and the VOR display
is unreliable.

Flying through this airspace would cause erratic behavior

of your CDI needle (Course Deviation Indicator) and of
the to/from flag on the VOR displays. Therefore it’s
important to know about this pitfall when using VORs for
navigation.
From a top-view it looks like two cones extending from distance would show the actual horizontal distance of .5
the VOR station perpendicular to the course you selected DME. This error is smallest at low altitudes and/ or at
on the OBS (Omni Bearing Selector). long ranges. It is greatest when the aircraft is closer to
the facility, at which time the DME receiver displays
Line of sight The presence of objects not in the direct
altitude (in NM) above the facility. Slant range error is
line-of-sight can cause diffraction effects that disrupt
negligible if the aircraft is one mile or more from the
radio transmissions.
ground facility for each 1,000 feet of altitude above the
Reverse sensing: Reverse sensing flying TO a station with elevation of the facility.
a FROM indication or a FROM with a TO indication.
Is accurate to within 1/2 mile or 3% (whichever is
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) When used in greater)
conjunction with the VOR system, DME makes it possible
• Slant-Range—resulting in greatest error at high
for pilots to determine an accurate geographic position
altitudes close to a VORTAC. Should be 1 nm when you
of the aircraft, including the bearing and distance TO or
are directly over a VORTAC site at approximately 6,000
FROM the station. The aircraft DME transmits
ft AGL.
interrogating radio frequency (RF) pulses, which are
received by the DME antenna at the ground facility. The • When tuning to a VORTAC, you receive a single coded
signal triggers ground receiver equipment to respond to identification approximately once every 30 seconds.
the interrogating aircraft. The airborne DME equipment
Area navigation (RNAV) equipment includes VOR/DME,
measures the elapsed time between the interrogation
LORAN, GPS, and inertial navigation systems (INS). RNAV
signal sent by the aircraft and reception of the reply
equipment is capable of computing the aircraft position,
pulses from the ground station. This time measurement
actual track, groundspeed, and then presenting
is converted into distance in nautical miles (NM) from the
meaningful information to the pilot. This information
station.
may be in the form of distance, cross-track error, and
DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum time estimates relative to the selected track or WP.
between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz. Aircraft receiving
Global Positioning System (GPS) The GPS is a satellite-
equipment that provides for automatic DME selection
based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal
assures reception of azimuth and distance information
that is used by receivers to determine precise position
from a common source when designated VOR/ DME,
anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple
VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected.
satellites and determines a measurement that is then
The distance information can be used to determine the used to determine the user location.
aircraft position or flying a track that is a constant
Properly certified GPS equipment may be used as a
distance from the station. This is referred to as a DME
supplemental means of IFR navigation for domestic en
arc.
route, terminal operations and certain IAPs. Navigational
DME Errors A DME/DME fix (a location based on two values, such as distance and bearing to a WP and
DME lines of position from two DME stations) provides a groundspeed, are computed from the aircraft’s current
more accurate aircraft location than using a VOR and a position (latitude and longitude) and the location of the
DME fix. next WP

DME signals are line-of-sight; the mileage readout is the GPS Components GPS consists of three distinct
straight-line distance from the aircraft to the DME functional elements: space, control, and user.
ground facility and is commonly referred to as slant
The space element consists of over 30 Navstar satellites.
range distance. Slant range refers to the distance from
This group of satellites is called a constellation. The space
the aircraft’s antenna to the ground station (A line at an
element consists of 24 Navigation System using Timing
angle to the ground transmitter. GPS systems provide
and Ranging (NAVSTAR) satellites in 6 orbital planes.
distance as the horizontal measurement from the WP to
the aircraft. Therefore, at 3,000 feet and 0.5 miles the The GPS constellation broadcasts a pseudo-random code
DME (slant range) would read 0.6 NM while the GPS timing signal and data message that the aircraft
equipment processes to obtain satellite position and aiding to detect an integrity anomaly. For receivers
status data. By knowing the precise location of each capable of doing so, RAIM needs six satellites in view (or
satellite and precisely matching timing with the atomic five satellites with baro-aiding) to isolate a corrupt
clocks on the satellites, the aircraft receiver/processor satellite signal and remove it from the navigation
can accurately measure the time each signal takes to solution.
arrive at the receiver and, therefore, determine aircraft
GPS Errors
position.
Normally, with 30 satellites in operation, the GPS
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air
constellation is expected to be available continuously
navigation aid developed by the Federal Aviation
worldwide. Whenever there are fewer than 24
Administration to augment the Global Positioning
operational satellites, GPS navigational capability may
System (GPS), with the goal of improving its accuracy,
not be available at certain geographic locations. Loss of
integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is intended
signals may also occur in valleys surrounded by high
to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight,
terrain, and any time the aircraft’s GPS antenna is
including precision approaches to any airport within its
“shadowed” by the aircraft’s structure (e.g., when the
coverage area. It may be further enhanced with the Local
aircraft is banked).
Area Augmentation System (LAAS) also known by the
preferred ICAO term Ground-Based Augmentation Certain receivers, transceivers, mobile radios, and
System (GBAS) in critical areas. portable receivers can cause signal interference. Some
VHF transmissions may cause “harmonic interference.”
The local-area augmentation system (LAAS) is an all-
Pilots can isolate the interference by relocating nearby
weather aircraft landing system based on real-time
portable receivers, changing frequencies, or turning off
differential correction of the GPS signal. Local reference
suspected
receivers located around the airport send data to a
central location at the airport. causes of the interference while monitoring the
receiver’s signal quality data page.
Function of GPS GPS operation is based on the concept
of ranging and triangulation from a group of satellites in GPS position data can be affected by equipment
space that act as precise reference points. The receiver characteristics and various geometric factors, which
uses data from a minimum of four satellites above the typically cause errors of less than 100 feet. Satellite
mask angle (the lowest angle above the horizon at which atomic clock inaccuracies, receiver/processors, signals
it can use a satellite). reflected from hard objects (multi-path), ionospheric and
tropospheric delays, and satellite data transmission
The aircraft GPS receiver measures distance from a
errors may cause small position errors or momentary
satellite using the travel time of a radio signal. Each
loss of the GPS signal.
satellite transmits a specific code, called a
course/acquisition (CA) code, which contains Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) The ILS system
information about satellite position, the GPS system provides both course and altitude guidance to a specific
time, and the health and accuracy of the transmitted runway. The ILS system is used to execute a precision
data. instrument approach procedure or precision approach.
The GPS receiver computes navigational values (distance
and bearing to a WP, groundspeed, etc.) by using the
aircraft’s known latitude/longitude and referencing
these to a database built into the receiver.
The localizer (LOC) ground antenna array is located on
The GPS receiver verifies the integrity (usability) of the the extended centerline of the instrument runway of an
signals received from the GPS constellation through airport, located at the departure end of the runway to
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) to prevent it from being a collision hazard. This unit radiates
determine if a satellite is providing corrupted a field pattern, which develops a course down the
information. RAIM needs a minimum of five satellites in centerline of the runway toward the middle markers
view or four satellites and a barometric altimeter baro- (MMs) and outer markers (OMs) and a similar course
along the runway centerline in the opposite direction. on the back course, the course indication remains
These are called the front and back courses, respectively. directional.
The localizer provides course guidance, transmitted at
ILS Errors The ILS and its components are subject to
108.1 to 111.95 MHz (odd tenths only), throughout the
certain errors, which are listed below. Localizer and GS
descent path to the runway threshold from a distance of
signals are subject to the same type of bounce from hard
18 NM from the antenna to an altitude of 4,500 feet
objects as space waves. 1. Reflection. Surface vehicles
above the elevation of the antenna site.
and even other aircraft flying below 5,000 feet above
Glideslope (GS) GS describes the systems that generate, ground level (AGL) may disturb the signal for aircraft on
receive, and indicate the ground facility radiation the approach. 2. False courses. In addition to the desired
pattern. The glidepath is the straight, sloped line the course, GS facilities inherently produce additional
aircraft should fly in its descent from where the GS courses at higher vertical angles. The angle of the lowest
intersects the altitude used for approaching the FAF to of these false courses occurs at approximately 9°– 12°.
the runway touchdown zone. The GS equipment is An aircraft flying the LOC/GS course at a constant
housed in a building approximately 750 to 1,250 feet altitude would observe gyrations of both the GS needle
down the runway from the approach end of the runway and GS warning flag as the aircraft passed through the
and between 400 and 600 feet to one side of the various false courses. Getting established on one of these
centerline. false courses results in either confusion (reversed GS
needle indications) or in the need for a very high descent
Marker beacons
rate. However, if the approach is conducted at the
Provides range information over specific points along altitudes specified on the appropriate approach chart,
the approach. Transmits at 75 MHz. these false courses are not encountered.

Outer marker: 4-7 miles out. Indicate the position at REGULATIONS

which the aircraft should intercept the GS at the
appropriate interception altitude ±50ft. BLUE. “- - -“
Middle marker: ~3500ft from the runway. Indicates the
approximate point where the GS meets the decision
height. Usually 200ft above the touchdown zone
elevation. AMBER. “. - . -”

Inner marker: between the MM and runway threshold.

Indicates the point where the glide slope meets the DH
on a CAT II ILS approach. WHITE. “. . .” v Back course
marker: Indicates the FAF on selected back course
approaches. Not a part of the ILS approach. WHITE. “..
..”

Approach Light System (ALS) Helps the transition

between radio-guided flights into a visual approach.

Can help in estimating flight visibility if you know the

dimensions of the specific ALS configuration.

ILS Function The localizer needle indicates, by deflection,

whether the aircraft is right or left of the localizer
centerline, regardless of the position or heading of the
aircraft. Rotating the OBS has no effect on the operation
of the localizer needle, although it is useful to rotate the
OBS to put the LOC inbound course under the course
index. When inbound on the front course, or outbound
CLEARANCES

1. Composition of the Atmosphere

In any given volume of air, nitrogen accounts for 78

percent of the gases that comprise the atmosphere,
while oxygen makes up 21 percent. Argon, carbon
dioxide, and traces of other gases make up the remaining
one percent.

2. Layers of atmosphere base on temp

Troposphere-Tropopause-Stratosphere-Stratopause-
Mesoosphere-Mesopause-Thermosphere.

3. Coriolis force

The force created by the rotation of the Earth is known

as the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force deflects air to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere, causing it to follow a
curved path instead of a straight line. The amount of
deflection differs depending on the latitude. It is greatest
Weather
at the poles and diminishes to zero at the equator.

4. Wind Patterns

In the Northern Hemisphere, the flow of air from areas

of high to low pressure is deflected to the right and
produces a clockwise circulation around an area of high
pressure. This is known as anticyclonic circulation. The
opposite is true of low-pressure areas; the air flows
toward a low and is deflected to create a to the air’s dew point. At this point, water vapor in the
counterclockwise or cyclonic circulation. air condenses and becomes visible in the form of fog.

5. Land and Sea Breeze - Radiation Fog: On clear nights, with relatively
little to no wind present, radiation fog may develop.
During the day, land heats faster than water, so the air
Usually, it forms in low-lying areas like mountain valleys.
over the land becomes warmer and less dense. It rises
This type of fog occurs when the ground cools rapidly due
and is replaced by cooler, denser air flowing in from over
to terrestrial radiation, and the surrounding air
the water. This causes an onshore wind called a sea
temperature reaches its dew point. As the sun rises and
breeze. Conversely, at night land cools faster than water,
the temperature increases, radiation fog lifts and
as does the corresponding air. In this case, the warmer
eventually burns off. Any increase in wind also speeds
air over the water rises and is replaced by the cooler,
the dissipation of radiation fog. If radiation fog is less
denser air from the land, creating an offshore wind called
than 20 feet thick, it is known as ground fog.
a land breeze.
- Advection Fog: When a layer of warm, moist air
6. Low-Level Wind Shear
moves over a cold surface, advection fog is likely to
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed occur. Winds of up to 15 knots
and/or direction over a very small area. Wind shear can
- allow the fog to form and intensify; above a
subject an aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as
speed of 15 knots, the fog usually lifts and forms low
well as abrupt changes to the horizontal movement of
stratus clouds. Advection fog is common in coastal areas
the aircraft. While wind shear can occur at any altitude,
where sea breezes can blow the air over cooler
low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to the
landmasses.
proximity of an aircraft to the ground. Low-level wind
shear is commonly associated with passing frontal - Upslope fog occurs when moist, stable air is
systems, thunderstorms, temperature inversions, and forced up sloping land features like a mountain range.
strong upper level winds (greater than 25 knots). This type of fog also requires wind for formation and
continued existence. Upslope and advection fog, unlike
7. Inversion
radiation fog, may not burn off with the morning sun but
As air rises and expands in the atmosphere, the instead can persist for days. They can also extend to
temperature decreases. There is an atmospheric greater heights than radiation fog.
anomaly that can occur; however, that changes this
- Steam fog, or sea smoke, forms when cold, dry
typical pattern of atmospheric behavior. When the
air moves over warm water. As the water evaporates, it
temperature of the air rises with altitude, a temperature
rises and resembles smoke. This type of fog is common
inversion exists. Inversion layers are commonly shallow
over bodies of water during the coldest times of the year.
layers of smooth, stable air close to the ground. The
Low-level turbulence and icing are commonly associated
temperature of the air increases with altitude to a certain
with steam fog.
point, which is the top of the inversion. The air at the top
of the layer acts as a lid, keeping weather and pollutants - Ice fog occurs in cold weather when the
trapped below. If the relative humidity of the air is high, temperature is much below freezing and water vapor
it can contribute to the formation of clouds, fog, haze, or forms directly into ice crystals. Conditions favorable for
smoke resulting in diminished visibility in the inversion its formation are the same as for radiation fog except for
layer. cold temperature, usually –25 °F or colder. It occurs
mostly in the arctic regions but is not unknown in middle
8. Dew point
latitudes during the cold season.
The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature at
which the air can hold no more moisture.
10. Clouds
9. Fog
- Low clouds are those that form near the Earth’s
Fog is a cloud that is on the surface. It typically occurs
surface and extend up to about 6,500 feet AGL. They are
when the temperature of air near the ground is cooled
made primarily of water droplets but can include - Stationary Front
supercooled water droplets that induce hazardous
When the surface position of a front does not change
aircraft icing. Typical low clouds are stratus,
(when two air masses are unable to push against each
stratocumulus, and nimbostratus. Fog is also classified as
other; a draw), a stationary front is formed.
a type of low cloud formation. Clouds in this family create
low ceilings, hamper visibility, and can change rapidly. The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to
Because of this, they influence flight planning and can the front.
make visual flight rules (VFR) flight impossible.
Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary
- Middle clouds form around 6,500 feet AGL and front.
extend up to 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of
water, ice crystals, and supercooled water droplets. Once this boundary resumes its forward motion,
Typical middle-level clouds include altostratus and becomes a warm front or cold front.
altocumulus. These types of clouds may be encountered Cumulonimbus clouds are formed. Overrunning of warm
on cross-country flights at higher altitudes. Altostratus air along such a front causes frontal precipitation.
clouds can produce turbulence and may contain
moderate icing. Altocumulus clouds, which usually form Cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump
when altostratus clouds are breaking apart, also may heavy amounts of precipitation, resulting in significant
contain light turbulence and icing. flooding along the front.

- High clouds form above 20,000 feet AGL and - Cold Front
usually form only in stable air. They are made up of ice 25 to 30 mph
crystals and pose no real threat of turbulence or aircraft
icing. Typical high level clouds are cirrus, cirrostratus, and Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a
cirrocumulus. warm air mass by advancing into it or that the warm air
mass retreats and cold air mass advances (cold air mass
is the clear winner).
11. Ceiling In such a situation, the transition zone between the two
For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of is a cold front.
clouds reported as being broken or overcast, or the Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts.
vertical visibility into an obscuration like fog or haze
Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass is completely
12. Visibility uplifted by the cold air mass.
Visibility refers to the greatest horizontal distance at The weather along such a front depends on a narrow
which prominent objects can be viewed with the naked band of cloudiness and precipitation.
eye.
Severe storms can occur. During the summer months
13. Precipitation thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
Precipitation refers to any type of water particles that In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm sector.
form in the atmosphere and fall to the ground.
Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures can
14. Air Masses drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
Air masses are classified according to the regions where The approach of a cold front is marked by increased wind
they originate. They are large bodies of air that take on activity in warm sector and the appearance of cirrus
the characteristics of the surrounding area or source clouds, followed by lower, denser altocumulous and
region.
At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds
The boundary layer between two types of air masses is cause heavy showers. A cold front passes off rapidly, but
known as a front. the weather along it is violent.
- Warm Front A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm
front.
10 to 25 miles per hour (mph
Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite
It is a sloping frontal surface along which active
side of the occlusion.
movement of warm air over cold air takes place (warm
air mass is too weak to beat the cold air mass). 15. Wind Shifts

Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when the warm air Wind around a high-pressure system rotates clockwise,
mass makes way for cold air mass on the ground, i.e. while low-pressure winds rotate counter-clockwise.
when the warm air mass completely sits over the cold air When two high pressure systems are adjacent, the winds
mass. are almost in direct opposition to each other at the point
of contact.
As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and
causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the 16. Thunderstorm
temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
Ingredients: Water vapor, unstable lapse rate, upward
Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over lifting
a large area, over several hours.
AAC 5miles away
The passage of warm front is marked by rise in
Recommended: 20 miles, can encounter hail and
temperature, pressure and change in weather.
turbulence.
With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus,
- Cumulus Stage
stratus and nimbus. [No cumulonimbus clouds as the
gradient is gentle] The sun heats the Earth's surface during the day. The
heat on the surface and warms the air around it. Since
Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo
warm air is lighter than cool air, it starts to rise (known
around sun and moon.
as an updraft). If the air is moist, then the warm air
- Occluded Front condenses into a cumulus cloud. The cloud will continue
to grow as long as warm air below it continues to rise.
Occlusion: Meteorology a process by which the cold
front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up the - Mature Stage
warm front, so that the warm air between them is forced
When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the water
upwards.
in it becomes large and heavy. Raindrops start to fall
Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a through the cloud when the rising air can no longer hold
warm air mass and goes underneath it. them up. Meanwhile, cool dry air starts to enter the
cloud. Because cool air is heavier than warm air, it starts
Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes and the
to descend in the cloud (known as a downdraft). The
cold air mass completely undertakes the warm sector on
downdraft pulls the heavy water downward, making
ground.
rain.
Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is
This cloud has become a cumulonimbus cloud because it
formed which could be a warm front type or cold front
has an updraft, a downdraft, and rain. Thunder and
type occlusion.
lightning start to occur, as well as heavy rain. The
Weather along an occluded front is complex—a mixture cumulonimbus is now a thunderstorm cell.
of cold front type and warm front type weather. Such
- Dissipating Stage
fronts are common in west Europe.
After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to
The formation Mid-latitude cyclones [temperate
dissipate. This occurs when the downdrafts in the cloud
cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones] involve the
begins to dominate over the updraft. Since warm moist
formation of occluded front.
air can no longer rise, cloud droplets can no longer form.
The storm dies out with light rain as the cloud disappears Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a
from bottom to top. compilation of elements of the current weather at
individual ground stations across the United States. The
- Squall Line
network is made up of government and privately
A squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. contracted facilities that provide continuous up-to-date
Often it develops on or ahead of a cold front in moist, weather information. Automated weather sources, such
unstable air, but it may develop in unstable air far as the Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS),
removed from any front. Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOS), as well as
other automated facilities, also play a major role in the
- Tornadoes gathering of surface observations.
The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their cloud 2. Flight Service Station (FSS)
bases with great vigor. If the incoming air has any initial
rotating motion, it often forms an extremely The FSS also provides inflight weather briefing services
concentrated vortex from the surface well into the cloud. and weather advisories to flights within the FSS area of
responsibility.
Atmospheric Stability: is the atmosphere’s resistance to
vertical motion 3. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service
(HIWAS)
• Air that moves upward expands due to lower
atmospheric pressure. When air moves downward, it is Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS),
compressed by the increased pressure at lower altitudes. available in the 48 conterminous states, is an automated
• Stability of the air can be measured by its actual lapse continuous broadcast of hazardous weather information
rate over selected VOR navigational aids (NAVAIDs). The
broadcasts include advisories such as AIRMETS,
• A characteristic of stable air is the presence of SIGMETS, convective SIGMETS, and urgent PIREPs.
stratiform clouds.
4. Briefings:

- Standard Briefing A standard briefing provides

• Characteristics of unstable air include turbulence and the most complete information and a more complete
good surface visibility. weather picture. This type of briefing should be obtained
• The average lapse rate is 2 C (3.5 F) per 1,000 ft. prior to the departure of any flight and should be used
during flight planning.
- Temperature Inversions: temp. usually
decreases with an increase in altitude, the - Abbreviated Briefing An abbreviated briefing is a
reverse is sometimes true. When temperature shortened version of the standard briefing. It should be
increases with altitude. requested when a departure has been delayed or when
weather information is needed to update the previous
• The most frequent type of ground or surface-based briefing.
temperature inversion is that which is produced by
terrestrial radiation on a clear, relatively still night. - Outlook Briefing An outlook briefing should be
requested when a planned departure is 6 hours or more
• The weather conditions that can be expected beneath away. It provides initial forecast information that is
a low-level temperature inversion layer when the limited in scope due to the time frame of the planned
relative humidity is high are smooth air, poor visibility, flight. This type of briefing is a good source of flight
fog, haze or low clouds. planning information that can influence decisions
• A temperature inversion is associated with a stable regarding route of flight, altitude, and ultimately the
layer of air. go/no-go decision.

Aviation Weather Services

1. Surface Aviation Weather Observations 5. Aviation Weather Reports

- Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) A thunderstorms, severe or extreme turbulence or clear air
METAR is an observation of current surface weather turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms,
reported in a standard international format. dust storms or sandstorms that lower surface or inflight
visibilities to below three miles, and volcanic ash.
- Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) PIREPs provide
SIGMETs are unscheduled forecasts that are valid for 4
valuable information regarding the conditions as they
hours unless the SIGMET relates to a hurricane, in which
actually exist in the air, which cannot be gathered from
case it is valid for 6 hours.
any other source. Pilots can confirm the height of bases
and tops of clouds, locations of wind shear and A non-convective SIGMET to be issued are severe or
turbulence, and the location of inflight icing. greater turbulence over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800 km2)
area, severe or greater icing over a 3,000-square-mile
(7,800 km2) area or IMC over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800
6. Aviation Forecasts km2) area due to dust, sand, or volcanic ash.

- Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) is a report A Convective SIGMET is issued for convection over the
established for the five statute mile radius around an Continental U.S. Convective SIGMETs are issued for an
airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger airports. area of embedded thunderstorms, a line of
Each TAF is valid for a 24 or 30-hour time period and is thunderstorms, thunderstorms greater than or equal to
updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at least 3000
1800Z. square miles, and severe surface weather including
surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots, hail at
the surface greater than or equal to 3/4 inches in
7. Inflight Weather Advisories diameter, and tornadoes. Severe thunderstorms are
characterized by tornado(s), hail 3/4 inches or greater, or
- AIRMET AIRMETs (WAs) are examples of inflight wind gusts 50 knots or greater.A Convective SIGMET is
weather advisories that are issued every 6 hours with valid for 2 hours and they are issued hourly at Hour+55.
intermediate updates issued as needed for a particular
area forecast region. The information contained in an
AIRMET is of operational interest to all aircraft, but the
weather section concerns phenomena considered
potentially hazardous to light aircraft and aircraft with
limited operational capabilities.

An AIRMET includes forecast of moderate icing,

moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30
knots or greater, widespread areas of ceilings less than
1,000 feet and/or visibilities less than three miles, and 8. Weather Charts
extensive mountain obscurement.
- Surface Analysis Chart The surface analysis chart
Each AIRMET bulletin has a fixed alphanumeric depicts an analysis of the current surface weather. This
designator, numbered sequentially for easy chart is transmitted every 3 hours and covers the
identification, beginning with the first issuance of the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. A surface
day. Sierra is the AIRMET code used to denote IFR and analysis chart shows the areas of high and low pressure,
mountain obscuration; Tango is used to denote fronts, temperatures, dew points, wind directions and
turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-level wind speeds, local weather, and visual obstructions.
shear; and Zulu is used to denote icing and freezing
levels. - Weather Depiction Chart A weather depiction
chart details surface conditions as derived from METAR
- SIGMET SIGMETs (WSs) are inflight advisories and other surface observations. The weather depiction
concerning non-convective weather that is potentially chart is prepared and transmitted by computer every 3
hazardous to all aircraft. They report weather forecasts hours beginning at 0100Z time and is valid data for the
that include severe icing not associated with
forecast period. It is designed to be used for flight Low level significant weather chart – Forecasts significant
planning. weather conditions for a 12 and 24 hour period from the
surface to 400 mb level (24,000 ft). Issued 4 times a day.
- Significant Weather Prognostic Charts Significant
Depicts weather categories (IFR, MVFR and VFR),
weather prognostic charts are available for lowlevel
turbulence and freezing levels.
significant weather from the surface to FL 240 (24,000
feet), also referred to as the 400 mb level and high-level Mid-level significant weather chart – Depict forecasts of
significant weather from FL 250 to FL 630 (25,000 to significant weather at various altitudes and flight levels
63,000 feet). The primary concern of this discussion is from 10,000’ MSL.to FL450. Shows: thunderstorms, jet
the low-level significant weather prognostic chart. streams, tropopause height, tropical cyclones, moderate
and severe icing conditions, moderate or severe
turbulence, cloud coverage and type, volcanic ash and
9. NOTAM areas of released radioactive materials. Issued 4 times a
day for the North Atlantic Region.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) Time-critical aeronautical
information, which is of a temporary nature or not High-level significant weather charts – Depicts forecasts
sufficiently known in advance to permit publication, on of significant weather phenomena for FL250 to FL630.
aeronautical charts or in other operational publications Shows: coverage bases and tops of thunderstorms and
receives immediate dissemination by the NOTAM CB clouds, moderate and severe turbulence, jet streams,
system. The NOTAM information could affect your tropopause heights, tropical cyclones, severe squall
decision to make the flight. It includes such information lines, volcanic eruption sites, widespread sand and dust
as taxiway and runway closures, construction, storms. Issued 4 times a day. v Convective outlook (AC) –
communications, changes in status of navigational aids, Available in both graphical and textual format. A 3-day
and other information essential to planned en route, forecast of convective activity. Convective areas are
terminal, or landing operations. Exercise good judgment classified as slight (SLGT), moderate (MDT), and high
and common sense by carefully regarding the (HIGH) risk for severe thunderstorms. Issuance: day 1 – 5
information readily available in NOTAMs. times a day, day 2 – twice a day, day 3 – once a day.

Types of NOTAM: Aeromedical Factors

NOTAM(D)

FDC NOTAM (flight data center) 1. Hypoxia

SAA NOTAM (special activity airports) Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough
oxygen.” Although any tissue will die if deprived of
Pointer NOTAM (point to another NOTAM) oxygen long enough, the greatest concern regarding
(U) NOTAM (has not been verified by a management hypoxia during flight is lack of oxygen to the brain, since
personnel) it is particularly vulnerable to oxygen deprivation.

(O) NOTAM (are info that doesn’t fit NOTAM criteria but - Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen
are important for pilots) available to the body as a whole. Ascends during flight.

Military NOTAM - Hypemic hypoxia occurs when the blood is not

able to take up and transport a enough oxygen to the
10. Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) cells in the body. Hypemic means “not enough blood.”
The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a CO poisoning
recording of the local weather conditions and other - Stagnant means “not flowing,” and stagnant
pertinent non-control information broadcast on a local hypoxia or ischemia results when the oxygen-rich blood
frequency in a looped format. It is normally updated in the lungs is not moving, for one reason or another, to
once per hour but is updated more often when changing the tissues that need it. An arm or leg “going to sleep”
local conditions warrant.
because the blood flow has accidentally been shut off is motion sickness during initial flights, but it generally goes
one form of stagnant hypoxia. Gs away within the first few lessons.

- Histotoxic Hypoxia The inability of the cells to

effectively use oxygen is defined as histotoxic hypoxia.
6. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning CO is a
“Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “toxic” means
colorless and odorless gas produced by all internal
poisonous. Alcohol and drugs.
combustion engines. Aircraft heater vents and defrost
- Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips) •Headache • vents may provide CO a passageway into the cabin,
Decreased response to stimuli and increased reaction particularly if the engine exhaust system has a leak or is
time • Impaired judgment • Euphoria • Visual damaged. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected,
impairment • Drowsiness assume that CO is present.

Supplemental Oxygen: FAR requirements

2. Hyperventilation • 12,500—14,000 ft MSL = Flight crew must use O2 after

30 minutes
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of
respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide • 14,000—15,000 ft MSL = Flight crew must use O2
from the blood. This condition occurs more often among
• 15,000—Above = Flight crew must use O2 and all
pilots than is generally recognized. Visual impairment •
occupants must be provided with O2
Unconsciousness • Lightheaded or dizzy sensation •
Tingling sensations • Hot and cold sensations • Muscle 7. Stress Stress is the body’s response to physical
spasms and psychological demands placed upon it. The body’s
reaction to stress includes releasing chemical hormones
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
(such as adrenaline) into the blood and increasing
During climbs and descents, the free gas formerly metabolism to provide more energy to the muscles.
present in various body cavities expands due to a
8. Fatigue
difference between the pressure of the air outside the
body and that of the air inside the body. If the escape of Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of
the expanded gas is impeded, pressure builds up within the effects of fatigue include degradation of attention
the cavity and pain is experienced. Trapped gas and concentration, impaired coordination, and
expansion accounts for ear pain and sinus pain, as well decreased ability to communicate. These factors
as a temporary reduction in the ability to hear. seriously influence the ability to make effective
decisions. Physical fatigue results from sleep loss,
4. Spatial Disorientation and Illusions
exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and
Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of prolonged performance of cognitive work result in
orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or mental fatigue.
movement of the airplane in space. The body uses three
What are the regulations regarding alcohol?
integrated systems that work together to ascertain
orientation and movement in space. • Vestibular There are two FAR’s that are important to know when it
system—organs found in the inner ear that sense comes to drinking and flying. Most pilots are aware of the
position by the way we are balanced • Somatosensory “8 hour” rule, that is, 8 hours from bottle to throttle,
system—nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, although many airlines have a more stringent 12 hour
along with hearing, sense position based on gravity, time limit. Most pilots do not know of the 0.04% FAR,
feeling, and sound • Visual system—eyes, which which prohibits flying an aircraft with a blood alcohol
sense position based on what is seen concentration (BAC) of 0.04% or higher.
5. Motion Sickness Motion sickness, or airsickness,
is caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages
about the state of the body. A pilot may experience
A SID is an air traffic control coded departure procedure
that has been established at certain airports to simplify
clearance delivery procedures. SIDs are supposed to be
easy to understand and, if possible, limited to one page.

A pilot-nav SID is a SID where the pilot is primarily

responsible for navigation along the SID route. It allows
for the aircraft to get from the runway to its assigned
route with no vectoring required from air traffic control.
They are established for airports where terrain and
related safety factors dictate a specific ground track be
flown.

A radar vector SID is used where air traffic control

provides radar navigational guidance to a filed or
assigned route or to a fix depicted on a SID. Flying a
vector SID may require first flying an obstacle departure
procedure (ODP). This is usually annotated in the ODP
section stating, "Fly runway heading to xxx prior to
making any turns." Vector SIDs give air traffic control
more control over air traffic routing than do pilot-nav
SIDs.

A hybrid SID is a departure that combines elements of

both the pilot-nav and radar vector departures. A hybrid
SID usually requires the pilot to fly a set of instructions,
then be vectored to a defined route to a transition to
leave the terminal area.
In a precision approach, the decision height (DH) or Some approach procedures do not permit straight-in
decision altitude (DA) is a specified lowest height or approaches unless the pilots are being radar vectored. In
altitude in the approach descent at which, if the required these situations, pilots are required to complete a
visual reference to continue the approach (such as the procedure turn (PT) or other course reversal, generally
runway markings or runway environment) is not visible within 10 NM of the PT fix, to establish the aircraft
to the pilot, the pilot must initiate a missed approach. A inbound on the intermediate or final approach segment.
decision height is measured AGL (above ground level) When conducting any type of approach, if the aircraft is
while a decision altitude is measured above MSL (mean not lined up for a straight-in approach, then a course
sea level).) reversal might be necessary. The idea of a course
reversal is to allow sufficiently large changes in the
In a non-precision approach (that is when no electronic
course flown (in order to line the aircraft up with the final
glideslope is provided), the minimum descent altitude
approach course), without taking too much space
(MDA) is the lowest altitude, expressed in feet above
horizontally and while remaining within the confines of
mean sea level, to which descent is authorized on final
protected airspace. This is accomplished in one of three
approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering in
ways: a procedure turn, a holding pattern, or a teardrop
execution of a standard instrument approach procedure.
course reversal.
The pilot may descend to the MDA, and may maintain it,
but must not descend below it until visual reference is Procedure turn (PT)
obtained, and must initiate a missed approach, if visual
ICAO defines a PT as a maneuver in which a turn is made
reference has not been obtained, on reaching the missed
away from a designated track followed by a turn in the
approach point (MAP).
opposite direction to permit the aircraft to intercept and
proceed along the reciprocal of the designated track. A
standardized way of reversing course to get lined up for
final approach. The approach chart must indicate that a
procedure turn is authorized for the approach, via a
"procedure turn barb" symbol or a similar notation. Note
that when a procedure turn exists for an approach, the
maximum speed of the aircraft in the procedure turn is
limited by regulations (typically, it should not exceed 200
knots IAS). The procedure turn is typically entered by
tracking a navaid course outbound (usually following a
reciprocal of the inbound course), and then turning 45°
off of the course; after that, the pilot flies this leg for a
Straight-in approach IFR certain time, then conducts a 180° turn to get on a 45°
An instrument approach wherein final approach is begun intercepting course, and then re-intercepts the inbound
without first having executed a procedure turn, not course.
necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or made
to straight-in landing minimums. A direct instrument
approach requires no procedure turn or any other course
reversal procedures for alignment (usually indicated by
"NoPT" on approach plates), as the arrival direction and
the final approach course are not too different from each
other. The direct approach can be finished with a
straight-in landing or circle-to-land procedure.

Course reversal procedure Hold in lieu of procedure turn

A "procedure turn" maneuver, showing two commonly It is established over a final or intermediate fix when an
used variations in the way it may be performed by a pilot. approach can be made from a properly aligned holding
pattern. It is a required maneuver, as is a PT, unless the
aircraft is being radar vectored to the final approach instrument procedures or their approaches cannot be
course, when 'NoPT' is shown on the approach chart, or used for other reasons (traffic considerations, navigation
when the pilot requests or the controller advises the pilot aids being out of service, etc.).
to make a 'straight-in' approach. maneuver is commonly
Circling to land is considered more difficult and less safe
referred to as the racetrack pattern. It is another method
than a straight-in landing, especially under instrument
of course reversal, but it can also be used for losing
meteorological conditions because the aircraft is at a low
altitude within protected airspace. A holding pattern
altitude and must remain within a short distance from
used for this purpose is depicted in U.S. government
the airport in order to be assured of obstacle clearance
publications as the "hold-in-lieu-of-PT" holding pattern
(often within a couple of miles, even for faster aircraft).
symbol. The procedure has two parallel legs, with 180°
The pilot must maintain visual contact with the airport at
turns between them.
all times; loss of visual contact requires execution of a
Teardrop procedure or penetration turn missed approach procedure.

The teardrop procedure consists of departure from an Pilots should be aware that there are significant
initial approach fix on an outbound course followed by a differences in obstacle clearance criteria between
turn toward and intercepting the inbound course at or procedures designed in accordance with ICAO PANS-OPS
prior to the intermediate fix or point. If the controlled and US TERPS. This is especially true in respect of circling
airspace is extremely limited, a teardrop may be used to approaches where the assumed radius of turn and
reverse the direction of the aircraft and permit the minimum obstacle clearance are markedly different.
aircraft to lose altitude. This procedure is shaped like a
Sidestep maneuver
teardrop, hence the name. It typically consists of the
outbound course flown at 30° angle to the reciprocal of A visual maneuver by a pilot performed at the
the inbound course, and then making a 210° turn to completion of an instrument approach to permit a
intercept the inbound course. straight-in landing on a parallel runway not more than
1,200 feet to either side of the runway to which the
Circle-to-land maneuver
instrument approach was conducted.
Circle-to-land is a maneuver initiated by the pilot to align
Missed approach point (MAP or MAPt) is the point
the aircraft with a runway for landing when a straight-in
prescribed in each instrument approach at which a
landing from an instrument approach is not possible or is
missed approach procedure shall be executed if the
not desirable, and only after ATC authorization has been
required visual reference does not exist. It defines the
obtained and the pilot has established and maintains
point for both precision and non-precision approaches
required visual reference to the airport. A circle-to-land
wherein the missed approach segment of an approach
maneuver is an alternative to a straight-in landing. It is a
procedure begins.
maneuver used when a runway is not aligned within 30
degrees of the final approach course of the instrument Definition of MAP depends on whether the approach
approach procedure or the final approach requires 400 flown is a precision or a non-precision one:
feet (or more) of descent per nautical mile, and therefore
requires some visual maneuvering of the aircraft in the Non-precision approach. The MAP for a non-precision
vicinity of the airport after the instrument portion of the approach is typically crossed at the minimum descent
approach is completed to align the aircraft with the altitude (MDA) and may be anywhere from well prior to
runway for landing. the runway threshold to past the opposite end of the
runway, depending on terrain, obstructions, NAVAID
It is very common for a circle-to-land maneuver to be location and air traffic considerations.
executed during a straight-in approach to a different
runway, e.g., an ILS approach to one runway, followed by Precision approach. The MAP on a precision approach is
a low-altitude transition, ending in a landing on another reached when the aircraft reaches the decision height
(not necessarily parallel) runway. This way, approach prescribed for the approach while maintaining the
procedures to one runway can be used to land on any glideslope.
runway at the airport, as the other runways might lack The following is the official FAA definition of VDP:
"A defined point on the final approach course of a no Glideslope is a glide path that provides vertical guidance
precision straight-in approach procedure from which for an aircraft during approach and landing. Applying the
normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown glideslope angle and the ground speed to the rate of
point may be commenced, provided the approach descent table gives a recommended vertical speed.
threshold of that runway, or approach lights, or other
Height Above Touchdown (HAT) is the height above the
markings identifiable with the approach end of that
highest point within the first 3000’ of the runway. It is
runway are clearly visible to the pilot."
published in conjunction with straight-in approaches and
FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF) — The fix from appears next to the MDA or DH of the approach plate.
which the final approach (IFR) to an airport is exe-
Height Above Airport (HAA) is the height above the
cuted and which identifies the beginning of the final
highest point on any of the landing surfaces. It is
approach segment. It is designated in the profile
published in conjunction with circling approaches and
view of Jeppesen Terminal charts by the Maltese
appears next to the MDA of the approach plate.
Cross symbol for non-precision approaches and
by the glide slope/path intercept point on precision Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) is the height above the
approaches. The glide slope/path symbol starts at threshold of the runway for a given glideslope.
the FAF. When ATC directs a lower-than-published
Glide Slope/Path Intercept Altitude, it is the resultant Touchdown Zone Elevation (TDZE) is the highest point
actual point of the glide slope/path intercept. within the first 3000’ of runway
FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF) (AUSTRALIA) — A Field Elevation is the highest point on any of the landing
specified point on a non-precision approach which surfaces. It is not the highest point on the field, just the
identifies the commencement of the final segment. landing surface.
The FAF is designated in the profile view of Jeppesen
Terminal charts by the Maltese Cross symbol. HOLDING PROCEDURES Purpose of Holding: time delay
FINAL APPROACH FIX (FAF) OR POINT (FAP) by ATC to help maintain separation; or requested to
(ICAO) — That fix or point of an instrument approach wait out the weather.
procedure where the final approach segment com- Flying a Holding Pattern:
mences.
FINAL APPROACH — IFR (USA) — The flight path • Pattern size depends on the speed; doubling your
of an aircraft which is inbound to an airport on a final speed doubles the size of the pattern
instrument approach course, beginning at the final
• Turns are the right in standard holding pattern, and
approach fix or point and extending to the airport
left in non-standard
or the point where a circling approach/circle-to-land
maneuver or a missed approach is executed. • Each circuit of the outbound leg of either a standard
FINAL APPROACH POINT (FAP) (USA) — The or nonstandard holding pattern should begin abeam the
point, applicable only to a non-precision approach holding fix. If the abeam position cannot be identified,
with no depicted FAF (such as an on-airport VOR), start timing the outbound leg at the completion of the
where the aircraft is established inbound on the final turn outbound.
approach course from the procedure turn and where
• Adjust the timing of your outbound leg to make your
the final approach descent may be commenced. The
inbound leg one minute long.
FAP serves as the FAF and identifies the beginning
of the final approach segment. • To correct crosswind drift, triple your inbound wind
FINAL APPROACH POINT (FAP) (AUSTRALIA) — correction angle on the outbound leg.
A specified point on the glide path of a precision
instrument approach which identifies the commence- Holding Speed: FAA
ment of the final segment. • Up to 6,000ft MSL = 200 KIAS
NOTE: The FAP is co-incident with the FAF of a local-
izer-based non-precision approach. • 6,001ft MSL to 14,000ft MSL = 230 KIAS
• 14,001 MSL and above = 265 KIAS Holding Clearance: provide for navaid signal coverage or communication
• Should always contain the holding direction, the coverage.
holding fix, and an expect further clearance patterns
a. Grid MORA values derived by Jeppesen clear all terrain
(EFC).
and man-made structures by 1000ft in areas where the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) highest elevations are 5000ft MSL or lower. MORA values
maximum holding speeds are as follows: clear all terrain and man-made structures by 2000ft in
areas where the highest elevations are 5001ft MSL or
Holding altitude 14000' or below - 230 KIAS
higher.
Holding altitude above 14000' to 20000' - 240 KIAS
When a Grid MORA is shown as “Unsurveyed” it is due to
Holding altitude above 20000' to 34000' - 265 KIAS incomplete or insufficient information. Grid MORA
values followed by a +/- denote doubtful accuracy, but
Holding altitude above 34000' - Mach .83 are believed to provide sufficient reference point
Holding patterns restricted to Category A and B aircraft clearance.
only - 170 KIAS b. Grid MORA (State) altitude supplied by the State
Feeder routes, also referred to as approach transitions Authority provides 2000ft clearance in moun- tainous
or terminal routes, provide a link between the enroute areas and 1000ft in non-mountainous areas.
and approach structures. Flyable routes are indicated minimum holding altitude (MHA)
with a heavy line arrow on NOS charts. Each flyable
route lists the radial or bearing, the distance, and the Minimum holding level as determined by the obstacle
minimum altitude. You may have several feeder routes, clearance surface related to the holding area and the
you generally use the one closest to your enroute buffer area.
arrival point.
The lowest altitude prescribed for a holding pattern,
Low altitude airways (below 18,000 feet (5,500 m) MSL) which complies with requirements for obstruction
that are based on VOR stations, appear on sectional clearance and ensures good reception of radio signals
charts, world aeronautical charts, and en route low and of navigational aids. The minimum holding level
altitude charts and are designated with the prefix "V" provides a clearance of at least 1000 ft (300 m) above
(pronounced victor, hence, victor airways). High altitude obstacles in the holding area, a value (as given in the
airways (from 18,000 feet (5,500 m) MSL to FL450) based table) above obstacles in the buffer area. The minimum
on VOR stations are called jet routes; they appear on high holding altitude to be published shall be rounded up to
altitude charts (that usually don't show topography, as the nearest 100 ft, or 50 m, as appropriate. If no MHA is
the low altitude charts do) and are prefixed by the letter prescribed, then the following minimum IFR (instrument
"J". VOR-based routes are depicted in black on low and flight rules) altitudes apply:
high altitude charts produced by the FAA's Aeronautical
i. In a designated mountainous area, 2000 ft above the
Navigation Products.
highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 5 statute
miles from the course to be flown.

ii. In other than mountainous areas, 1000 ft above the

highest obstacle within 5 statute miles from the course
to be flown.

iii. In other cases, as authorized by ATC (air traffic

control) or by the operator.
RID MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (Grid MORA) — An A localizer performance with vertical guidance (LPV)
altitude derived by Jeppesen or pro- vided by State approach is a modern aviation instrument approach
Authorities. The Grid MORA altitude provides terrain and procedure that uses the wide area augmentation system
man-made structure clearance within the section (WAAS) and very precise GPS capabilities to attain an
outlined by latitude and longitude lines. MORA does not airplane's position. LPV offers the most accurate aviation
position available today. An LPV approach can get a pilot A secondary goal, at busier airports, is to increase
down to a mere 200-foot or 250-foot decision altitude. efficiency and reduce communications and departure
The benefit is that this makes it possible for aircraft to delays through the use of SIDs
land at runways in very low visibility. Without WAAS
There are two types of Departure Procedures (DPs),
capabilities (i.e., without the ability to fly the LPV
Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), printed either
approach) deplorable visibility conditions at the airport
textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument
may force the pilot to fly to an alternate and less
Departures (SID), always printed graphically
desirable airport.
All DPs, either textual or graphic may be designed using
RNAV approach
either conventional or RNAV criteria
These approaches include both ground-based and
ODPs specifically ensure obstacle protection, routing
satellite-based systems and include criteria for terminal
aircraft through potential hazards and onto the enroute
areas (TAAs), basic approach criteria, and final approach
structure
criteria. The TAA is a transition from the en route
structure to the terminal environment which provides Starting with clearance delivery on the ground control,
minimum altitudes for obstacle clearance. The TAA is a ATC manages traffic flow through departure control's
"T" or "basic T" design with left and right base leg IAFs on issuance of a departure clearance
initial approach segments perpendicular to the
intermediate approach segment where there is a dual Your departure clearance then issues restrictions, and
purpose IF/IAF for a straight-in procedure (no procedure may even be abbreviated, facilitating planned traffic
turn [NoPT]), or hold-in-lieu-of procedure-turn (HILO) flows
course reversal. The base leg IAFs is 3 to 6 NM from the Many airports in the National Airspace System (NAS) are
IF/IAF. The basic-T is aligned with the runway centerline, equipped with the Terminal Data Link System (TDLS)
with the IF 5 NM from the FAF, and the FAF is 5 NM from which allow for the use of automated pre-departure
the threshold. procedures
The RNAV approach chart should have four lines of Both pilots and controllers share certain responsibilities,
approach minimums corresponding to LPV, LNAV/VNAV, in different capacities
LNAV, and circling. This allows GPS or WAAS equipped
aircraft to use the LNAV MDA using GPS only, if WAAS Ultimately, departure procedures found in the FAA
becomes unavailable. Terminal Procedure Publications provide guidance as to
how a pilot must fly the procedure
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a family of
navigation specifications under Performance Based Obstacle Departure Procedures:
Navigation (PBN) which permit the operation of aircraft ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous
along a precise flight path with a high level of accuracy route from the terminal area to the appropriate enroute
and the ability to determine aircraft position with both structure
accuracy and integrity. RNP offers safety benefits by
means of its precision and accuracy and it reduces the ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and
cost of operational inefficiencies such as multiple step- may be flown without an ATC clearance unless an
down non-precision and circling approaches. alternate departure procedure (SID/Radar Vectors) has
been specifically assigned by ATC
Departure Procedures are pre-planned terminal
instrument flight rule (IFR) procedures, designed for two ODPs are printed textually or graphically
reasons:
Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE) printed in the
The primary purpose is to provide obstacle clearance procedure
protection information to pilots
will be noted on an approach chart by (obstacle) in the
title.
An ODP designed specifically for obstacle avoidance will Write down the time you determine you are lost
be indicated by a "T" on the chart.
Avoid stressing out and convincing yourself you are lost
Must be complied with if accepted in a clearance. when maybe you are not

ATC is to be notified if you do not have DP available by Climb:

noting it in flight plan "no DP" or by advising ATC.
"Climb to cope"
The pilot must have at least a text description or of DP.
Ceiling and visibility permitting climb to improve radio
A “hot spot” is a runway safety related problem area or reception (comm and NAVAID) and forward visibility
intersection on an airport. Typically it is a complex or
Be sure not to fly around aimlessly, circle if required
confusing taxiway/taxiway or taxiway/runway
during a climb
intersection. A confusing condition may be compounded
by a miscommunication between a controller and a pilot, Conserve:
and may cause an aircraft separation standard to be
compromised. The area may have a history of surface Operate the aircraft (when straight and level) at
incidents or the potential for surface incidents. This may maximum endurance power setting
be due to any mix of causes: When oriented, fly max range
• Airport geometry Check your fuel state and determine how much time you
• Ground traffic flow have

• Markings, signage, or lighting Communicate:

• Human factors Request assistance on the area working frequency

Try to communicate using all available channels and

NAVAIDs

If unable try calling an approach control frequency with

a PAN report and request vectors
Fly over
If unable to receive any reply, switch to guard and deliver
A waypoint over which an aircraft must fly. It precludes a PAN report
any turn until the waypoint is overflown and is followed
by an intercept maneuver of the next flight segment. If required set transponder 7700

fly-by waypoint

A waypoint near which an aircraft is required to fly. This If ATC responds then comply with instructions
is unlike the fly-over waypoint over which an aircraft is
required to fly. A flyby waypoint requires the use of turn
anticipation to avoid exceeding airway boundary limits of UHF: "PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN, [Callsign],
the next flight segment. [Situation], [Position], [Intention] PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN,
PAN-PAN"
Five C's:
Comply:
Circle:
If you are attempting landing at a strange field, circle it
If able, you want to minimize your travel so you can at a safe altitude and locate all obstacles and hazards
orient to the location without anything changing and not
get any further off track Determine wind direction and duty runway and get a
rough estimate of runway length and width
Confess:
Try to contact the tower on guard prior to landing
Admit that you are lost and need some form of assistance
Use best estimation of pattern altitude Artículo 86: Falla de las comunicaciones. Si la falla de las
comunicaciones impide cumplir con lo dispuesto en el
Artículo 85 de esta sección, la aeronave observará los
Never fly above overcast layers procedimientos de falla de comunicaciones orales del
Anexo 10, Volumen II, y aquellos de los procedimientos
If stuck above a cloud layer, bailout is an option siguientes que sean apropiados. La aeronave intentará
C-172 Procedure: comunicarse con la dependencia de control de tránsito
aéreo pertinente utilizando todos los demás medios
Maintain positive aircraft control at all times disponibles. Además, la aeronave cuando forme parte
Remain calm del tránsito de aeródromo en un aeródromo controlado,
se mantendrá vigilante para atender a las instrucciones
Conserve fuel by leaning the engine for a best economy que puedan darse por medio de señales visuales:
operation and reduce power as much as practical
1) Si opera en condiciones meteorológicas de vuelo
Maintain situational awareness, using a sectional chart visual, la aeronave:
and NAVAIDs as follows:
a. Proseguirá su vuelo en condiciones meteorológicas de
Sectional: vuelo visual; aterrizará en el aeródromo adecuado más
próximo; y notificará su llegada, por el medio más rápido,
Reset the heading indicator (HI)
a la dependencia apropiada del control de tránsito aéreo;
Turn the sectional chart to match your heading y

Watch for prominent landmarks b. Completará un vuelo IFR conforme a lo establecido en

párrafo (2) siguiente
Match the landmarks to the sectional chart
de este Artículo, si lo considera conveniente.
NAVAIDs:
2) Si opera en condiciones meteorológicas de vuelo por
Reset the heading indicator
instrumentos, o si el piloto
Tune and identify an available VOR and/or NDB station
de un vuelo IFR, considera que no es conveniente
Locate the aircraft position using radials / bearings terminar el vuelo de acuerdo

Plot a course to proceed direct to the destination or to con lo prescrito en el Párrafo (1) de este Artículo:
intercept the planned course as appropriate
a. A menos que se prescriba de otro modo con base en
Use the GPS: un acuerdo regional de

Use NRST to locate the nearest airport or VOR, or navegación aérea, en el espacio aéreo en el que no se
utilice radar para el
Use the moving map
control de tránsito aéreo, mantendrá el último nivel y
Obtain assistance from ATC or FSS velocidad asignados, o
If unable to establish contact with anyone, squawk 7700 la altitud mínima de vuelo, si ésta es superior, por un
and transmit "in the blind" on 121.50 MHz to obtain período de 20 minutos
assistance
desde el momento en que el piloto al mando deje de
Carefully monitor the amount of fuel and make a notificar su posición al
precautionary landing, preferably at an airport, before
exhausting the fuel supply pasar por un punto de notificación obligatoria, y después
de ese período de

20 minutos ajustará el nivel y velocidad conforme al plan

de vuelo
presentado; de llegada resultante del plan de vuelo actualizado o lo
más cerca posible de dicha hora;
b. En el espacio aéreo en el que se utilice radar para el
control del tránsito f. Realizará un procedimiento normal de aproximación
por instrumentos, especificado para la ayuda o el punto
aéreo, mantendrá el último nivel y velocidad asignados,
de referencia de navegación designados; y
o la altitud mínima
g. Aterrizará, de ser posible, dentro de los 30 minutos
de vuelo, si ésta es superior, por un período de siete
siguientes a la hora prevista de llegada especificada en el
minutos desde el
párrafo (2) e. de este Artículo, o la hora prevista de
momento en que: aproximación de que últimamente se haya acusado
recibo, lo que resulte más tarde.
I. Se alcance el último nivel asignado o la altitud mínima
de vuelo; o Artículo 95: Experiencia de vuelo por instrumentos:

II. Se regule el transpondedor en el Código 7600; o (1) Ningún piloto puede actuar como piloto al
mando en vuelos IFR, ni en condiciones
Libro X Parte I Página 28 de 200 26-Mar-19 meteorológicas menores que las mínimas
III. La aeronave deje de notificar su posición al pasar por establecidas para vuelos VFR, a menos que ese
un punto de piloto, dentro de los seis (6) últimos meses haya
anotado por lo menos seis (6) horas de vuelo por
notificación obligatoria; o instrumentos en condiciones IFR reales o
IV. Lo que ocurra más tarde y a partir de ese momento simuladas; tres (3) de las cuales hayan sido
debe ajustar el nivel y la velocidad conforme al plan de efectuadas en la categoría de la aeronave
vuelo presentado; involucrada, incluyendo por lo menos seis (6)
aproximaciones instrumentales, o realizado una
c. Cuando reciba guía vectorial radar o efectúe un verificación de competencia en la categoría de
desplazamiento indicado por ATC utilizando el sistema aeronave involucrada.
de navegación de área (RNAV) sin un límite especificado,
debe volver a la ruta del plan de vuelo actualizado al
alcanzar el siguiente punto significativo, a más tardar,
teniendo en cuenta la altitud mínima de vuelo que
corresponda;

d. Proseguirá según la ruta del plan de vuelo actualizado

hasta la ayuda o el punto de referencia para la
navegación que corresponda y que haya sido designada
para servir al aeródromo de destino, y, cuando sea
necesario para asegurar que se satisfagan los requisitos
señalados en el párrafo (2) e. de este Artículo, la
aeronave se mantendrá en circuito de espera sobre esta
ayuda o este punto de referencia hasta iniciar el
descenso;

e. Iniciará el descenso desde la ayuda o el punto de

referencia para la navegación especificada en el párrafo
(2)d. de este Artículo, a la última hora prevista de
aproximación recibida y de la que se haya acusado
recibo, o lo más cerca posible de dicha hora; o si no se ha
recibido y acusado recibo de la hora prevista de
aproximación, debe iniciar el descenso a la hora prevista