Topic Wise Notes
Topic Wise Notes
Besides being a great general, he was also an excellent administrator. He established peace and order as well as a
good administrative structure.
4. Spread of Islam.
5. Raids of Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030): Mahmud of Ghazni (979-1030) led a series of raids against Rajputs and
rich Hindu temples and established a base in Punjab for future incursions. His court was full of scholars including
Ferdosi the poet, Behqi the Historian and Al-Beruni the versatile scholar. He was called the Idol Breaker.
6. Al-Beruni, real founder of two-nation theory in South Asia: he wrote Kitab-ul-Hind
7. Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri’s rule: he was the first Muslim ruler to conquer Delhi and established a
Muslim rule in India. In 1192, he defeated Raj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Tarain. He had no heirs so he left his
throne for his slaves to whom he treated as sons.
8. Effects of the establishment of Muslim rule.
D. IMPACT OF ISLAM:
1. Religious influence:
2. Cultural influence:
3. Social influence:
4. Influence on intellectual life:
5. Economic influence:
6. Influence on political life:
7. Influence on Business:
E. RELIGIOUS AMALGAMATION:
1. Bhakti Movement: the purpose of the movement was to eradicate the evils of Hindu religion. There was no
difference b/w Ram and Rahim and Quran and Pran in this movement. The main purpose was to resist spread of
Islam.
2. Mahdavi Movement: Sayyid Muhammad of Junapur stood and claimed himself as Mehdi. But with the blessing
of God, he was put to his end at the fatwa of Sheikh Makhdum-al-mulk.
3. Akbar’s Din-I-Illahi:
TOPIC # 2
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
“The history of efforts and movements aimed for the renaissance of Islam and the Muslim rule in the subcontinent
is as old as the downfall of the Muslim rule. No doubt these various efforts and movements failed to achieve their
objectives immediately but it can be said without any doubt that the various efforts made and the movements
launched for the renaissance had the great impact on the advent of Muslim nationalism. Therefore, all these
efforts and movements inevitably are considered to be a great asset of the Muslims of the subcontinent.”
III. The revolt first started at Barrack Pore in Bengal in March 29th 1857:
IV. The issue exploded in Meerut, near Delhi in the Ganges River Valley: 85 men of the 3rd light cavalry refused on
April 23 1857.
V. Members of 11th and 20th infantry regiments too revolted: slaughtered 40 British officers and civilians in
Meerut.
3. War Period:
I. Sepoy reinstated 82-year old Bahadar Shah Zafar.
II. State of Oudh was the center point of the rebellion.
III. On May 30 1857, rebel forces besieged Europeans along with the Loyal Indians at the British residency in
Lucknow.
IV. British forces retaliated and on September 15, five days of ferocious fight was held.
V. A relief force reached Lucknow residency on September 25 but became pinned there until late November, when
2nd relief force broke the siege and evacuated them.
VI. The British returned to Oudh in February 1858 with an army of 30,000 men.
VII. On March 23, 1858, the city of Lucknow fell; Bahadar Shah was exiled to Rangoon where he later on died.
VIII. Finally, Nana Sahib, his general Tantia Topi and other leaders were killed and arrested, and in April 1859, the
revolt ended.
4. Consequences:
I. Absence of unity:
II. Ill-planned war:
III. Formal end of Mughal Empire:
IV. Started the Crown rule:
5. Impact of British rule on Muslims after War of Independence:
I. Treated with distrust:
II. Ruthless punishments:
III. Government posts were snatched away:
IV. Took all inherited lands and palaces:
V. New education system:
VI. Employment opportunities were closed:
VII. Poverty etc.
TOPIC # 4
DEOBAN + NADWA
A. DEOBAND MOVEMENT (1866-1947):
1. Background: Apart from the Aligarh Movement, there were many other forces working in the Sub-continent
that contributed to national consolidation. These were in the form of institutions that grew up within the country.
These institutions occasionally held views in opposition to the Aligarh leadership, but they all worked towards a
common goal; national awakening and integrity.
2. Establishment: Iqbal said “It’s neither a creed nor a sect; Deobandi is the name of every rationalist religious
man.”
• Most important of these institutions was the seminary at Deoband. The original idea of establishing a madrasa
for teaching religious subjects was that of a practicing sufi and a reputed saint, Haji Muhammad Abid of Deoband.
He became the honorary patron and manager of the seminary, and when ample funds became available, Maulana
Muhammad Yaqub, a leading educationist, was appointed as the headmaster. On April 14, 1866, the madrasa
started functioning in a small mosque.
• The madrasa at Deoband followed the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in its emphasis on Hadith, but it also incorporated
many features of the new educational institutions established by the British, e.g., division of students in regular
classes, attendance registers and written examinations. By 1931, 900 students were enrolled in the madrasa,
including 43 foreign students.
• Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan, who remained head of the institution for 23 years, encouraged contacts between
Aligarh and Deoband. In 1920, the Maulana established the Jami'ah Milliyah for students who had discontinued
studies at Aligarh during the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Jami'ah incorporated many features of Deoband.
• Another personality associated with Deoband was Maulana Ubaid Ullah Sindhi. He figured in the "Raishmi
Roomal Tehrik" launched by Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan and left India for Afghanistan during the World War I to
organize actions against the British. He was appointed as Home Minister in the provisional government of India
formed at Kabul. However, after the failure of the scheme, he proceeded to Moscow and then from Turkey to
Mecca.
3. Need for Establishing Deoband:
I. Historical grudges of the Christians:
II. Against the Christian missions:
III. Spread of European culture:
4. Objectives:
I. Fundamentalist in religious matters but flexible in political affairs.
II. Calling for the true Islam of Quran and Hadith.
III. Upholding the principles of immutability of the Shariat.
IV. Projects the golden vision of Islam.
V. Stipulates e central role of Ulema in rejuvenation of Muslim society.
5. Contribution of Dar-ul-uloom:
I. Role of Ulemas:
II. Muslim’s inferiority complex was removed:
III. Struggle for freedom:
IV. Strengthen the faiths:
V. Madrassah Mazahr-e-Uloom:
6. Comparison of Deoband & Ali Garh:
I. Religious difference: Deobandis stood for rigid and orthodox Islam; the study of Hadith occupied the main place.
The door of Ijtihad was closed tightly. While Sir Syed approached Islam from the values of the modern west. He felt
the necessity of Ijtihad.
II. Political difference: Sir Syed remained loyal to the British, while Maulana Qasim fought against the British.
TOPIC # 5
SIR SYED (1817-98) & ALI GARH MOVEMENT
A. BACKGROUND:
1. “The events of 1857 have a two-fold significance in the history of modern Muslim India. They dealt a final blow
to the idea of the Mughal Empire on one hand, and they put a seal on the debacle of the Muslims in all walks of life
on the other.”
2. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “After the Holocaust of 1857, the Indian Muslims came
under a dark cloud. It was perhaps natural for the new rulers to turn their back on those who by religion were
connected with the erstwhile rulers of India. The Muslims were not only dislodged from power but were also
penalized. The government singled them out for exclusion from any position of responsibility, as it was very widely
believed that the responsibility for the ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ rested mainly on the Muslims. It was therefore quite natural
again for the British authorities to suspect the Indian Muslims as potential rebels. The Muslims’ share in the
administration of the country was reduced to negligible proportions.”
3. W. W. Hunter in ‘the Indian Mussalmans’, “There is now scarcely a government office in Calcutta in which a
Muhammadan can hope for any post above the rank of porter, messenger, filler of ink-pots and menders of pens.”
4. “The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the
Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless
punishments and merciless vengeance. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries
because they had ousted them from power. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every
attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Their efforts resulted in the liquidation of the Mughal
rule and the Sub-continent came directly under the British crown.”
5. “After dislodging the Muslim rulers from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational
policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English
not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude
amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the
opportunities available under the new regime. This tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven
disastrous for the Muslim community.”
6. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “Coupled with this policy of repression by the government
was the Muslims’ unwillingness to reconcile themselves to the changed circumstances. They were loath to take to
western learning as it would, they thought, produce disbelief in the Muslim faith. It was argued that to read English
was forbidden by the laws of Islam. “Pride of race, memory of bygone superiority, religious fears and a not natural
attachment to the learning of” Islam were some of the most powerful factors which precluded the Muslims from
accepting their new position. They were not prepared to change with the times.”
7. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “While the Muslims thus sulked in the corner brooding over
their misfortunes, the majority community, with its traditional flexibility of mind, continued to make a great
progress.”
8. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “They desperately needed a bold leader who can pull them
out of the quagmire and stem the tide of their further degeneration. It was at this time that Syed Ahmed Khan
came forward to lead the destinies of his co-religionists and help them steer through stormy seas of ignorance and
superstitions to safe shores of confidence and fresh aspirations.”
B. INTRODUCTION:
1. “As a social reformer, a political leader, a religious thinker and as a moralist, a rationalist, a humanist and a
jurist, he contributed much to the realm of theology, philosophy, religion, history, literature, education and
politics, besides building institutions which aimed at eradicating ignorance, apathy and superstition.”
2. “Sir Syed washed off the dust of the centuries and melted the ice of rigidities that had made the Muslims
moribund. It was he who brought about a rapprochement b/w the British and the Muslims who had been
characterized for over a century as the inveterate foes of the colonies.”
3. “A great thinker and reformer, Syed Ahmed Khan shaped the destiny of Muslims in the subcontinent and
galvanized a frustrated mass of people into a nation with a future.”
4. “Syed Ahmed Khan appeared on the horizon of Indo-Pak at a time when the existence of the Muslims in the
subcontinent was at a stake.”
5. “Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to acquaint the British with the Indian mind; his next goal was to
open the minds of his countrymen to European literature, science and technology. “
C. EARLY EDUCATION & PROFESSION:
He was born in October 17, 1817 A.D. in Delhi. His mother Aziz-un-Nisa took a great deal of interest in his
education. Then he got education from Maulvi Hamid-ud-Din. He became Naib Munshi in 1839 and Munshi in
1841. In 1867, he was promoted as the Judge of the Small Causes Court. He retired in 1876.
D. CONTRIBUTION IN POLITICS: the political career of Sir Syed began after 1857.
Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “He was neither a politician nor a political leader. He was
essentially a social reformer and his panacea for all the ills of his community was education.”
1. The Causes of the Indian Revolt (1858): on July 28 1859 about 15,000 Muslims assembled in the famous Delhi
mosque to thank Queen Victoria for the general amnesty. He wrote, “The British had no attachments with the land
over which they ruled and had no access to the minds of its people.” The book was translated and sent to all, high
officials and members of the British parliament.
HUME, the father of the India National Congress said, “It was after reading Syed Ahmed’s book on the Causes of
Mutiny that I first felt the need of having a forum of public opinion of India and eventually the Indian National
Congress came into existence.”
Sir Syed wrote, “Granted that the intentions of government were excellent, there was no man who could convince
the people of it; no one was at hand to correct the errors which they had adopted.”
Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote in ‘Towards Pakistan’, “The pith and soul of this pamphlet is that the estrangement
b/w the governors and the governed led to the Indian Mutiny.”
2. Pamphlet ‘The Loyal Muhammadans of India’ (1860): these were the series of articles.
3. Tabyin-ul-Kalam: he tried to bridge the gap b/w the Christians and the Muslims. Sent 500 copies to British
parliament.
4. British Indian Association (1866): purpose was to keep in touch with the British parliamentarians. Both Hindus
and Muslims could be the members.
5. Urdu-Hindi Controversy (1867): it was started at Benares. He said, “Now I am convinced that these two
communities will not join whole-heartedly in anything. He who lives will see.”
6. Speech on Local Self Government System (1883): “For socio-political purposes – the whole of the population of
England forms but one community. It is obvious that the same cannot be set of India.”
7. United Indian Patriotic Association (1888): “As a practical counterblast to the Congress, Sir Syed formed still
another association in August 1888, which was open to members of all communities.”
He founded United Indian Patriotic Association and in connection with this party he wrote to General Graham,
“The aim of this party is to oppose the political ideals and activities of the Congress.”
And Sir Syed was correct in his thoughts, it is also clear from the statement of the Governor of Madras who once
said, “An eagle doesn’t care a bit for the chirping of sparrows (Hindus) but if a falcon (Muslims) dares to oppose
him he at once breaks its neck.”
E. RELIGIOUS SERVICES:
1. Risalah Ahkam-I-Taam-I-Ahli-I-Kitab (1868):
2. Essay on ‘the Life of Muhammad and Subject Subsidiary Thereto’: Sir William Muir wrote a book “The Life of
Muhammad” in which he gave false knowledge about Muhammad (PBUH) and Islam.
3. Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq (1870):
4. Tabyin-ul-Kalam: he tried to bridge the gap b/w the Christians and the Muslims.
5. Commentary on Holy Quran: it was in Urdu in 7 volumes.
6. Rahe Sunat Aur Rad Biddat & Kalamat-ul-Haq:
7. Muhammadan Defence Association (1893): to counter Anti-Cow Killing Society founded by B. G. Tilak in 1890.
“Its aim was to acquaint the authorities with the views of the Indian Muslims and also to prevent them from
participating in political agitation.”, writes Waheed-uz-Zaman.
H. CONCLUSION:
1. He once said, “I don’t agree with those who believe that political discursion would be conducive to our national
progress. I regard progress of education as the only means of national progress.”
2. He was denounced as Kafir, but he persisted with determination.
3. Dr. Waheed-uz-Zaman, “Towards Pakistan”: “Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was neither a traitor nor a turn coat. He
sincerely believed that the Muslims were backward, educationally and economically, and were far behind the
Hindus in every respect. There could be no cooperation between them in a political struggle unless they were on a
footing of quality. He, therefore, worked ceaselessly to divert the Muslim energies into literary rather than political
activities. Cooperation with the government was their only chance.” “He started out as a nationalist and ended up
as a champion of Muslim rights.”
4. Sir Syed’s contribution to Muslim renaissance in India can be summarized in one phrase, “that it was the
inculcation of self-confidence in his people”.
5. He shaped the destiny Muslims with a nation with future.
TOPIC # 6
THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)
1. REASONS BEHIND THE CREATION:
I. Civil service agitation: in 1876, Surender Nath Banerjee of Bengal founded the Indian association with the object
of making it the center of an all India movement. The agitation took a serious turn when the Secretary of State
reduced the age limit for Civil Service examination from 21 to 19 years.
II. Vernacular press act & Arms act (1878): it made distinction b/w the Indians and the Europeans. The Vernacular
press act imposed restriction only on the Indian languages press and not on newspapers published in English.
III. Ilbert Bill (1883): C. P. Ilbert who was the law member of the Viceroy council, introduced a bill to enable Indian
session judges to try Europeans, as had been the practice in the presidency town, the Indian British community
started a fierce and persisted agitation against the measure.
2. FORMATION OF CONGRESS:
I. Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, held series of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy. He
further went to Britain met with John Bright, Sir James Caird and others.
II. Convention of the Indian National Union (Dec. 1885): on his return to India, he invited the convention of Indian
National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884. 70 delegates, most of them were lawyers,
educationalists and journalists, attended it. The first session of Congress was presided over by Womesh chandra
Banerjee. Out of these 70 delegates, only 2 were Muslims.
3. OBJECTIVES:
I. To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts.
II. Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form national unity
III. Discuss and solve the social problems of the country.
IV. To request the governments to give more shares to the locals in administrative affairs.
TOPIC # 7
PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905-1911)
“Important landmarks of history don’t reach their culmination without a long chain of precedent causes and events
that imperceptibly direct the course of history to that final fulfillment.”
A. REASONS:
1. As the rule of the East Company spread form the South through Bengal to the North, country was divided into
presidencies and provinces. Bengal with a number of adjacent territories like Assam, Orissa and Bihar became a
very extensive and unwieldy province, Calcutta as capital.
2. Administrative problems due to huge size:
3. In Feb. 1904, Lord Curzon toured Eastern Bengal to study the problems himself. At Dacca, he was the guest of
Nawab Salimullah with whom he held discussions.
4. Curzon, the Viceroy of India, sent the proposal to London in February 1905. The Secretary of State for India St.
John Brodrich sanctioned it in June, and the proclamation of the formation of the new province was issued in
September. The province of Bengal and Assam came into being on October 16 1905.
5. Before partition, in 1903, the total area of the province of Bengal was 189000 sq. miles with population of 78
million. Province was given revenues of 75, 00,000 pounds.
6. Assam with capital of Calcutta, with population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims), and an
area of 141, 580 sq. miles. Eastern Bengal with Capital at Dacca and an area of 106, 540 sq. miles. The population
was 31 million (18 million Muslim and 12 Million Hindus).
7. Obstacles to travel in Eastern Bengal:
8. Little attention towards the education & public works:
9. Muslims were totally ignored in Eastern Bengal:
C. REACTION OF HINDUS:
1. The Muslims outnumbered the Hindus in Eastern Bengal and this alleviated the Bengali Muslims politically and
economically. This resulted in a series of unprecedented agitation by the Hindus.
2. They alleged that Lord Curzon had deliberately tried to divide the Hindus and the Muslims by drawing a line
between the Hindu and the Muslim halves of Bengal. And by favoring the Muslims by giving them a new province
in which they were in a clear majority, had struck a deadly blow to Bengali nationality. They branded him as the
upholder of the devilish policy of 'divide and rule'.
3. He was blamed that he tried to vivisect the Bengali homeland; he had struck a deadly blow at Bengali
nationalism.
4. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar writes, “The Bengali-Hindu had the whole of Bengal, Orissa, Assam and even UP for his
pasture. He had captured the civil service in all these provinces. The partition of Bengal was a diminution in the
area of this pasture – the opposition to the partition of Bengal on the part of the Bengali Hindus was due
principally to their desire not to allow the Bengal Mussalmans to take their place in Eastern Bengal.”
5. T. Walter Wallbank writes, “There were other motives too, less indigenous. Lawyers in Calcutta feared that the
competition of the new law courts to be set up in Dacca and businessmen also dislike the prospect of competition
from new enterprises that might spring up in the new provinces.”
6. Hindus feudal lords and businessmen vis-à-vis Hindu Officials:
7. They launched a mass movement, declaring October 16 as a day of mourning in Calcutta. Surrindernath Banerji
and Bipin Chanderpaul were among the people who were more aggressive.
8. Influenced by the Chinese boycott of American goods, the Hindus started the Swadeshi Movement in 1908
against the British.
9. In the meantime, the Hindus raised the Band-i-Mataram (first appeared in a Bengali novel ANAND MATH written
by Bankim Chandra Chatterji) as the national cry protecting worship of Shivaji as a national hero. This organized
anarchist movement took a terrorist turn resulting in political sabotage and communal riots.
10. Dada Bhai Naroji encouraged the Hindus by saying that: “Agitate, agitate over the whole length and breadth of
India.”
F. SIGNIFICANCE:
1. Hindu Muslim relations worsened:
2. It negate the Congress’s claims:
3. Sir Syed’s fears came true:
4. Establishment of Muslim League:
5. British-Muslim relations affected:
6. Call for the unity for the Muslims:
G. CONCLUSION:
Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “In December 1911, the settled fact of the Lord Morley was unsettled by the annulment
of the partition of Bengal.”
THE GOAL OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE CHANGED AT ITS LUCKNOW SESSION HELD IN 1913 from G. Allana’s
Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents:
“Attainment under the aegis of the British Crown of a system of self-government suitable to India through
constitutional means, by bringing about, amongst other things a steady reform of the existing systems of
administration by promoting national unity, by fostering public spirit among the people of India. And by
cooperation with other communities for the said purpose.”
TOPIC # 8
ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
1. BACKGROUND:
• Three factors had kept Muslims away from the Congress, Sir Syed's advice to the Muslims to give it a wide berth,
Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal and the Hindu religious revivalism's hostility towards the Muslims.
The Muslims remained loyal to Sir Syed's advice but events were quickly changing the Indian scene and politics
were being thrust on all sections of the population.
• But the main motivating factor was that the Muslims' intellectual class wanted representation; the masses
needed a platform on which to unite. It was the dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton and
Thomas Paine, etc. at the M. A. O. College that initiated the emergence of Muslim nationalism.
2. ESTABLISHMENT OF AIML:
• On December 30 1906, the annual meeting of Mohammedan Educational Conference was held at Dhaka under
the chairmanship of Nawab Wiqar-ul-Mulk. Almost 3,000 delegates attended the session making it the largest-ever
representative gathering of Muslim India. For the first time the conference lifted its ban on political discussion,
when Nawab Salim Ullah Khan presented a proposal for establish a political party to safeguard the interests of the
Muslims; the All India Muslim League.
• The headquarters of the All India Muslim League was established in Lucknow, and Sir Aga Khan was elected as its
first president. Also elected were six vice-presidents, a secretary and two joint secretaries for a term of three
years. The initial membership was 400, with members hailing proportionately from all provinces. Maulana
Muhammad Ali Jauhar wrote the constitution of the League, known as the "Green Book". Branches were also
setup in other provinces. Syed Ameer Ali established a branch of the League in London in 1908, supporting the
same objectives.
3. OBJECTIVES:
I. To inculcate among Muslims a feeling of loyalty to the government and to disabuse their minds of
misunderstandings and misconceptions of its actions and intentions.
II. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and to represent their needs
and aspirations to the government from time to time.
III. To prevent the growth of ill will between Muslims and other nationalities without compromising to its own
purposes.
4. CONCLUSION: “Many Hindu historians and several British writers have alleged that the Muslim League was
founded at official instigation. They argue that it was Lord Minto who inspired the establishment of a Muslim
organization so as to divide the Congress and to minimize the strength of the Indian Freedom Movement. But
these statements are not supported by evidence. Contrary to this, the widely accepted view is that the Muslim
League was basically established to protect and advance the Muslim interests and to combat the growing influence
of the Indian National Congress.”
TOPIC # 12
KHILAFAT MOVEMENT OR INDIAN MUSLIM MOVEMENT
(1919–24)
1. BACKGROUND:
I. “Victorious Nations were sitting on a peace table like vultures feasting in a carcass, each trying to grab as much as
it could of Turkey and of other Muslim Territories. Turkey the seat of Caliph was in danger, Muslims were bound to
emphatically and violently protest against the unholy conspiracy against Muslim countries. The purpose being to
save the Khilafat from being liquidated.”
II. Waheed-uz-Zaman wrote, “With the Allied victory at the end of the First WW, the Muslims became
apprehensive about the probable destiny of turkey. They demanded that Jazirat-ul-Arab including Mesopotamia,
Arabia, Syria and Palestine with the holy places situated therein must always remain under the direct suzerainty of
the Khalifah.”
III. “As an institution, the Khilafat had a checkered past. It had originally migrated from Medina to Damascus and
from Damascus to Baghdad. For sometime it was located in Egypt, then it fell to the lot of Turkey, very much as a
prize.”
IV. “The Lucknow pact showed that it was possible for middle-class, English-educated Muslims and Hindus to arrive
at an amicable settlement on Hindu-Muslim constitutional and political problems. This unity reached its climax
during the Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movements.”
2. OBJECTIVES:
The objectives were as follows:
1) To maintain the Turkish Caliphate.
2) To protect the holy places of the Muslims.
3) To maintain the unity of the Ottoman Empire.
There was absolute unanimity among the Indian Muslims. Though separated from Turkey by thousands of miles,
they were determined to fight Turkey's battle from India.
5. KHILAFAT CONFERENCE (1919): On 5th July 1919, under the leadership of Hakeem Ajmal Khan and Dr. M. A.
Ansari, Khilafat Conference was held to set a platform for the Khilafat movement. October 27, 1919 was observed
as the ‘Khilafat Day’ and the well-known Khilafat Movement was started.
“To secure the acceptance of their demands as body known as Khilafat Conference was institute at a meeting of
Hindus and Muslims on November 23, 1919, at Delhi. B. R. Ambedkar wrote, “Mr. M. K. Gandhi took a leading part
in these discussions and it was he who advised the Muslims to resort to non-cooperation to get their demands
accepted by the government.”
“Ali brothers were ready to jump into the ring where brave men were needed to right a wrong, backed by
orthodox Muslims.”
6. KHILAFAT COMMITTEE: Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, who in H. G. Well’s words, possessed “the heart of
Napoleon, the tongue of Burke and the pen of Macaulay”, challenged the British imperialism on their breach of
promises. Maulana Shaukat Ali was appointed as Secretary of the committee.
7. FIRST SESSION OF KHILAFAT CONFERENCE (DEC. 1919): first session was held at Amritsar under the president-
ship of Maulana Shaukat Ali. In this conference, it was decided to send a delegation to Europe.
8. DELEGATION TO EUROPE: A deputation headed by Maulana Muhammad Ali reached Europe in March 1920 and
addressed various meetings in Paris and London.
Speaking in London, he said, “Turkey cannot be torn into fragments like Germany and Austria, because the day you
fear the Empire of the Khilafat to fragments, you outage the feelings of seventy five million of your own people.
That is where the principle of self-determination comes in.” finally, the delegation returned home empty-handed
in October 1920.
11. KHILAFAT MOVEMENT & ITS FAILURE: According to W. J. Waston, “In terms of sheer physical proportion it was
one of the greatest movements of the world.”
According to Jawaharlal Nehru’s ‘An Autobiography’, “It is estimated that during the months of December, 1921
and January, 1922 about 30,000 people belonging to both the communities went to jail.
12. THE HIJRAT OR THE MASS EXODUS (August 1920): it was the outcome of the suggestion by certain Muslim
religious leaders and it was reported that it was Maulana Abu-al-Kalam Azad who was the first to prescribe this
remedy of mass migration to Afghanistan vis-à-vis Jamiyat-al-Ulema-i-Hind – they issues a fatwa that India was a
Dar-ul-Harb. Around 925 eminent Muslims signed this fatwa. Acting upon this advice some 18000 Muslims, mostly
from Sindh and NWFP, marched towards Afghanistan. But the Afghan authorities declined to admit these intending
emigrants and they were turned back with hundreds dying on the roadside due to the difficulties of the journey.
T. Morrison writes, “Leaving behind them the roads doted with graves of old men, women and children, when the
unhappy Muhajarin returned, they found themselves homeless and penniless; their property which they had sold
for a tithe of its value was in the hands of others.”
13. MOPLAH UPRISING (1921): Along the Malabar coast of India in the Province of Madras, there lived a fearless,
fanatical and poverty-stricken group of Muslim people known as the Moplahs. In mid of August 1921, agrarian riots
broke out in Nilambur. They rose first against the British authorities and then against their Hindu lords. Four
thousand Moplahs were killed in action and tens of thousands were injured. Martial law was proclaimed and order
was restored after a great deal of bloodshed.
W. C. Smith writes in ‘Modern Islam in India’, “The bitter; Moplahs were bitterly anti-Hindu, bitterly anti-British,
bitter against the world that gave them only misery. According to a conservative estimate, the total loss of life was
10,000.”
16. INCIDENT OF CHAURI CHAURA (FEB. 1922): On 5th Feb. 1922, the non-cooperation movement was called off
by Mr. Gandhi after the tragic incident at Chauri Chaura – small town of district Farkh-a-bad - where 22 policemen
who interfered with a procession were burnt alive by the frenzied crowd.
17. ROLE OF GANDHI: Mr. Gandhi said, “I claim that with us both the Khilafat is the central fact, with Maulana
Muhammad Ali, because it is his religion, with me because, in laying down my life for the Khilafat, I ensure the
safety of the cow, that is, my religion from the Mussalman knife. This may seem a lower ideal. But there is no
concealment in it.”
“Gandhi the so called “Prophet of Revolution” appeared to turn pale. He admitted that he had blundered. He
undertook a fast like a penitent sinner. He had not the courage to face the natural consequences of his plans.”
III. “The Khilafat Movement was an asset for the struggle of Pakistan. It made clear to the Indian Muslims to trust
neither the British nor the Hindus, but to look to their own strengths for self-preservation.”
IV. In the words of T. Walter Wallbank, “It could be argued that the seeds of Pakistan were sown by this one
event.”
TOPIC # 13
NEHRU REPORT (AUGUST 1928)
A. BACKGROUND:
1) Delhi Muslim Proposals:
A group of prominent Muslims met at Delhi on March 20, 1927, to find a way out of the existing political impasse.
Mr. Jinnah presided in this meeting. The following formula was evolved: Sindh should be separated from Bombay;
Reforms should be introduced in NWFP; In Punjab and Bengal, the proportion of representation should be in
accordance with population etc.
2) The Government of India Act 1919:
was essentially transitional in character. Under Section 84 of the said Act, a statutory Commission was to be
appointed at the end of ten years to determine the next stage in the realization of self-rule in India.
3) Simon Commission:
Accordingly, the Simon Commission was sent to the Sub-continent under the command of Sir John Simon. All
members of the commission were British. This was regarded as highly insulting to the Indians and immediate
protest was raised from all the important political parties against the “all whites”. When the Simon Commission
arrived, the local masses welcomed it by with slogans of "Go back Simon!” All the major political parties of Sub-
continent, except the Shafi League of Punjab, boycotted the Simon Commission (All India Muslim League was split
into two wings in Dec. 1927.Shafi and Jinnah League.)
4) After the failure of Simon Commission, there was no alternative for the British government but to ask the local
people to frame a constitution for themselves. They knew that the Congress and Muslim League were the two
main parties and that they both had serious difference of opinions. “Birkenhead, Secretary of State for Indian
Affairs, threw the ball in the Indian politicians' court, and asked them to draw a draft of the forthcoming Act on
which both Hindus and Muslims could agree.”
C. RECOMMENDATIONS:
With regard to separate electorate it said, “Everybody knows that separate electorates are bad for the growth of
national spirit and are still worse for a minority community. They make the majority wholly independent of the
minority and its votes are usually hostile to it.”
1. India should be given the status of a dominion.
2. There should be federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the center.
3. India should have a parliamentary form of government headed by a Prime Minister and six ministers appointed
by the Governor General.
4. There should be bi-cameral legislature.
5. There should be no separate electorate for any community.
6. System of weightage for minorities was as bad as that of separate electorates.
7. Reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population was at least ten
percent, but this was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community.
8. Muslims should enjoy one-fourth representation in the Central Legislature.
9. Sindh should be separated from Bombay only if the Committee certified that it was financially self-sufficient.
10. The N. W. F. P. should be given full provincial status.
11. A new Kanarese-speaking province Karnatic should be established in South India.
12. Hindi should be made the official language of India.
D. CONCLUSION:
Waheed-uz-Zaman writes, “The recommendations of the Nehru Report went against the interests of the Muslim
community. It was an attempt to serve Hindu predominance over Muslims. The Nehru Committee's greatest blow
was the rejection of separate electorates.”
“Of the two Muslim members of the Nehru Committee, Syed Ali Imam could attend only one meeting due to his
illness and Shoaib Qureshi did not endorse views of the Committee on the issue of Muslim representation in
legislature. Thus the Nehru Report was nothing else than a Congress document and thus totally opposed by
Muslims of the Sub-continent. The Hindus under Congress threatened the government with a disobedience
movement if the Nehru report was not implemented into the Act by December 31, 1929.”
TOPIC # 14
QUAID’S 14 POINTS (MARCH 28, 1929)
Or IRREDUCIBLE MINIMUM POLITICAL DEMANDS OF THE
MUSLIMS
A. INTRODUCTION:
A positive aspect of Nehru Report was that it resulted in the unity of divided Muslim groups. In a meeting of the
council of All India Muslim League on March 28, 1929, members of both the Shafi League and Jinnah League
participated. Quaid-e-Azam termed the Nehru Report as a Hindu document, but considered simply rejecting the
report as insufficient. He decided to give an alternative Muslim agenda. It was in this meeting that Quaid-e-Azam
presented his famous Fourteen Points.
B. POINTS:
These points were as follows:
1. The form of the future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers vested in the provinces.
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate
and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a
minority or even equality.
4. In the Central Legislative, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third.
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by means of separate electorate as at present,
provided it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favor of a joint
electorate.
6. Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in
the Punjab, Bengal and the North West Frontier Province.
7. Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education, shall
be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or any resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three-
fourth of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill resolution or part thereof on
the ground that it would be injurious to the interests of that community or in the alternative, such other method is
devised as may be found feasible and practicable to deal with such cases.
9. Sindh should be separated from the Bombay presidency.
10. Reforms should be introduced in the North West Frontier Province and Balochistan on the same footing as in
the other provinces.
11. Provision should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with the other Indians,
in all the services of the state and in local self-governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of
efficiency.
12. The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the
protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim charitable institution
and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the state and by local self-governing bodies.
13. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least one-
third Muslim ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the
State's contribution of the Indian Federation.
C. IMPACT:
The council of the All India Muslim League accepted fourteen points of the Quaid. A resolution was passed
according to which no scheme for the future constitution of the Government of India would acceptable to the
Muslims be unless and until it included the demands of the Quaid presented in the fourteen points.
TOPIC # 15
IQBAL’S ADDRESS OF ALLAHABAD (1930)
A. BACKGROUND:
Several Muslim leaders and thinkers having insight into the Muslim-Hindu situation proposed the separation of
Muslim India. However, Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave the most lucid explanation of the inner feelings of Muslim
community in his presidential address to the All India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. Allama Muhammad
Iqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained countrywide fame and recognition by 1930.
“Political events had taken an ominous turn. There was a two-pronged attack on the Muslim interests. On one
hand, the Hindus offered a tough opposition by proposing the Nehru Report as the ultimate constitution for India.
On the other, the British government in India had totally ignored the Muslim demands in the Simon Commission
report.”
B. ADDRESS:
Iqbal addressed as President of the annual session of Muslim League:
“To base a constitution on the conception of a homogenous India or to apply to India the principles dictated by
British Democratic sentiments is unwittingly to prepare her for a civil war…self-government with the British Empire
or in about it, the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of
Muslims, at least of North West India… I therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim State in the
best interests of India and Islam. For India it means security and peace resulting from an internal balance of power;
for Islam an opportunity to rid itself of the stamp that Arabian Imperialism was forced to give it, to mobilize its
laws, its education, and its culture and to bring them into close contact with its own original spirit and with the
spirit of modern times.”
He further stated, “I would go further than the demands embodied in it. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP,
Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state, self-government within the British Empire or without the
British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final
destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.”
C. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
“That was a bombshell for the British as well as the Hindus.”
“The greatest historical significance of Allama Iqbal's Allahabad address was that it cleared all political confusion
from the minds of the Muslims, thus enabling them to determine their new destination. The national spirit that
Iqbal fused amongst the Muslims of India later on developed into the ideological basis of Pakistan.”
TOPIC # 19
THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION (1940)
1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
“The history of the subcontinent show that the Muslim League, an organization representing the Muslims, had
always tried to secure the interests of the Muslim by bringing change in its creed. The Muslim League up to 1937
had been demanding such safeguards as federal form of government with maximum provincial autonomy.
Separate electorate to enable the Muslims to elect their own representative, 1/3 representation in the central
assembly and executive. The dream of political unity however was so badly shattered during the last few years of
the 4th decade of the 20th century that the Muslim League had to adopt radical changes in its creed. Thus by the
beginning of 1940, Muslim politics had decidedly taken a new turn regarding the future of the Muslims in the
subcontinent. During the period of Congress ministries, the Congress had tried to impose the worst type of fascist
autocracy upon the Muslims. The Muslim League had reacted sharply against the Congress ministries; political,
social, economic and cultural exploitations of the Muslims. The people were flocking around Jinnah. The League
was lightening up its organization by winning all by – elections. So the political stage of the subcontinent was ready
for action by the Muslims.”
2. THE RESOLUTION:
From March 22 to March 24, 1940, the All India Muslim League held its annual session at Minto Park, Lahore. This
session proved to be historical.
On the first day of the session, March 22, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah narrated the events of the last few
months. In an extempore speech he presented his own solution of the Muslim problem. He declared, “The
problem of India is not of an inter-communal nature, but manifestly an international one and must be treated as
such.” To him the differences between Hindus and the Muslims were so great and so sharp that their union under
one central government was full of serious risks. “They belonged to two separate and distinct nations and
therefore the only chance open is to allow them to have separate states.”
In the words of Quaid-I-Azam:
“The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs literatures. They neither
inter-marry nor inter-dine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly
on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and
Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and
different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and likewise, their victories and defeats
overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a
majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the
government of such a state”.
He further said,
“Mussalmans are a nation according to any definition of nation. We wish our people to develop to the fullest
spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own
ideals and according to the genius of our people”.
On the basis of the above mentioned ideas of the Quaid, A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq, the then Chief Minister of Bengal,
moved the historical resolution which has since come to be known as Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution.
The Resolution declared: “No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless
geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial
readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the
North-Western and Eastern zones of I should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent
units shall be autonomous and sovereign”.
It further reads, “That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the
constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic,
political, and administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should
be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority”.
The Resolution repudiated the concept of United India and recommended the creation of an independent Muslim
state consisting of Punjab, N. W. F. P., Sindh and Baluchistan in the northwest, and Bengal and Assam in the
northeast. The Resolution was seconded by Maulana Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W.
F. P., Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh, and Qazi Esa from Baluchistan, along with many others.
The Resolution was passed on March 24. It laid down only the principles, with the details left to be worked out at a
future date. It was made a part of the All I Muslim League’s constitution in 1941. It was on the basis of this
resolution that in 1946 the Muslim League decided to go for one state for the Muslims, instead of two.
Having passed the Pakistan Resolution, the Muslims of India changed their ultimate goal. Instead of seeking
alliance with the Hindu community, they set out on a path whose destination was a separate homeland for the
Muslims of India.
OPIC # 22
WAVELL PLAN (JUNE 1945) Or SIMLA CONFERENCE
INTRODUCTION:
Ever since the failure of the so called Liaquat Desai Pact, Lord Wavell had been insisting that he be allowed to vsit
England in order to personally discuss matters with the Secretary of State. In May, he went to London, finally, the
talks resulted in the formulation of the plan of action that was made public in June 1945.
SUGGESTIONS:
1) The executive council shall be constituted to have a proportionate and balanced representation of the main
communities including equal proportions for the Muslims and the high caste Hindus. The council would have 14
seats of ministers.
2) The viceroy would appoint members to the council after having consulted the leading political figures.
3) All the members of the executive council shall be the Indians except the viceroy and C-I-C of army.
4) The relation b/w the Crown and the Indian states shall not be affected by these proposals.
5) If this plan succeeds at the centre, it would definitely be introduced at the provincial level as well.
6) The foreign affairs of India would be placed in the charge of an Indian member.
SIMLA CONFERENCE:
In order to place his plan before the Indian leaders, the Viceroy called a conference at Simla on 25th June 1945.
among the 21 representatives that attended the conference, the Muslims leaders were; Jinnah as President of
Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan as Deputy leader of League, Khawaja Nazimudin,; and the Congress
representatives include Maulana Azad, Khizar Hayat Tiwana, Dr. Khan Sahib and others.
FAILURE OF SIMLA CONFERENCE:
The Muslim league was pledged to the formation of separate homeland for the Indian Muslims, whereas ‘Wavell
Plan’ envisaged a united India. On 14th July 1945, Lord Wavell announced that Wavell Plan had failed. After that
elections were held in subcontinent.
TOPIC # 23
ELECTIONS OF 1945-46
1. INTRODUCTION:
With the failure of the Simla Conference, Lord Wavell announced that the Central and Provincial Legislature
elections would be held in the winter of 1945, after which a constitution-making body would be set up. He also
announced that after the elections, the Viceroy would set an Executive Council that would have the support of the
main Indian political parties. Both the Muslim League and the Congress opposed the proposal.
3. ELECTION CAMPAIGN:
I. Both the Muslim League and the Congress promulgated opposite slogans during their campaigns. The Muslim
League presented a one-point manifesto “if you want Pakistan, vote for the Muslim League”. Quaid-I-Azam himself
toured the length and breadth of India and tried to unite the Muslim community under the banner of the Muslim
League. Ian Talbot writes in “Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement”, “The Press was an important weapon
in the Muslim League’s struggle for Pakistan.”
II. The Congress on the other hand stood for United India. To counter the Muslim League, the Congress press
abused the Quaid and termed his demand for Pakistan as the “vivisection of Mother India”, “reactionary
primitivism” and “religious barbarism”. Congress tried to brand Muslim League as an ultra-conservative clique of
knights, Khan Bahadurs, toadies and government pensioners. The Congress also tried to get the support of all the
provincial and central Muslim parties who had some differences with the League, and backed them in the
elections.
TOPIC # 29
EARLY PROBLEMS OF PAKISTAN
BACKGROUND:
1) “A freedom movement initiated by people gained momentum and the small were about to rise when the big
lost their head. The big did not want to pent up forces of hatred against them to be unleashed. They took strict
measures to curb the freedom of the Muslims. This inhuman action proved the last nail in their own coffin and the
stars favoured the Muslim freedom fighters.”
2) “Pakistan was carved out in desperate urgency. It came into existence with horrible loss of life and property, and
the migration of millions of dazed and destitute men, women, and children. The cost was heavy in terms of human
suffering. But what the Muslims wanted and what they achieved was a homeland of their own. They now had the
freedom to worship, practice their religious faith and develop their culture. Moreover, independence had opened
up a bright future for the Muslims, who hoped for a better standard of living, economic development, prosperity
and a fuller life.”
3) In the words of Quaid, “We have been the victims of a deep-paid and well planned conspiracy, executed with
utter disregard of the elementary principles of honesty, chivalry and honour.”
The main problems were:
1. Refugees:
2. Indus Water:
3. Accession of Princely States:
4. Kashmir issue:
5. Demarcation of boundaries:
6. Division of military and financial assets:
7. Constitutional problems:
8. Controversy of language:
9. Economic challenges:
10. Challenges on International sphere:
1. Refugees:
It had been agreed between Jinnah and Nehru that a Boundary Commission should be setup to define the borders
between India and Pakistan. The British Government immediately appointed a Boundary Commission under Sir
Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate permanent borders.
The boundaries had to be defined as such that provinces, districts, and villages that were predominantly Muslim
went to Pakistan, while Hindu majority areas went to India. Provinces like Baluchistan, Sindh, N. W. F. P. and East
Bengal provided little difficulty. But deep problems arose when boundaries in Punjab had to be fixed; there were
also a substantial number of Hindus and Sikhs residing in this region, other than the Muslims. However, the
province was partitioned.
When the boundaries were drawn between India and Pakistan, it resulted in many tragic events. In an almost
frantic, cruel rush, the commission divided districts, villages, farmlands, water and property. Thousands of
innocent men, women and children were caught unaware. The result was that many hastened across the border,
leaving their homes, land and personal property to seek refuge. Panic, fear, revenge and reprisals followed. Both
India and Pakistan were soaked in blood. It left on Pakistan's doorstep, seven million refugees who had to be
rehabilitated, clothed, fed and sheltered.
At the time of partition, the cash balances of undivided India stood at about Rupees 4,000 million. At the beginning
of December 1947, India and Pakistan mutually came to an agreement that Pakistan would get Rupees 750 million
as her share. Rupees 200 million had been already paid to Pakistan while Rupees 550 million were to be paid
immediately. But this amount was withheld on the plea that Pakistan would use it in the war going on in Kashmir.
However, as this stand was morally untenable, the remaining amount was later on released after Gandhi's fast and
under world pressure on January 15, 1948.
Soon afterwards, Sardar Patel threatened that the implementation of the agreement would depend upon the
settlement of the Kashmir issue. But, it was upon Gandhi's request that the Reserved Bank of India paid Pakistan
Rupees 500 million, retaining the balance of Rupees 50 million to adjust some trumped up claim against Pakistan
“Pakistan has come to stay and it shall stay.”
The Indian princely states, numbering 562 comprised of 1/3 of the Indian Territory and quarter of population.
These states were not the part of the administrative setup of British India. They were ruled by the Indian princes,
who had agreed to come under the paramountcy of the British Empire.
A. KASHMIR:
“The story of Kashmir since the day of 3rd June Plan was announced forms an important and vital chapter in
understanding causes that gave rise to estrangement b/w the two dominions, Pakistan and India ever since its
birth.”
Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but
his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 78 percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to
join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before
August 15, 1947.
The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani
government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused.
The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947, they held a
massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his
Hindu paratroopers to open fire, and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up
against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir
government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had
begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the North West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of
their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and
reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital.
The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send troops to halt the
onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26,
1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India.
On October 27, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar, and launched a full-scale attack on the
tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her
troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed
an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir.
In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of aggression and
demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been
brought about by force. The government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the
tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the
wishes of the people of Kashmir.
While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and drove the
tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border.
Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the
Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal
of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nations' supervision. Both the Indian and
Pakistani governments accepted the resolution.
In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was demarcated.
Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a
great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and
the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tibet border.
The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still
remains disputed and unresolved.
“The brave Kashmiri Muslim continue to groan under the heels of the Indian army, oppressed by a government
which is not prepared to give them their right of self-determination. The Indian atrocities and persecutions cannot
intimidate or dishearten them to fight for their goal.”
B. HYDERABAD AFFAIRS:
It had an area of 82,000 sq. miles, and a population of 16,000,000. Its annual revenues were Rs. 260 million, and it
had its own army, police force, custom, postal service, currency and railway. Majority of 85% were Hindus, but its
ruler, Nizam, named as Usman was a Muslim. He was reluctant to accede either for India or Pakistan but was
dismissed by Mountbatten by adopting this course. Lord Mountbatten left India on June 21, 1948 without having
achieved his ambition of securing Hyderabad accession to India. On the other hand, the Hindu subjects were
incited to revolt against the Nizam’s desire to be independent. The whole province suffered turmoil and violence.
Hyderabad filed a complaint with SC of the UN. Before the hearing could be started, Indian troops entered
Hyderabad to ‘restore order’, and under the pretext of ‘police action’ Hyderabad was forced to join India. On 9th
September, India committed naked and unabashed armed aggression when its troops marched into Hyderabad
and shocked the Muslims and the world. The Hyderabad army surrendered on September 17, 1948, and finally
Hyderabad was annexed into the Indian union forcibly and ruthlessly.
C. JUNAGADH, MANAWADAR & JODHPUR STATES:
It had an area of 3,337 sq. miles with a population of 7,00,000. The majority of its population was Hindu but the
ruler was a Muslim named as Muhabat Khan. On September 15, 1947, all the states acceded to Pakistan. “Nothing
was wrong in the accession.”, but India refused to acknowledge it and claimed the state by inheritance. In the mid
of September, Indian cabinet persuaded Nawab to withdrew their accession to Pakistan. In November 7, 1947, an
Azad Fauj or liberation army of 20,000 men with armoured cars and other modern weapons entered into state –
fully supported by the Indian troops. Then Nawab left his state by plane for Karachi towards the end of October. All
the resistance having collapsed, Indian troops and representatives of Provincial Government headed by Samaldas
Gandhi and Dehbar entered Junagadh and took over the administration of the state. Two days later; control over
the entire state was assumed by India. Militants paraded – all Hindus – the streets but the Muslim population
remained indoors, terrorized and fearful for its future.
TOPIC # 30
IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN (TWO NATION THEORY) + AIMS
& OBJECTIVES OF INDEPENDENCE
1. INTRODUCTION:
1) In the words of Allama Iqbal, “The vision of common nationhood for India is a beautiful ideal and has a poetic
appeal, but looking to the present conditions and the unconscious trends of the two commodities, appears
incapable of fulfillment.”
2) “The ideology of Pakistan stems from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to maintain their
individuality by resisting all attempts by the Hindu society to absorb it.”
3) Muslims of South Asia believe that Islam and Hinduism are not only two religions, but also two social orders that
have given birth to two distinct cultures with no similarities. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the
differences between Hindus and Muslims were not confined to the struggle for political supremacy, but were also
manifested in the clash of two social orders. Despite living together for more than a thousand years, they
continued to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating habits, music, architecture and script, are all
poles apart. Even the language they speak and the dresses they wear are entirely different.
4) The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience provided the base;
with Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began the period of Muslim self-awakening; Allama Iqbal provided the philosophical
explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing
Objectives Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction.
5) As early as in the beginning of the 11th century, Al-Biruni observed that Hindus differed from the Muslims in all
matters and habits. He further elaborated his argument by writing that the Hindus considered Muslims "Mlachha",
or impure. And they forbid having any connection with them, be it intermarriage or any other bond of relationship.
They even avoid sitting, eating and drinking with them, because they feel "polluted".
6) Quaid said, “You have carved territory, a vast territory, it is all yours, it does not belong to Punjabi, Sindhi,
Balochi, Pathan or Bengali.”
2) ALLAMA IQBAL:
I. “To base a constitution on the conception of a homogenous India or to apply to India the principles dictated by
British Democratic sentiments is unwittingly to prepare her for a civil war…self-government with the British Empire
or in about it, the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of
Muslims, at least of North West India… I therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim State in the
best interests of India and Islam. For India it means security and peace resulting from an internal balance of power;
for Islam an opportunity to rid itself of the stamp that Arabian Imperialism was forced to give it, to mobilize its
laws, its education, its culture and to bring them into close contact with its own original spirit and with the spirit of
modern times.”
II. He further stated, “I would go further than the demands embodied in it. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP,
Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state, self-government within the British Empire or without the
British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final
destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.”
III. “The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries. India is a continent of human groups
belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions. Their behavior is not
at all determined by a common race consciousness. Even the Hindus do not form a homogenous group. The
principle of European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing the fact of communal groups. The
Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India within India is, therefore, perfectly justified.”
3) QUAID-E-AZAM:
I. Stanley Wolpert writes in his book “Jinnah of Pakistan”, “Few individuals significantly alter the course of history.
Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation state. Mohammad
Ali Jinnah did all three.”
II. M. C. Chagla writes in ‘Roses in December’, “Jinnah was the uncrowned King of Bombay.”
III. “They belonged to two separate and distinct nations and therefore the only chance open is to allow them to
have separate states.”
IV. “The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs literatures. They
neither inter-marry nor inter-dine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based
mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that
Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different
heroes and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and likewise, their victories and
defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other
as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the
government of such a state”.
V. “Mussalmans are a nation according to any definition of nation. We wish our people to develop to the fullest
spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own
ideals and according to the genius of our people”.
VI. Address on March 8, 1944, “hindus and Muslims through living in the same town and villages never been
blended into one nation. They were always two separate entities.”
2. OBJECTIVES RESOLUTION:
On March 12, 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted a resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime
Minister of Pakistan. It was called the Objectives Resolution. It proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan
would not be modeled on European pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam.
The Objectives Resolution, which is considered to be the "Magna Carta" of Pakistan's constitutional history,
proclaimed the following principles:
I. Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its people for being
exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust.
II. The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people.
III. The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be
fully observed.
IV. Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the
teachings of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah.
V. Adequate provision shall be made for the minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop
their cultures.
VI. Pakistan shall be a federation.
VII. Fundamental rights shall be guaranteed.
VIII. Judiciary shall be independent.
3. SIGNIFICANCE:
I. Ideals of Islam:
II. People oriented:
III. True Islamic society:
IV. As Magna Carta:
V. As a basis for the future constitutions:
VI. Rights of minorities were safeguarded:
4. CONCLUSION:
The Objectives Resolution is one of the most important and illuminating documents in the constitutional history of
Pakistan. At the time it was passed, Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan called it "the most important occasion in the life of this
country, next in importance only to the achievement of independence".
The importance of this document lies in the fact that it combines the good features of Western and Islamic
democracy. It is a happy blend of modernism and Islam. The Objectives Resolution became a part of the
constitution of Pakistan in 1985 under the Eighth Amendment.
TOPIC # 35
1962 CONSTITUTION & ITS FAILURE
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF CONSTITUTION:
1. Unpopular Constitution:
2. Dictatorial presidential system:
3. Ignorance of Checks & balances:
4. Lack of provincial autonomy:
5. Indirect mode of election:
6. Ignorance of fundamental rights:
7. Political monopoly of single party:
8. Encouragement of Secularism:
TOPIC # 38
DEBACLE OF EAST PAKISTAN
A. BACKGROUND:
I. The separation of East Pakistan was a great setback to Pakistan. By 1970, sentiments for national unity had
weakened in East Pakistan to the extent that constant conflict between the two Wings dramatically erupted into
mass civil disorder. This tragically resulted in the brutal and violent amputation of Pakistan's Eastern Wing.
II. J. Raston writes in The New York Times in an article “Who won in India?” “The Indo-Pak War on Bangladesh on
1971 was not merely a regional conflict b/w the two countries – it was not only another phase in the long religious
conflict b/w the Muslims and the Hindus, not merely a moral conflict b/w Pakistan’s vicious suppression of the
Bangladeshi rebels and India’s calculated military aggression to dismember the Pakistani state. Back of all this,
there was a power struggle b/w China and the USSR, and a strategic struggle b/w Moscow and Washington.”
III. “The physical separation of a thousand miles between the two wings without a common border, and being
surrounded by Indian Territory and influences, led to constant political, economic and social conflicts between the
two wings; embittering relations bringing the country on the verge of collapse.”
B. ISLAMIZATION:
1. Objectives resolution:
2. The Constitution of 1956:
3. The Constitution of 1962:
4. The Constitution of 1973:
5. Islamization Under General Zia-ul-Haq:
When General Zia-ul-Haq took over as the Chief Martial Law Administrator on July 5, 1977, Islamization was given a
new boost. General Zia-ul-Haq was a practicing Muslim who raised the slogan of Islam.
1) Hudood Ordinance: it was promulgated in 1979.
2) Qazf Ordinance:
3) Zakat & Usher Ordinance: it was promulgated on June 20, 1980.
4) Establishment of Federal Shariat Court:
5) Majlis-e-Shoora: in 1980.
6) Nazam-I-Salat:
7) Ehtram-I-Ramzan:
8) Ban on Nudity: display of nude scenes and moving films with nudity were also banned on the television.
9) Islamic education:
10) Financial system:
11) Islamic laws for women: theory of “Chadar aur Char devari”.