INTRODUCTION OF

MICROPRPCESSOR
Introduction
 A computer is a programmable machine that
receives input, stores and manipulates
data//information, and provides output in a
useful format.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Basic computer system consist of a Central processing unit (CPU),
memory (RAM and ROM), input/output (I/O) unit.

Address bus

ROM RAM I/O I/O

CPU interface devices

Data bus Control

bus

Block diagram of a basic computer system

BASIC COMPONENT OF MICROCOMPUTER
1. CPU - Central Processing Unit
 the portion of a computer system that carries out the
instructions of a computer program
 the primary element carrying out the computer's functions.
It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions.
 The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do.

Pentium D dual core processors

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2. Memory
 physical devices used to store data or programs (sequences of
instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an
electronic digital computer.
 Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).
 RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands
it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never
changes, so the CPU can only read from it.
 ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up
instructions.
 In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to
the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data
indefinitely.
 In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the
BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating
system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the
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computer is turned on or reset.
3. I/O Unit

 Input/output (I/O), refers to the communication between an

information processing system (such as a computer), and the
outside world possibly a human, or another information
processing system.
 Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and
outputs are the signals or data sent from it
 Devices that provide input or output to the computer are
called peripherals
 On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input
devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such
as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk
drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output
devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

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EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR

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 DATA SIZE

Nibble 4 bit

Byte 8 bit

Word 16 bit

Long word 32 bit

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FETCHING & EXECUTION CYCLES
 Fetching Cycles
 The fetch cycle takes the instruction required
from memory, stores it in the instruction
register, and
 moves the program counter on one so that it
points to the next instruction.
 Execute cycle

 The actual actions which occur during the

execute cycle of an instruction.
 depend on both the instruction itself and the
addressing mode specified to be used to access 9
the data that may be required.
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION
 Step 1
Instruction pointer (program counter) hold the address
of the next instruction to be fetch.

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FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
 Step 2

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FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
 Step 3

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FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
 Step 4

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FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

 Step 5

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FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
 Step 6

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND BASIC
OPERATION OF MICROPROCESSOR

Address bus
ALU Register
Section
Data bus

Control and timing

section Control bus

Block diagram of a microprocessor 16

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 The component that performs the arithmetic and
logical operations
 the most important components in a
microprocessor, and is typically the part of the
processor that is designed first.
 able to perform the basic logical operations (AND,
OR), including the addition operation.
 The inclusion of inverters on the inputs enables
the same ALU hardware to perform the
subtraction operation (adding an inverted
operand), and the operations NAND and NOR.
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CONTROL UNIT
 The circuitry that controls the flow of information
through the processor, and coordinates the
activities of the other units within it.
 In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it
controls what happens inside the processor,
which in turn controls the rest of the PC.
 On a regular processor, the control unit performs
the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing
execution and then storing results.

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CONTROL UNIT

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REGISTER SETS
 The register section/array consists completely of
circuitry used to temporarily store data or
program codes until they are sent to the ALU
or to the control section or to memory.

 The number of registers are different for any

particular CPU and the more register a CPU have
will result in easier programming tasks.

 Registers are normally measured by the number of

bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register"
or a "32-bit register". 20
REGISTER IN MOTOROLA 68000
MICROPROCESSOR
31 16 15 8 7 0
D0
D1
D2
D3 DATA REGISTERS
D4
D5
D6
D7
31 16 15 8 7 0
A0
A1
A2
A3 ADDRESS REGISTERS
A4
A5
A6
A7

USER STACK POINTER

A7 STACK POINTER
SUPERVISOR STACK POINTER

PC PROGRAM CONTER 21
15 8 7 0
SYSTEM BYTE USER VYTE SR STATUS REGISTER
ACCUMULATOR

 a register in which intermediate arithmetic and

logic results are stored.
 example for accumulator use is summing a list of
numbers.
 The accumulator is initially set to zero, then each
number in turn is added to the value in the
accumulator.
 Only when all numbers have been added is the result
held in the accumulator written to main memory or
to another, non-accumulator, CPU register.

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CONDITION CODE REGISTER (CCR)
 an 8 bit register used to store the status of CPU,
such as carry, zero, overflow and half carry.

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Flag Name Description
Indicates that the result of a mathematical or logical operation was
Z Zero flag
zero.

Indicates that the result of an operation produced an answer

greater than the number of available bits. (This flag may also be set
C Carry flag
before a mathematical operation as an extra operand to certain
instructions, e.g. "add with carry".)

Masks the XIRQ request when set. It is set by the hardware and
X Extend flag
cleared by the software as well is set by unmaskable XIRQ.

Indicates that the result of a mathematical operation is negative. In

some processors, the N and S flags have different meanings: the S
N Negative/ Sign flag flag indicates whether a subtraction or addition has taken place,
whereas the N flag indicates whether the last operation result is
positive or negative.

Indicates that the result of an operation has overflowed according to

V Overflow Flag the CPU's word representation, similar to the carry flag but for
signed operations.

Interrupts can be enabled or disabled by respectively setting or

I interrupts clearing this flag. Modifying this flag may be restricted to programs 24
executing in supervisor mode
PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)
a 16 bit register, used to store the next
address of the operation code to be fetched
by the CPU.
 Not much use in programming, but as an
indicator to user only.
 Purpose of PC in a Microprocessor
 to store address of tos (top of stack)
 to store address of next instruction to
be executed.
 count the number of instructions.
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 to store base address of the stack.
STACK POINTER (SP)
 The stack is configured as a data
structure that grows downward from high
memory to low memory.
 At any given time, the SP holds the 16-bit
address of the next free location in the
stack.
 The stack acts like any other stack when
there is a subroutine call or on an
interrupt. ie. pushing the return address
on a jump, and retrieving it after the
operation is complete to come back to its 26
original location.
BUS SYSTEM
 a subsystem that transfers data between
computer components inside a computer or
between computers.

4 PCI Express bus card slots (from top to bottom: x4, x16, x1 and x16),
compared to a traditional 32-bit PCI bus card slot (very bottom).

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BUS SYSTEM CONNECTION

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DATA BUS
 The data bus is 'bi-directional'
 data or instruction codes from memory or
input/output.are transferred into the
microprocessor
 the result of an operation or computation is sent
out from the microprocessor to the memory or
input/output.
 Depending on the particular microprocessor,
the data bus can handle 8 bit or 16 bit data.

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ADDRESS BUS
 The address bus is 'unidirectional', over which
the microprocessor sends an address code to the
memory or input/output.
 The size (width) of the address bus is specified by
the number of bits it can handle.
 The more bits there are in the address bus, the
more memory locations a microprocessor can
access.
 A 16 bit address bus is capable of addressing
65,536 (64K) addresses.
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CONTROL BUS
 The control bus is used by the microprocessor to
send out or receive timing and control signals in
order to coordinate and regulate its operation and
to communicate with other devices, i.e. memory
or input/output.

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MICRO PROCESSOR CLOCK
 Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor
executes instructions. Every computer contains an internal
clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various computer
components.
 The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock
cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the
more instructions the CPU can execute per second. Clock
speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
((GHz).
 Some microprocessors are superscalar, which means that
they can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle.
 Like CPUs, expansion buses also have clock speeds.
Ideally, the CPU clock speed and the bus clock speed
should be the same so that neither component slows down
the other. In practice, the bus clock speed is often slower
than the CPU clock speed, which creates a bottleneck. This 32
is why new local buses, such as AGP, have been developed.
EXAMPLES OF MICRO PROCESSOR
 Intel 8085
 Intel 8086

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8086
 The 8086 is a 16-bit
microprocessor chip designed by
Intel, which gave rise to the x86
architecture; development work on
the 8086 design started in the
spring of 1976 and the chip was
introduced to the market in the
summer of 1978.
 The Intel 8088, released in 1979,
was a slightly modified chip with
an external 8-bit data bus
(allowing the use of cheaper and
fewer supporting logic chips and is
notable as the processor used in
the original IBM PC. 34
8085
 The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit
An Intel 8085AH processor.
microprocessor introduced by
Intel in 1977. Produced
From 1977 to
1990s

 It was binary-compatible with

the more-famous Intel 8080 but Common
manufacturer(s)
•Intel and
several

required less supporting others

hardware, thus allowing simpler

3,5 and
and less expensive Max. CPU clock rate
6 MHz

microcomputer systems to be
Instruction set pre x86
built.
Package(s) •40 pin DIP

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