DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 107 162 FL 006 943

AUTHOR Miran, Mohammad Alas

TITLE Major Problems of Dari Speakers in Mastering Pashto
Morphology.
PUB DATE Aug 69
NOTE 75p.; Master's Thesis, University of Texas at
Austin

EDRS PRICE MF-$O.76 HC-$3.32 PLUS POSTAGE

DESCRIPTORS Case (Grammar); *Contrastive Linguistics; Descriptive
Linguistics; Error Patterns; Form Classes
(Languages); Grammar; Indo European Languages;
*Interference (Language Learning); Language
Instruction; Language Patterns; *Morphology
(Languages); *Pashto; Persian; Phonology; *Second
Language Learning; Structural Analysis; Syntax;
. Uncommonly Taught Languages
IDENTIFIERS *Dari

ABSTRACT
This is a contrastive analysis of Dari and Pashto,
both official languages of Afghanistan, with a view toward outlining
the difficulties faced by speakers of Dari learning Pashto as a
second language. The main focus is on morphological structures,
although phonology is also briefly dealt with. The brief phonological
comparison, with emphasis on a Dari speaker's difficulties in
learning Pashto phonology, is followed by chapters describing Pashto
and Dari morphology. A detailed analysis is made of difficulties
encountered by the Dari speaker in learning Pashto morphology. The
major difficulties are divided into the following areas: (1) number-,
gender, and case in parts of speech other than the verb; (2) the
verbal system; (3) agreement, involving number, gender, case, and the
verbal system; (4) order, only as it affects phrase constructions;
and (5) the noun. (Author/AM)
 U S OF PARTMENv OF HEALTH.
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SI A Tf NOY Nt *J. YIRERRE
sE NI 0, IA( %.triONAL IN*AUTE OF
F DO( Al ,ON PP, TON OR POI ICY

MAJOR PROBLEMS OF DARI SPEAKERS IN MASTERING PASHTO MORPHOLOGY

by

MOHANMAD ALAM MIRAN, B.A.

THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of

The University of Texas at Austin

in Partial FUlfillment

of the Requirements

for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

r. r
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

August, 1969

2
ABSTRACT

MAJOR PROBLEMS OF DAR1 SPEAKERS IN MASTERING PASHTO MORPHOLOGY

Afghanistan is a multi-lingual country. More than thirty different

languages are spoken in the country. Pashto and Dari (Afghan Standard

Persian, mainly Kabuli dialect) are the two official languages. Pashto

is spoken by more than fifty percent of the population, and Dari is

spoken by about thirty -seven percent of the total population. Dari

is functioning as a lingua franca--that is, more than eighty percent

of the total population are speaking Dari as a native, second, or third

language. Dari and Pashto are both Indo-European languages; however

their close historical relationship goes too far back in time to make

either language intelligible to the speaker of the other. The overall

similarities, however, are helpful to the speakers of Dari learning

Pashto or vice-versa. The similarities may be phonological, morphological,

and syntactical.

Pashto has been a required subject for Dari-speaking children in

Afghan schools since 1936. Since then, Pashto textbooks have been

prepared for use in the schools. No systematic attempt has been made

to identify the problems of Dari learners of Pashto; nor has there been any

preparation of teaching materials with particular attention to an emphasis

on solutions of these problems (Burhan 1972).

It was felt that there is a need for jcontrastive study of these

two languages. This is such a study, concentrating primarily on

morphology, tho,gh phonology is also discussed in a sketchy manner.

This study cons sts of four chapters. Chapter One is the description
\
of both Pashto and Da i phonology. The last portion of this chapter is

devoted to the difficulties that Dari speakers face in mastering Pashto

phonology. Chapters Two and Three are the descriptions of Pashto and

Dari morphology. Chapter r07 is the final analysis of morphological

a

Page 2 of Abstract of Miran Paper

difficulties facing Dari speakers learning Pashto.

It is hoped that in the future further investigation will continue

the work here started, covering areas not adequately discussed.

SOURCES:

Burhan, Mohammad Esmael. "Bilingual Education for Afghanistan".

Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin,
\!)
August 1972.

Lado, Robert. Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor: The University

of Michigan, 1964.

Pengl, Herbere. A Grammar of Pashto. American Council of Learned

Societies, 1955.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I owe the greatest debt of gratitude to my advisors: Pro-

fessor Mohammad All Jazayery, the chairman of my committee, and Pro-

fessor John G. Bordie, the other member of the committee, whose

patience and helpfulness were invaluable at every stage of the re-

search and writing.

I would like to thank Miss Mildred Rose Meili for her great

encouragement and proofreading, and Dr. M. Ehsaa Entezar for his concern

and valuable points of view.

The University of Texas at Austin

June 15, 1969

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Introduction 1

Chapter I. The Phonology of Pashto and Dari 4

Chapter II. Pashto Morphology 19

Chapter III. Dari Morphology 40

Chapter IV. Problems in Pashto Morphology for Speakers

of Dari 51

Bibliography 66

iv

6
 INTRODUCTION

Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the two official languages

in Afghanistan. Pashto is spoken by more than thirteen million people,

including more than half of the population of Afghanistan and the seven

million people of Pashtoonistan.

There are two main dialects of Pashto, the "Northeastern" and

the "Southwestern." The formeris spoken in 1aktia, Jalalabad, Laghman,

Kabul, Logar, Maiden, Wardak, and the northern provinces of Afghani-

stan. The latter is spoken in Kandahar, .Greshk, and Fara, and is

considered as the "standard" dialect. The Kandahar version of this

dialect is in use among the educated people. Because its phonemic sys-

tem corresponds to the prevailing orthography) the Kandahar dialect has

great prestige among the Afghan educated people. (See Penzl, sec. 4.4.)

Dari is spoken in most parts of Afghanistan, both in rural

areas and by a majority of the population of the towns. Kabul, the

capital, is almost entirely Dari-speaking. The Kabuli dialect is

spoken by the educated people and is considered the "standard" dialect.

Although Pashto and Dan are both Indo-Iranian languages,

their close historical relationship goes too far back in time to make

either language intelligible to the speaker of the other. The overall

similarities, however, are helpful to the speakers of Dari learning

Pashto.

7
 2

Pashto has been a required subject for Dari-speaking children

in Afghan schools since 1936. Since then, Pashto textbooks have been

prepared for use in schools. To the best of my knowledge) however, no

systematic attempt has been made to identify the problems of Dari

learners of Pashto and to prepare teaching materials with particular

attention to and emphasis on solutions for these problems. A first- -

and major--step in identifying the problems likely to be encountered

by the learner of a foreign language is a contrastive study of the

foreign language and the native language. Such studies have become

more and more common in recent years (mostly in situations where one

of the two languages is English), but none has appeared in print on

Pashto and Dari. For this reason, it was felt that there is a need

for a contrastive study of these two languages. This thesis is one

part of such a study, concentrating primarily on morphology, though

phonology is also discussed in a sketchy manner. It is to be hoped

that other investigators will continue the work here started, cover-

ing areas not adequately discussed.

It should be noted that the purpose here is not to provide a

detailed description of the two languages, which can be found in the

works to which reference will be made. The purpose is to compare and

contrast the two languages in certain areas of their structure. A de-

tailed listing of all forms and items would serve little useful pur-

pose and would merely repeat the work of previous investigators.

8
 3

Therefore, this study provides only an outline of the structure of

each language together with a limited number of examples.

The descriptive statements on phonological and morphological

systems of Pashto are largely based on A Grammar of Pashto, a descrip-

tive study of the dialect of Kandahar, 1955, by Herbert Penzl. The

descriptive statements on phonology and morphology of Dari are largely

based on.Abdul Ghafur Farhadi, Le nersan narle en Afalanistan, Paris,

1955. The heaviest debt is to Professor Penzl's work, which has been

freely drawn on,.in most instances summarizing his analysis, with few

changes here and there.

Chapter I presents the principal differences between the

sound systems of Pashto and Dari and identifies the major difficulties

which confront the Dari-speakers in mastering the phonology of Pashto.

Chapters II and III will deal with the morphology of Pashto and Dari,

respectively, Chapter IV mentions briefly some of the differences be-

tween the morphological structures of the two languages.

9
 CHAPTER I

rr

THE PHONOLOGY OF PASHTO AND DARI

Introduction

This chapter consists of two parts. In the first part, the

phonemes of Pashto and Dari will be listed, and the major phonotactic

facts presented. In the second part, the chief differences between

the two phonological systems will be discussed briefly. The treatment

of all of these subjects, however, will be in outline form, and quite

brief, since the central concern of this thesis is the morphology of

the two languages. The information on phonology will be given as

background only. More detailed descriptions will be found in the works

listed in the bibliography. Only a few of the allophonic differences

will be noted.

10
 2

Table 1. Pashto and Dart Consonants

J

ei
ria 6
o u
eI
a a
Sm
el
.4 C r4 O 44 Sm eI M
A y
oa el a a
el
0 43
a 0 6.1 > 43
.4
1 C co .M V 43 o
w a o. a el
CO A P el 0 to
0 0
.4 c..

.3 a

p D P D P D P D P D P D P D P D

Voiceless F p t t t K K q
Stops
Voiced b b d d d g g

Voiceless i c c
Affricates
Voiced i 3 3

Voiceless i s s X I s x x h
Fricatives
Voiced z x 1 I z 1 1

Nasals m m n n

Lateral 1 1
Liquids
Trill r r r
. .

Semivowels w w y Y

P a Pashto D .. Dari

A dot under a letter indicates a retroflex articulation.

Table 2. Pashto and Dari Vowels

Front Central Back

P D P D P D

High i i u u

Mid e e 9 0 0

Low a a a a

11
 3

The Phonology of Pashto

Pashto shows considerable dialectal variation. The following

description is based on the (southwestern) Kandahar dialect, which is

generally considered the "standard" dialect.

1. Pashto Consonantal

There are some consonants in Pashto which do not occur in the

speech of monolingual speakers, but only in the formal speech of the

educated people, who are bilingual in Pashto and Dori. These are con-

sidered "elegant" phonemes, and consist of if/ (_;) voiceless labio-

dendal fricative; /q/ (3) voiceless velar stops; /?/ (t) glottal stor;

/h/ pharyngeal.. They are nct part of the spoken Pashto of Kandahar,

and so will not appear in the following description of Pashto phonemes.

a. Stops

/p /, /b/ voiceless and voiced bilabial stops: [p°] and N.

/t /, /d/ voiceless and voiced dental stops: [t'], [d].

/VA/ voiceless and voiced retroflex prepalatal stops:

[ V], [4].

/k /, /g/ voiceless and voiced velar stops: [k'], [e] before

the front vowels, [k'], [g] elsewhere.

b. Affricates

/i/,/// voiceless and voiced alveolar affricates: [ts], [dz].

12
 4

/c/,/j/ voiceless and voiced prepalatal affricates: [eg],

[0].

c. Fricatives

/s/,/z/ voiceless and voiced dental fricatives: [s], [z].

/t/di] voiceless and voiced alveolar fricatives: [g], [i].

/s/,/z/ voiceless and voiced retroflex prepalatal fricatives:

[fly[;].
/24,/g/ voiceless and voiced post-velar fricatives: [x],['].

/h/ voiceless glottal fricative: [h].

d. Nasals

/m/ bilabial nasal: [m].

/n/ dental nasal [in]

/n/ retroflex prepalatal nasal: [ti].

e. Liquids

/1/ alveolar lateral: [1].

/r/ alveolar trill: [r].

/r/ retroflex prepalatal trill: [t].

f. Semivowels

/w/ bilabial high back rounded semivowel: [w].

/y/ prepalatal high front semivowel: [y].

13
 5

2. Pashto Consonant Clusters

Consonant clusters in general occur in all positions. Initial

clusters are very common, a fact which is of special interest to us

because of the absence of such clusters in Dari. For a list of the

initial consonant clusters, see Penzl, p. 16.

3. Pashto Vowels2

a. Front Vowels (all unrounded)

/1/ high front: [1].

/e/ mid front: [e] occurs in medial and final positions, but

not initially.

/a)/ low front: [as].

b. Central Vowel: /a/

[a] occurs in medial and final positions, but not initially.

c. Back Vowels

/u/ high back rounded: [u].

/0/ mid back rounded: [o].

/a/ low back unrounded: [a].

4. Pashto Diphthongs

In Pashto, bol e, a, u, a/ combine with /y /, and be, a, o,

a/ combine with /41 to form the following diphthongs: /fay, ey, ay,

uy, ay, alw, awl ow, aw/.

 6

5. Pashto Suprasegmental Phonemes

a. Stress

There are three phonemes of stress: primary /' /, secondary

0 and weak the latter usually left unmarked in transcription.

Each word in isolation has one primary stress, but the place of stress

is not predictable in polysyllabic words.

b. Pitch

There are four pitches: extra high /4/, high /3/, medium

/2/, and low /1/. /4/ occurs very rarely. The high pitch /3/ gener-

ally occurs on the last primary stress within the phonological phrase.

c. Juncture

Pauses result in several types of junctures: close 1./1

internal open /+/, sustain 1[1, rise /11/2 and fall /#/. In phonemic

transcription, /+/ is represented by space, and close juncture by the

absence of space between two segmental phonemes.

The Phonology of Dari

There are dialectal variations in Dari too. The present

description is based on the Kabuli dialect, which is considered the

"standard" dialect. The two glottal phonemes /?,h/ will not appear

in the following description of Dari phonemes because they do not

occur in the speech of the Dari speakers in Kabul. They are only
 7

represented in the written form of Dari, and most such cases (especially

in the case of /?/f/) represent Arabic borrowings.

1. Dari Consonants

a. Stops

/p /, /b/ voiceless and voiced bilabial stops: [p'], [b].

/t /, /d/ voiceless and voiced dental stops: [t'], [d].

/k /, /g/ voiceless and voiced velar stops: [kr], [v] before

front vowels; [k'], [g] elsewhere.

/q/ voiceless post-velar stop: [q]

This phoneme does not have a voiced counterpart.

b. Affricates

/c/1/j/ voiceless and voiced prepalatal affricates: [f6],

c. Fricatives

/f/ voiceless labiodental fricative: [f].

It does not have a voiced counterpart.

/s /, /z/ voiceless and voiced dental fricatives: [5], [z].

/t/l/g voiceless and voiced alveolar fricatives: [ ], [I].

/x/l/g/ voiceless and voiced postvelar fricatives: [x],['].

d. Nasals

/m/ bilabial nasal: [M] (voiceless) after voiceless phonemes

and before /-1/; [m] elsewhere.

 8

/n/ dental nasal: [N] (voiceless) before /k, g, ed; [n] else-

where.

e. Liquids

/1/ alveolar lateral: [1] ("dark 1") in syllable final posi-

tion; [L] (voiceless) before /t, k, g/; [1] elsewhere.

/r/ alveolar trill: [Y.] (lateral) in intervocalic position;

[R] (voiceless) in syllable final position; [r] elsewhere.

f. Semivowels

/w/ bilabial high back semivowel: [w].

/y/ prepalatal high front semivowel: [y].

2. Dari Consonant Clusters

Dari does not have initial consonant clusters. There are,

however, numerous hetro-syllabic clusters of two consonants each in

the medial and final positions.

3. Dari Vowels

a. Front Vowels (all unrounded)

/1/ high front: [i]

/e/ mid front: [e]

/ low front: [Ee ].

b. Back vowels

/u/ high back rounded: [u].

17
 9

/0/ mid back rounded: [o].

/a/ low back somewhat front unrounded: [a].

4. Dari Diphthongs

/w, e, u, a/ combine with /y/ and bel o/ combine with /w/

to form the following diphthongs: /fey, ey, uy, ay, awl ow/. /8

1.10 Dari Suprasegniental Phonemes

a. Stress

There are three phonemes of stress: primary /'/, secondary

is/ and weak Pi, the latter usually left unmarked. The primary stress

usually regularly falls on the last syllable of a noun, adjective,

and pronoun.

b. Pitch

There are four pitches: extra high /4/, high /3/, medium /2/,

and low /1/. /4/ occurs very rarely. The high pitch /3/ generally

falls on the last primary stress in the phonological phrase.

c. Juncture

There are five junctures: close /./, internal-open / + /,-

sustain /I/1 rise /II/ and fall /#/. /41 is generally indicated by

space in phonemic transcriptiorrland close juncture by the absence of

space between two symbols 'representing segmental phonemes.

18
 10

Major Differences Between the

Phonological Systems of Pashto and Dari

A comparison of the phonological systems of the two languages,

as outlined in the preceding sections, indicates some of the major

differences between the two systems, and thus some of the problems a

speaker of Dari is likely to encounter in pronouncing Pashto. In the

following paragraphs, the letter P indicates Pashto, and D stands for

Dari.

1. Problems Involving Individual Phonemes

(1) There are two Pashto phonemes for which there are no corre-

sponding phonemes in the corresponding points in the Dari system.

These are P/a/ and P/h/. Dan speakers usually substitute /e/, /a13/

or /o/ for P/a/. The choice of one or the other of these substitutes

is not predictable. Thus, P/towp4k/ 'gun' is reproduced as /towpikk/:

//4m/ 'I go' as /26m/; /Akaa/ 'because' as /zekaa/.. P/h/ usually

disappears in the pronunciation of the Dari speaker, e.g., P/heelfk/

'boy' is reproduced as /a3lik/, Prp6wh/ 'school' as /pow/

(2) In a number of instances, a Pashto phoneme with no counter-

part in Dari is merged with one which does have a counterpart in the

Dari system:

(a) The prepalatal retroflex P/t d n/ merge with their nonretroflex

dental counterpartsbd n/: Thus, a Dari speaker tends to reproduce

19
 11

/ t6w1/ 'all,' / cleyr/ Imuoh,' /maapi3 / 'apple' as /tcSw1/) /cleyr/)

/mEsn6/, respectively.
(b) The prepalatal retroflex P/s z/ are merged with alveolar-
All Thus, a Dari speaker tends to mispronounce /stir/ 'city,'
/keyzi/ 'be done' as, fgg,r/ and tkeylii/ respectively.
(c) The alveolar affricates P llare merged with prepalatal
affricates /6 j/. A Dari speaker will tend to replace Had ifir/ 'scarf,'
and wrill 'rice' with /cadaSr/ and hiorf,j/; respectively.
The pattern of substitutions in the above cases has two fea-
tures in common: (a) The manner of articulation remains the same in
eacr, case) while the place of articulation changes. (b) In each case
the Pashto phoneme with no counterpart in Dari is merged with a phoneme
that does have a Dari counterpart and is in the nearest column (i.e.)
having the nearest place of articulation). This is always the nearest
column to the left. This pattern is quite obvious in the substitution
of /g v, rather than the expected /s,z/) for P/s);/.

(3) In one case) there are two alternate substitutes for a Pashto
phoneme. The retroflex P /r/ is replaced either with /r/ or, most often)
with /1/. Thus, a Dari speaker tends to say /11.incloy'rfuld/ for
P/r tind/ 'blind.' Again) here we can see that the place of articula-
tion changes. As to the manner of articulation) it remains basically
the same, in that both /r/ and /1/ are "liquids" (or "linguals"),
though they belong to two sub-categories within the broad "liquid"

20
 12

category. It is interesting, however, that the lateral /1/ is used in

place of /r/ more often than the apparently "closer" trill /r/. This

confusion is apparently due to the close phonetic features of /r r 1/,

as Penzl has indicated. (See Penzl, p. 25.)

(4) The alveolar affricate pair P/APpresents a combination of

the features present in (2) and (3). Sometimes, they are merged with

/c jj, which are the only other affricates in Pashto (and Dari), that

is, the only other phonemes with the same manner of articulation.

Thas, a Dari speaker tends to say /cg /, and /jay/ for Niel 'well'

and /gay/ 'place' respectively. In these examples, the substitution

follows the pattern under (2), with the minor difference that these

phonemes merge with the closest phonemes to their right. This is not

surprising, however, because there are no phonemes to their left.

At other times, however, the alveolar affricates ,/ are

replar.ed with the dental fricatives /s z/, as in P/iarmnddy/ 'bay

ax ' and P/wr4,/ 'day' which will be pronounced as /sarmnddy/

and /orth z /, respectively. In these and similar cases, both the

place and the manner of articulationare changed. This is partially

similar to the situation described in (3). The difference is that in

that situation the manner of articulation remained basically the same.

Once again, tha change in the manner of articulation could not be

e:Actly the same as in the case of those under (2), since there are no

affricates to the left of ugh so thath z/ are the "closest"

21
 13

phonemes to them in this respect. It seems that the manner of articu-

lation has priority in sound substitution.

2. Problems Involving the Distribution of Phonemes

(1) P stressed and unstressed /0y/ containing the vowel /0/,

which has no equivalent in Dari, are difficult for Dari speakers.

Thus, /nglgdray/ 'friend' is reproduced as /InEelgteray/, and P/spEly/

'bitch' as /sepgy/. These substitutions actually represent two prob-

lems: (a) The vowel /0/ is not familiar to the speaker of Dari.

( '6) The Dari speaker is accustomed to maintaining the vowel distinc-

tions of Dari in both stressed and unstressed syllables.

(2) The major problem in the area of the distribution of phonemes

is caused by the presence of initial consonant clusters in Pashto, and

their absence in Dari. These are very difficult for the speaker of

Daft, who mispronounces them according to the following patterns:

1. P./Cw/>/Cow/Aw / icow5tgowil/

2. P/CC/>/eCCeC/: Api3/ Inight':>/e46-,tepg/.

(3) The stress usually occurs in the final position in Dari sub-

stantives but its place is unpredictable in Pashto; and this causes

difficulty for Dari-speaking students.

(4) Certain sequences of Pashto phonemes are difficult for Dari

speakers because of a combination of factors. Perhaps the most

22
 14

important of these are initial consonant clusters containing the retro-

flex P/r/. Such clusters are difficult both because initial consonant

clusters do not exist in Dar', and because Dari does not have retro-

flex phonemes. Thus, FiCr/>/CV1/$ e.g., /tr:61/. 'going'> / t6141/.

Note that this example contains a third difficulty in the phoneme

P/a/1 for which /e/ is substituted here.

23
 15

NOTES FOR PART I

'Although generally I follow Penzl's analysis, some of my symbols

differ from his. I use the symbol for the retroflex phonemes

4s ;sr/while Penzl uses /tt dd ss zz nn rr/ respectively. I use

/c 4/ for his Ash dzh/. In his later book, A Reader of Pashto 1965,

he uses the same symbols for all the consonants as I do, except that he

uses /6/ for my /c/. Other differences between my symbols and his

are in the affricate /11,i/1 which he analyzes as clusters: /ts,dz/

respectively.

2In the case of the vowels, Penzl has a set of short vowels /i a

e u/ and a set of long ones (ee oo aa). In my analysis, length is not

distinctive, and the vowels are /i es/(front), /s/ (central), and

haosOback). What Penzl considers as long vowels fee/ and /00/, are

here analyzed as diphtongs: /ey/ and /ow/.

s
Sometimes in informal spoken language, /w/ and /y/ form initial

clusters with a preceding voiceless stop, fricative or /1/; e.g.,

ipplz/ 'onion;' /syg / 'black;' /Nib/ 'inspissated juice.' Such

forms alternate with /piydzi, /siy( /, and /lowitb/.

24
 CHAPTER II

PASHTO MORPHOLOGY

Introduction

Pashto morphology will be discussed in terms of "parts of

speech." Parts of speech, as here defined, are grammatical categories

consisting of "free" morphemes, or combinations of free morphemes and

derivational affixes, which form lexical units, and to each of which cat-

ezories, with a few exceptions, specific inflectional bound morphemes

indicating gender, case, etc., can or must be added. The main parts

of speech are determined on the basis of a combination of syntactic

and morphological (inflectional) criteria. The following description

is based primarily on H. Penzl's A Grammar of Pashto with modifications

by the present writer based on his own knowledge of the language. Other

sources will be identified when used, as well as in the bibliography.

The Pashto parts of speech can be subdivided into two broad

groups according to whether or not they are inflected. The uninflected

group will be discussed first.

2.1 Particles

The uninflected parts of speech in Pashto have been collectively

called "Particles," and consist of the following four classes:

19

25
 20

a. InterAectioss

Interjections often constitute brief independent utterances,

e.g., /y4/ 'No!'; NW/ 'Yes:.' Many of them express various emo-

tions and exclamations; e.g., /weix/ 'Ouch!'; /mpsdws/ 'u.dortunately!';

/Idbas/ (term of admiration).

b. Prepositions

Prepositions express relations between nouns or noun phrases:

/d6/ 'of, from, for'; /pi/ 'in, at, on, by'; /p6r/ 'on'; /t6r/ 'upto,'

/16/ 'from'; /bdy/ 'without.' Examples are: /daivihkgrkowr/ 'the

house of the teacher'; /pa km1611/ 'with a pen'; /pir mdyz ki daiy/

'It is on the table'; /tar k6wras/ 'upto the house'; /la kdwrm/ 'from

the house'; /bey kciwrm/ 'without a house.'

c. Con unctions

Conjunctions occur between or within phrases or sentences.

/gw/ 'and'; /y4/ 'or'; /k4/ 'or' (in questions); /ya . . . ya/

'either . . . or'; etc. Examples are: /da kmrii sew mhmdd plir

raga my dig/ 'Karim's father and Ahmsd's father have come'; /KeDrim

sew de hAgm pldr rsgilmy wu/ 'Karim and his father had come';

/ya pa pins61 wSlikm ya pa kalifs/ 'Use either a pencil or a pen';

/ht6gm hmzaiiklum4/ 'will he come or not ?'

Subordinating conjunctions include /g/ 'when, that';

/c// 'when'; /Oksici/ 'because'; e.g., /defy ci wirsaseydal mdz

2
 21

bas lgrsu/ 'when they arrive, we'll go.'; /gkmei mwd ddyrm

smrg dm ta Arad ldrsi/ 'Because it is very cold, you should go.'

d. Adverbs

Adverbs are uninflected forms of adjectives functioning ad-

verbially in a sentence, and indicating manner, time, place, degree;

e.g., /Ur/ 'quickly'; /gngai 'how' etc.: /i6r bmrlisi/ 'He

will come soon.'; 116ngm rtgley/ 'How did you come?'; /pmrdn/

'yesterday'; /n6n/ 'today' etc: /per& rgay/ 'He came yesterday';

/n6n 044 tmwdeS dm/ 'Today, it is hot'; Adyrtmi 'back'; /pdwrtmi

'over, above'; /atm/ 'there'; e.g., /bOrtm 44/ 'come back';

/pciwrtm kgysdm/ 'Put it over there'; /zfst/ 'much,' ilfi/ 'few' etc;

e.g., /n6n mwg zfstm tmwdg dm/ 'Today, it is very hot.'

2.2 Nouns

The remaining parts of speech, which are inflected, are sub-

stantives and verbs. The substantives are, in turn, subdivided into

nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, and are inflected for gender, case,

and number. The noun is the center of the substantival phrase, deter-

mining the case and gender of the related adjectives and pronouns.

The noun, therefore, will be described first.

2.3 Gender

There are two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine.

In the case of animate beings, the formal distinction in gender

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c. orresponds to the meaning; thus /lalil / 1 elder brother' and /mama/

'maternal uncle' are both masculine; and /111r/ 'daughter,' /y6wr/
'sister-in-law,' /meyz/ 'ewe' are feminine.,
As far as inanimate beings and objects are concerned, the
final phoneme in each case indicates the gender of the noun. Thus,
with few exceptions, nouns ending in a consonant or in /- a3y, ,u,
-ay/ are masculine; e.g., /kdwr / 'house,' / la3rgi3y / 'wood,' /cakti/
'knife,' /kSlay/ 'village.' Nouns ending in /-ey, -11 -a3 , -a, -ow/
and stressed /-ay/ (zwarakay ) are feminine; e.g.,: CSa3mbey/ 'Satur-
day' ;Addi / 'happiness,' /mid ka3 / ' earth,' / wa) yds. / 'speech'
/P4s't o w/ 'Pashto,' ikark6y / 'windy:.' /ay/ is always stressed, but
not the other endings.
Feminine nouns can be derived from the masculine nouns, but
the reverse is rarely the case:
a. Masculine nouns derived from feminine:
Feminine Masculine

/g d/ 'cow' AswayaSy/ tox'

/x6wr/ 'sister' /xowrEeyai y / ' sister ' s son'
b. Feminine nouns derived from the masculine:
Masculine Feminine
/ Eendiwal/ 'male friend' : / 83 ndiwdla3 / 'female friend'
/ma'31/ 'male companion' . /rad) / 'female companion'
pun 'shepherd' . ApaimaS/ I shepherdess I

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2.4 Case

Pashto nouns are inflected for direct (nominative), oblique

(I, II), and vocative cases.

a. The Direct Case

The direct (nominative) is the unmarked case, both in the

singular and in the plural. It has two functions: (1) as subject

when used with (a) the transitive verb forms in the present tense;

and with (b) the intransitive verb forms in all tenses; e.g., /milk

njali wir! / 'The boy sees the girl '; /zd %Awn/ 'I say!, (2) as

object when used with (a) transitive forms in the past and the perfect,

and with (b) all passive phrases; e.g., /njalAv y a 311 k wfilidale3
'The boy was seen by the girl,' / aalik lidS1 key;i/ 'The boy is

seen'; /milk lidSla y su/ 'The boy was seen.'

b. The Oblique Case

The oblique case is the case of the agent, used with transitive

verbs in past and perfect forms, and has a passive meaning; e.g.,

/ sairi sd/ 9 waidala3 / 'The woman was seen by the man,' or belikenu
njtipi wdlidaley/ 'The girls were seen by the boys.'

The oblique case can be found with the inflectional ending

/-ae / or /-i/ (oblique II) or without inflectional ending (oblique I).

The occurrence of oblique II is limited by sytactic environment. It

°Pours after particles /16, t4r, bey / and before particle /p6wri/

in the sequence /tar . . . p6wri /; e.g., /bey 83 lunkcite / 'without

Ahmad'; /tar k dwrte p dwri/ 'as far as the house.'

 24

The oblique plural morpheme endings are /-6w/ or / -u /. The

oblique plural morphemes are added to the direct plural stems of nouns,

adjectives, and pronouns as in /k6wrow/ 'house /laru/ 'road.' The

plural formation in the direct case will be discussed in 2.5 and 2.6.

c. The Vocative Case

The vocative case is formed only on nouns designating living

beings. The endings are /-as/ or /-a/ in the singular form of mascu-

line nouns. In the feminine, only feminine human beings form vocative,

by the suffix /-i/. Examples of the vocative case are: bellksa/

'boy!; /m6wri/ 'mother!'; /xrd/ 'ass!'

2.5 Number

There are two numbers in Pashto nouns: singular and plural.

The plural is in each case derived from the singular. The formation

of the plural in the oblique case was discussed in 2.4. The formation

of the plural of the direct case is discussed in this section. Mascu-

line nouns form their plurals in one of the following ways:

a. Suffixation, as in -Lie following:

/d6wst/ 'friend' + /-an/ : /dowstdn/

a4/ 'tooth' + /-unm / /gasdnm/

inik4/ 'ancestor' + /-gan/ : /nikagdn/

/maldm/ 'teacher' + /-in/ : /malemfn/

/mdkel/ 'difficulty' + /.-at/ : /mligkeldt/

 25

The last two suffixes, of Arabic origin, are added only to the Arabic

borrowings. None of the suffixes are predictable.

b. Deletion of the medial /-m-/ from the stem and adding /-a/

at the end of the stem; e.g., /may 'mountain' /: /gr4f; /m41/

'companion': /m16/.

c.l. Substitution of /-1/ for the ending /-gy/ or /-ayb e.g.,

/smrdY/ 'man'/: /saarV; malg4ray/ 'friend': /malgiri/.

c.2. Substitution of /-ana/ for the final syllable /-uni; e.g.,

/gptin/ 'shepherd': /gpanq; /pmstdn/ 'PashtoOn, Afghan': /pmstan6/.

d. Internal vowel alternation; e.g.; /towpml,k/ 'gun': /towpAch

/dusm4n/ 'enemy': /dusm6n/.

e. Broken plurals (in Arabic loan words) (as in Dari); e.g.,

/kismi 'type'/: /aksam /. These plurals alternate with native plurals;

e.g., /kismdrissi; etc.

f. Irregular formation: /zdy/ 'son': /zam6n/.

2.6 Feminine nouns form plurals in the following ways:

a. Suffixation, as in:

/gwd/ 'cow' + /-wi/ : /gwdwi/

/mangy/ 'palace' + /-gani/ /manaygdni/

/bizdw/ 'monkey' + /-gani/ /bizowgdni/

/g846Y/ 'buggy' + / -ani/ : /ga4aydni/

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The plural morpheme /-wi/ is more common in Kandahar than is /-gani/.

Generally, the plural suffixes are not predictable.

b.l. Substitution of /-3y/ for the final /-1/; e.g., /najowrf/

Isickne ss ': /najowx:6y/; /dowstI/ 'friendship' : /dowst6Y/

b.2. Substitution of /-ni/ for the final /-r/; e.g., /1dr/

'daughter': /1(1111/; /yew/ 'brothers' wive' /yowni/.

b.3. Substitution of /-ey/ for the final vowel; e.g., tpi3/

'night:' Cpey/.

b.4. Substitution of /-(w)tendi/ for the last syllable / -owr /;

e.g., /mdwr/ 'mother': /mthndi/ /xdwr/ 'sister': /xwifindi/.

b.5. Substitution of /-i/ for the final unstressed vowel /-Es /

or the diphthongs / -ay, -le y/; e.g., /s6 VEe/ 'woman ':/? a gh
/ n Eiwey/ 'bride': /riziwii; inglte y / ,g irl ' : /njili/.
c. No change: /dowdy y/ ' food: ' /dowc16 y/ ; ihiliy/ 'duck :'
/hilgy/.

d. Broken plurals of Arabic loan words (as in Dari). These

occur along with the native plurals; e.g., /muzakiral / 'conversation':
/muzakir e y;, muzakirgt/.

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2.7 Adjectives

In general, adjectives agree completely with nouns in gender,

case, and number. Feminine adjectives are derived from the masculine

in several ways shown in Table 3. They precede the nouns to make

phrases such as /owgylfr ml/k/sclever boy'. Pashto adjectives have no

comparative or superlative forms. For further information on adjectives

see Penzl) sec. 68. pp. 71-72.

The followirg table shows the inflectional forms of the

adjectives:

Table 3. Pashto Adjectives

Direct Cases Oblique Cases Voptive Meaning

Case

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular

Mascu- Femi- Mascu- Femi- Mascu- Femi-

line nine line nine line nine

gult 11,4 gelv. 64 64i mu 'fat, big'

Ad uog u06 uzdey uzd6 uvley uzddw 'long'

kucngy kucn6y kucnf kucn6y kucni kucn4Y kucn6yu kucnmym 'small,

little'

n6wm n6wey n4wi n4yu 'new'

howsd hows'wu 'comfort-

able'

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Only singular adjectives can be used in the vocative case)

and the vocative case can only refer to human beings.

2.8 Numerals

A subclass of adjectives consists of numerals, which occur in

substantival phrases in the following order:

numeral + (counting morpheme) + (adjective) + noun:

/drdy tgnes aalikdn/

'three [counting morpheme) boys'

/drey tginm sa mlikdn/

'three [counting morpheme) good boys'

The cardinal numbers do not inflect for gender, except /ydw/ 'one'

and /dwg/ 'two'; thus we have: /yaiw milk/ 'one boy'; /dw4y njil//

'two girls'; /yagwg njilgy eew dwg mlikdn/ 'one girl and two boys.'

The cardinal numbers take the ending /-ow/ in the oblique

case. /Aeldwrow bmjdw/ 'four o'clock.'

Only these numbers form plurals: /laSs/ 'ten'; /g61/ 'twenty';

/s61/ 'hundred'; /z6r/ 'thousand'; /leek/ '100,000'; e.g., /salxinsi

'hundreds'; /zarganm/ 'thousands.'

ordinal numbers are formed by adding /-agai to the cardinal

number, except for bewg1, lumrgy/ 'first'; e.g., /dwegai/ 'second';

/Aelowrga/ 'fourth'; etc.

2.9 Pronouns

There are three types of pronouns: (a) Personal pronouns,

which inflect only for number and case (but not for the vocative case),

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except that the third person singular personal pronoun inflects also

for gender. Related to the personal pronouns, there are two groups of

morphemes, pronominal particles and pronominal prefixes, as well as

possessive pronouns (See Penzl, see 77); (b) Indefinite interroga-

tives, which do not inflect for gender, but often are inflected for

case. (c) Demonstrative pronouns, which, with one exception, inflect

for gender, case and number.

a. Personal Pronouns

(1) The oblique case forms of the personal pronoun function

as direct objects with transitive verbs in present and future tenses,

and as agents in the past; e.g., /t6 ma winey/ 'You see me9 /z4 tá

wdwinam/ 'I'll see you /ta z4 wdlidam/ 'You saw me.'

(2) Pronominal particles syntactically function without any

inflectional endings as personal pronouns; they occur either as the

subject or the object of a sentence. They function as subjects with

transitive verbs in the past, as in /day mi wdlid/ 'I saw him.' In

other situations, however, they function as direct objects or as

possessives; e.g., /z4 yey ndxrom/ 'I don't eat it"; /ketab di ciri

de6y/ 'Where is your book.'

(3) The pronominal prefixes that often take the place of

personal pronouns, functioning as possessive or object markers in

phrases, occur in close juncture with particles /ta/; /sterteh etc., as

in /rata/ 'to me,' /d6rtm/ 'to you;' w4rtm/ 'to him, her,' /rdsmrm/

'with me,' etc.

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(4) The personal pronouns in the oblique case can function as

possessive pronouns. In this function, /z-/ is prefixed to the first

person singular and plural and /s-/ is prefixed to the second person

singular and plural. In the third person singular and plural the pre-

position /de/ is prefixed: /zm4/ 'my'; /std/ 'your'; and /de dey/

'her'. The following table lists the personal pronouns:

Table 4. Pashto Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns Pronominal Forms Possessive

Direct Case Oblique Case Particles Pre- Pronouns

fixes
Sin- Sin- Plu- Sin- Plu- Sin-
Plural Plural
gular gular ral gular ral gular

1. z6 mdz mdz and mi mu ra- zmi zmd;.

2. t6 tdsi, td tdsi, di mu der- std st4si

tdsu tdsu

3. dey(m) ddy d6 ddy yey yey war- dad4 daddy

d4(f) ddy d4y ddy daddy daddy

b. The Indefinite Interrogative Pronouns

The indefinite interrogative pronouns are: /0wk/ 'who';

/g/ 'what'; /ca/ 'anybody, somebody'; gwiri wads ki . . ./

'Anybody who wants to get married . . .'; 116 ci w6wayihsegth bamdki/

'He does whatever he says he will'. //dwk/ with transitive verbs in

the past tense is used as direct object and /c4/ is used as the subject.

Examples are: /td kiwk w6lid/ 'whom did you see?'; /t6 ca waidey/

'who saw you?'.

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c. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns, as clearly indicated inflect for gen-

der, number and case, except for /da/ 'this, these' which inflects for

case only.

Direct Case Oblique Case

Singular Plural
Singular Plural Masc. Fem.

/da/ /cid/ 'this, these' /d4y/ /ddy/ /d4y/

/144 hugm/ 'that, those' /Naga/ /hggey/ /hggu/

/dggm/ /dggml 'this, that' /dggm/ idggey1 /dggu/

/da/ is used as a demonstrative pronoun as well as a personal pronoun

(third person singular). When used as a demonstrative pronoun, it is

interchangeable with /dggm/.

2.10 Verbs

The verbal system in Pashto indicates the categories of mood,

aspect, tense, gender, person, number, and voice. Mood is closely re-

lated to aspect and tense. The three moods are: the indicative, the

imperative, and the subjunctive. There are two aspects: perfective

and imperfective. There are two simple tenses: present and past.

The combination of these major categories has led to the terms Present

I, Past I, Perfect. Imperative I, and Passive Participle I, all of

which are imperfective, and Present II, Past II, Perfect II, Imperative

II, and Passive Participle II, al of which are perfective (See Penzl, sec.
 32

81.4). Gender distinction (masculine and feminine) is made only in

the third person singular and plural in the past tense, and the third

person singular of the auxiliary /Au/ 'am.' Most verbal forms in

Pashto inflect for person (first, second, and third) and number (singu-

lar and plural). There are two voices, active and passive.

The infinitive is formed by adding the suffix /-al/ to the

stem; e.g., /rmseyddl/ito arrive,' /tmr61/ 'to tie,' etc. The past

participle is formed from the infinitive by adding the following end-

ings: (1) /-ay/ for masculine singular as in /mcmwSlay/ 'thrown,'

(2) /-ey/ for feminine singular as in foomwdley/ 'thrown (fem.),'

(3) /-i/ for masculine and feminine plural as in hocmwali/ 'thrown.'

2.11 A Pashto verb form consists of a stem, which carries the lexical

meaning, and the affixes, which indicate person, number; mood and as-

pect. Some verb forms include, in addition to these, an auxiliary.

The maximum number of stems for each verb is two.

a. The verbal endings are as follows:

Singular Plural

1. Present: /-0m(m)/ /-u/

Past: 1-0/ /-u/

2. Present: /-ey/ /-9 Y/

Past: /-ey/ /-ast/

3. Present: /-i/ /-i/

Past: Masc. /-as,,,-a-/ /-al -9/

Fem. / -e .s-a/ /-a ey/

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As the list shows, the endings are basically alike in the present and

past, but they are different in the present and past of the auxiliary

/yam/ 'am' in the third person, as the following paradigm will show:

Singular Plural

1. Present: /P11714 hdi

Past: /w6m/ /1/4/

2. Present: /YeY/ /Y6Y/,

Past: /weY/ /wrist/

3. Present: Masc. /dAy/ /di/

Fem. /d )/ /di/

Past: Masc. /wd/

Fem. /w6/ iweY/

b. Pashto verbs take two prefixes: (1) The prefix /wa-/ indicates

the perfective action; e.g., /tsrA/ 'keep on tying' vs. /watollo/ 'Tie!'.

(2) The prefix /ma-/ indicates negation; e.g., /mdia/ 'Don't go!'.

c. Thereare two other markers which Penzl calls "modal particles °

(1) /ba/ which indicates futurity; e.g., /x6t balikam/ 'I'll write a

letter.' /ba/ occurs in close juncture with verb if there is no noun

or pronouns between them; e.g., /za balder s6mi 'I'll be going'vs.

bapsigman tas ldr Sam/ 'I'll be going to Paghman.'

d. There is a small group of words functioning as auxiliaries

such as /5f5m/ 'am,' /key4am/ 'I become,' /keewam/ do' (See Penzl

E3.4).

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2.12 Most Pashto simple verbs have two stems, present and pest. The

relationship between the two stems is the basis for a morphological

classification of verbs (See Pen21, sec. 84).

Class I comprises those verbs which have the same stem in

both present and past; e.g., itwrimi 'I tie'; iwitaeram/ 'if I may tie';

itcer4/ 'keep on tying'; /vitally/ 'tie up'; ittaTilam/ 'I was tying.'

Class II consists of those verbs whoso past form can be de-

rived from the present stem by morphophonemic alternation; thus from

the present stem /rmseyz/ 'reach' is derived the past stem iraseydi;

e.g., irmseyzami 'I reach, arrives vs. /ruseyd63aci 'I was reaching.'

Verbs in this class can be subdivided into various subclasses accord-

ing to the types of differences between the two stems (See Penzl,

sec. 65).

Class III consists of verbs whose two stems are completely

different; e.g.,

Present Past

Maas,/ Aidilami 'I saw'

/g6wram/ /kmt6lam/ 'I looked at'

/b4sam/ Astilami 'I took off'

ilterami idarlowdSm/ 'I had, owned'

Class IV consists of verbs which, on the basis of the rela-

tionship between their present and past stems, would belong to one or

another of the three classes already described. They are grouped

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into a separate class/ however, because they form their aspects accord-

ing to rules different from those used in the other three classes.

For further information see Penzl sec. 87. Class IV includes the

following verbs only:

Present . Past
Meaning
Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect in Present

/gym/ /wdkam/ - /kmwdlam/ : /w4kram/ 'I do'

/wr /y6wsam/ /wr6m/ /341wrami 'I carry'

/keyzam/ /w6sam/ /keyd.41am/ : /wdsam/ 'I become'

/bldyam/ /b6wzam/ - /biwIlam/ /bowtlam/ 'I take

it away'

/wldr sam/ /t16m/ /w4lAram/ 'I go'

/kseyzdam/ - /iscullam/ /kseysuw4lam/

'I put'

/raAlm/ /rasam/ /ratl4m/ /rd.lam/ 'I come'

There is a large number of compound verbs formed by combining

nouns or adjectives with the auxiliary /kmw4m/ 'I do,' /kenam/ 'I

become,' as in /turf" kmw4m/ 'I begin,' /kar sgurft keyzi/ 'The work is

begun.' The two auxiliaries function as the main verbs of Class IV;

in fact, Penzl considers these formations as a sub-Class IV A.

2.13 Aspect

As earlier mentioned, the imperfective and perfective in the

present are distinguished by /wa-/ in Classes I-III, and by different

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stems in Class IV. The perfective forms can be derived from their

corresponding imperfective forms by (1) prefixation of /wa-/ as in

Amr6m./ 'I tie' vs. /wetmram/ 'that I tie'; (2) shifting the stress to

the initial syllable as in /kseynaewem/ 'I plant' vs. /kOynmwam/ 'that

I plant'; (3) suppletion as in /raiem/ 'I came' vs. /rasam/ 'that I

come.'

The imperfective and perfective in the past tense are derived

from the past stems. The distinction between them is made in one of

three ways: (1) In Classes I-III, the prefix /wa-/ is added, and the

primary stress shifted to that prefix. (2) In Class IV, either the

stress shifts to the initial syllable or they take the prefix /wa-/ in

the perfective. (3) By suppletion: Examples are:

Imperfective Perfective

/tmvelam/ 'I was being tied' /wetmralam/ 'I was tied'

/kmwelam/ 'I was doing' /wekTam/ 'I did'

/kseyamwelam/ 'I was being placed' /kgeynmwalam/ 'I was placed'

/tlem/ 'I was going' /wlaram/ 'I went'

The perfective aspect in the past tense may also be formed by

combining the past participle with auxiliary /yem/ 'am,' as in /ragelmy

yam / 'I have come'; /tilelay UT/ 'He has gone.'

2.14 Tense

The verbal system in Pashto shows contrasting indicative forms

in the present and past tenses; e.g., /tmram/ 'I tie'; /wets:Tam/ 'If

42
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I may tie' vs. /torilam/ 'I was being tied,' /w6toralam/ 'I was

tied.'

The prefix /ba-/ indicates the future either with imperfec-

tive or with perfective, as in /zi beyey wohdm/ 'I'll be beating him

now and then' vs. /z6 bayey Awmham/ 'I'll beat him.'

2.15 Mood

Mood is closely related to tense and aspect. There are three

moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. The subjunctive end-

ing is /-ay/ and is added to the past stem. The subjunctive comes

after a particle such as /kaki/, ittlymd/, /baymd/. It may refer to

the present or past tense. The ending /-ay/ is added to the past stem

to indicate the subjunctive of a past verb; e.g., /katki polmdn to

talelay way/ 'I wish we had gone to Paghman.' If the action refers to

the future (or present), no special subjunctive form is used, and the

verb form is put in the future; e.g., /kaki ps6gman to bolarru/ 'I

wish we were going to Paghman.' The combination of the subjunctive

and the auxiliary /s6m/ results in a potential phrase; e.g., /kmt4lay

s4m/ 'I can see,' /kotdlay w4m/ 'I was able to see.'

The imperative mood is restricted to the second person

(singular, plural) in the present: /walarsay/ 'Stand up! (plural)';

/w4dmremo/ 'Stop! (singular)'. There are two imperative forms,

usually formed by adding the suffix /-m/ to the imperfective and per-

fer!tiv in the present tense respectively. They show a clear distinction

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as to aspect: Imperative I indicates continuation, duration, and

repetition; imperative II indicates completion of the action; e.g.,

/tatrq 'keep on tying' vs. /wgtmrm/ /ma-/ is always followed

by an imperative I and indicates negation; e.g., /dg mikamm/ 'Don't

do it.'

/di /, which denotes an emphatic command, is used with first

and third persons. /di/ occurs before the verb, unless there is a

noun or a pronoun before the verb, in which case /di/ appears before

the noun or pronoun; e.g., /logy dilgrsi/ 'He must go'; /d6ydi pmgmgn

tae lgrsi/ 'He must go to Paghman.'

2.16 Syntactically, all verbs are divided into two main categories:

transitive and intransitive. Transitive verb forms have a passive

meaning in past tense; e.g., /z4 yey wiwmhalam/ 'I was beaten by him.'

The agent (subject) and the verb agree in person, number, and gender.

In the present tense, they form passive phrases usually consisting of

the passive participles and the auxiliary /kgyzi; e.g., /za gwrawS1

kgyzam/ 'I am being deceived.'

The intransitive verbal forms have active meanings in all

tenses. Examples are:

Future: /z6 ba wa/6m/ 'I'll get out.'

Present: /z6 /zSm/ 'I go.'

Past: /wgwmtalam/ 'I went out.'

/talalgy 54m/ 'I have gone.'

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 39

2.17 Pashto verbal forms consist of active and passive voices. The

transitive verbs form a passive phrase consisting of the passive par-

ticiples and auxiliary /keyz/ 'to become, to get'; e.g., /tmr61 keyzi/

'It is being tied.' The actor is expressed by nominal phrases, such

as /da mudir le xwd bm161 key;i/ 'He was called by the director.' For

agreement, the feminine subject takes / -w/ in the singular, and the

plural subject takes/-ey/ as a suffix; e.g., /d a b 131a keyzi/

'She was called,' /m4 bm161ey keyzu/ 'We were called.'

45
 CHAPTER III

DARI MORPHOLOGY

Introduction

As in the case of Pashto, Dari morphology will be discussed

in terms of "parts of speech," a broad working definition of which was

provided in the preceding chapter. The following description is based

primarily on Ferhadi, Le persan parle en Afghanistan, and J. Wei,

"Dailectal Differences Between Three Standard Varieties of Persian:

Tehran, Kabul, and Tajik." The Dari parts of speech can be subdivided

into two broad groups according to whether or not they are inflected.

The uninflected ones are discussed first.

3.1 Uninflected Parts of Speech

The uninflected parts of speech, corresponding to the Pashto

"Particles," consist of the following:

a. Interjections

Interjections often constitute brief independent sentences,

expressing various emotions and exclamation; e.g., /b&ley/ 'Yes!';

/ney/ 'No!'; /wax/ 'Ouch!' etc.

b. Prepositions

Prepositions precede the nouns which they govern. /d6/ 'in,

into'; /b6/ 'to, with, by'; /seer/ 'on, on top of1; Az/ 'of, from'; etc.

40

4
 41

c. Conjunctions

Conjunctions occur between or within phrases or sentences.

/6/ 'and'; /yd/ tort; /thgw/ 'if, whether'; etc.

d. Adverbs

Adverbs, which end in /-wn/, as in /kamelmn/ 'completely';

/tmgribean/ 'approximately'; /fthwrwn/ 'immediately'; etc. In addition

to these, members of some other parts of speech may function syntac-

tically as adverbs; e.g., /teyz/ 'quick; quickly'; /rmwdn/ 'fluent;

fluently'; infew/ 'night; tonight'; /w6xt/ 'time; early', as in /teyz

meyra/ 'He walks quickly'; /rowan xandth meytanw/ 'He can read fluently.'

3.2 Inflected Parts of Speech--Substantives

The inflected parts of speech are substantives and verbs.

Substantives show several features: (1) they form plurals; (2) they

enter connective /-e/ ("ezafat") constructions, (3) and they take the

object marker / -rw /. The subclasses of substantives are nouns, adjec-

tives, numerals, pronouns, and prenouns.

a. Nouns

Nouns form their plurals by suffixation, or, in the case of

Arabic loanwords, by internal change, resulting in "broken" plurals.

(1) Suffixation; e.g., /ketdb/ + /-a/:/ketabd/ 'books';

/mdgkel/ + /-at/:/mdgkeldt/ IdifficultiesWmalem/ + /-inb/malemin/

'teachers.' /-in/ and /-at/ are mostly used in Arabic borrowings.

47
 42

(2) Broken plurals are exemplified by /tits/ 'person':

heigxds/ 'people'; /fey1/ 'action': /wfAl/ 'actions.'

b. Adjectives

The morphological feature distinguishing adjectives from

other substantives is the comparative suffix /- tear /; e.g., Ammb61/

'lazy': Ammbm1t6r/ 'lazier.' Adjectives follow the noun in connective

/-e/ constructions, as in Adoxse layeq/ 'a studious man.' They may,

however, precede the nouns without the connective /-e/ (for emphasis):

/layeq ad6m/. Sometimes adjectives function as nouns, forming plurals

and/or taking the object marker /-rm/; e.g., /boz6rg/ 'great, big':

/bozorga/ 'the great or the big ones'; /x6rdm begV 'take the small

one.' Suporiative adjectives are formed by the addlAion of the suffix

/-in/ to the comparative form; e.g., /bozorgttfir/:/bozorgtmrin/ 'the

greatest or biggest.' These forms, however, precede the nouns they

modify; e.g., /bozorgtearA adthm/ 'the greatest man'; /layegtmrin adgm

kar-ms/ 'A more capable man is needed.'

c. Numerals

Numerals precede the nouns they modify, as in /sey qmidam/ or

/sey dank, opelthm/ Ithree(piecese) pens: Only those numerals considered

as groups use the plural constructions, such as /dead/ 'tens'; Amde./

'hundreds'; 793zarAf'thousandst; etc.

48
 43

Ordinal numerals are formed from the cardinals by the addition

of the suffix /-d4; e.g., /cal-6m/ 'fourth'; itmt6m/ 'sixth;' as in

iteetom weir/ 'the sixth person.'

Numerals take the object marker 1-(08/ as in /p6njim gereft/

'He took the 5'; /pmnjOmm gereft/ 'He took the fifth one :' They fall

in connective constructions too, as in /ketabe pgnj/ 'Book Five';

/ketdbe pmnjdh/ 'the fifth book.' Sometimes the ordinals take the

suffix /-in /, such as iliitomin/ 'the sixth one,' in which case they

precede the noun they modify; e.g., /titomin notfir/ 'the sixth person.'

d. Pronouns

There are two sets of personal pronouns: The first set is

wY
called "independent pronouns" and the second, a group of bound mor-

phemes, "suffixed pronouns." The two sets are not completely inter-

changeable. The suffixed pronouns are used only to indicate the

possessive, as in /ketabem/ 'my book,' and, when added to verbs, to

indicate the object /g6ftomet/ 'I told him'; /dfdomet/ 'I saw him.'

(1) The independent pronouns have the following forms:

Singular Plural

1. /m6/ /m6/

2. /td/ /tomdi

3. /d/ /und/

The independent pronouns, as all substantives, can take the

object-marker / -roe /; e.g., /tomdrm g6ftom/ 'I told you.'

49
 44

(2) The suffixed pronouns have the following forms after

consonants:

Singular Plurel

1. /-em/ /-em/

2. /-et/ /-etan/

3. /-eg/ /-egan/

e. Prenouns

Prenouns are of two types.

(1) One group can function either as nouns or as modifiers

of nouns which they precede. The two forms /i/ 'this' and /u/ 'that'

which function as demonstrative pronouns as in /i ket6b/ 'this book';

/u ketdb/ 'that book,' take the plural morpheme /-a/; e.g., /iya-,Ina/

'these'; /uwa.duna/ 'those'; and the object suffix /-rml; e.g., Arm/

'this one'ddrmi 'that one.' They may be the second (or later) mem-

ber of connective /-e/ constructions following nouns; e.g., /mange i/

'the color of this'; /ketdbe u/ 'his book'; etc.

(2) The other group of prenouns which function as interrogative

pronouns, are /could/ 'some'; /ci/ 'what' ; /koddm/ 'which.' The follow-

ing illustrations show the prenouns as subject and object: /kod6m amAd/

'which one came'; /kodthn gereft/ 'which one did he take '; /ci g6ft/

'what did he say?'; /cirm g6ft/ 'what did he talk about?' They may

modify nouns, in which case they precede them; e.g., /i ketdb/

 45

'this book'; /kodam ketab/ 'which book'; etc., /and/ also takes the

ordinal suffix / -om /, as in bmnd6m/ 'in which grade.'

3.3 Structures of Modification

An important point in connection with the Dari substantives

concerns the two major structures of modification. The first, and far

more common, is one in which the already referred to connective /-e/

connects the modifier with the modified, the latter preceding the /-e/.

In the other, the order is reverse, with no connective /-e/ used.

Examples of each follow:

a. With the connective /-e/

(1) Adjective as modifier /ketabe xdb/ 'a good book'

(2) Noun as modifier /ketabe mscin/ 'Hasan's book'

(3) Pronoun as modifier /ketdbe mg/ 'My book'

(4) Prenoun as modifier /ketdbe 1/ 'his book'

b. Without the connective /-e/

(1) Cardinal number as modifier /d6 ketab/ 'two books'

(2) Adjective as modifier /ksellein adgm/ an elder man'

(3) Prenoun as modifier /d ketab/ 'that book'

The substantives,in addition to the connective /-e/ construc-

tion, take the object marker/-rm/ which functions as the direct object

marker as In Aserwazey kmldnm bmstee mkrkonem / 'I am going to close the

gate'; /ketabe englisirm rmwan KEW/ 'He sent the English book';

/dmr..m2Arm bmstee koneyn/ 'Shut the door'; /bozorgarm didom/ 'I met the

oldest ones'; etc.

51
 46

3.4 Inflected Parts of Speech--Verbs

A simple verb form consists of a stem, one or two prefixes

indicating aspect and mood, and suffixes indicating person and number.

There is also voice (active, passive, and causitive). Periphrastic

verbs also are used in various functions.

a. Verb Stems

Each simple verb has two stems, "present" and "past." (1) In

some cases the past stem is formed by the addition of /-id/:/-p6r-/:

/-pmrid-/ 'fly'; 'run.' These verbs have been called

"regular." (2) In some others, the past stem is formed by the addition

of /-t/m,/-d/ to the present stem; e.g., /-yAf-/:/-yaft-/ 'find';

/-xtin-/:/-mind-/ 'read.' (3) In still others, the relation between

the two stems is governed by a set of morphophonemic rules involving

alternations of various kinds; e.g., /-d6wz-/:/-d6wxt-/ 'sew'; /-xeyz-/:

/-xeyst-/ 'get up'; (4) Suppletion, e.g., /-bin-H-did -/ 'see'; etc.

For further information on verb stem alternation see J. Wei pp. 29-30,

and Farhadi, sec. 141.

b. Participle

The past participle is made by the addition of the suffix

/-m/ to the past stem, as in /rkt-/ lwent':/rmftA/ 'gone'; /x6wrd-/

'ate': /xowrdp5/ 'eaten'; etc.

r
0 4.
 47

c. Verb Endings and Prefixes

Verb endings are identical after both stems, except in the

second person singular of the imperative and the third person singular

of the past and imperfective.

Singular Plural

1. /-om/ /-eym/

2. /-eyn/

3. his/ /neen/

Verbs take three prefixes: (I.) The prefix /mey-/ precedes a

present or past stem to indicate recurrence or duration; e.g.,

/meyxanm/ 'He is reading'; /meyxand/ 'He used to read:* /mey-/ with the

present stem sometimes expresses futurity; e.g., /smbli meynewism/ 'He

will write tomorrow.' (2) /nail -/ expresses negation; e.g., /nAmeyrom/

'I don't go'; /nikow/ 'Don't do it.' /neg../ precedes /mey-/; e.g.,

/ngemeyrom/ 'I won't go.' (3) /be-/ expresses the imperative or the

subjunctive mood; e.g., /bespir dthrs beman/ 'Study hard'; /613.99 boxanm

bead n6meAm/ 'It won't be bad if he studies.' /be-/ does not combine

with the other two prefixes. In the negative, /be-/ is simply replaced

with /nay- /, e.g.,/bay6d da5rs bftes/ 'He should teach,' vs. /bayed dthrs

rates/ 'He shouldn't teach'; /ligm nixanm bdod me* 'It will be bad if

he doesn't study.'
 48

d. Auxiliaries

The auxiliaries are /bud6n/ 'to be'; /reeftifin/ 'to got; and

/toagin/ 'to become.' All of these verbs are also used as main verbs,

as in /mmriz Worn/ 'I was sick'; /mmriz I6dom/ 'I became sick';

/mmkttfb nfiftom/ went to school.' Their use as auxiliaries is illus-

trated by /xan bud, bam/ 'He might be at home'; /xordi rmwdn-,ms/ 'He

is eating now'; /poxtil todefi/ 'It has been cooked.'

e. Jtspects

There are four aspects in thrl Peri verbal system: "simple,"

"completive," "incompletive," and "habitual."

(1) The simple aspect consists of the simple stems plus the

verb endings and, where relevant, the negative prefix /nmq; e.g.,

/xordom/ 'I ate'; inkordom/ 'I didn't eat.'

(2) The completive aspect expresses the completion of an

action, and it is formed by the past participle with the auxiliary

/btdmn/ 'to be'; e.g., /xord6 btdom/ 'I had eaten'; /pOt szinke Ume.

bermseyn ma nan xord6 budeym/ 'Before you arrived, we had had our meal.'

/ta tom& beyayen nan xordte meybatom/ 'By the time you arrive, I'll

have eaten my meal.'

(3) The incompletive aspect expresses an uncompleted action.

It is formed by the past participle of a verb with the relevant simple

tenses of the auxiliary 'rmftan' 'to go on'; e.g., /xardse (rmfti:)

meyrom/ 'I keep eating'; /xor& meyreetom/ kept eating.'

)'1
 49

(4) The habitual aspect denotes a repeated action, or one taking

(or taken) place over a period of time. There are two ways of express-

ing this aspect. One is by the addition of the prefix /mey-/ to the

stem, although the /mey-/ form has other functions as well (See Sec-

tion 3.4d). The common form of the habitual action is formed by the

past participle of the main verb followed by the past participle of

the auxiliary /rmftiln/ 'to go on,' followed by the /mey-/ form of

/buda5n/ 'to be'; e.g., /xand4 rmftfi meybudom/ 'I had kept reading,'

as in /mr6wz ke be mmktiab meynmftom, i Mors xand6 rmft6 meybud/ 'Every

day, when I went to school, he was studying'; /mr6wz ke bemmktgb

meyrom u d6rs xand4ormft6 meybeIm/ 'Every day, when I go to school, he

is (will be) studying.' More detailed information on the Dari as-

pects will be found in J. Wei, pp. 32-35.

f. Mood

There are four moods in Dari: "indicative," "imperative,"

"subjunctive," and "dubitative." The imperative form occurs in the

second person only. It is formed by the addition of the prefix /be-/

to the present stem, with no ending when in the singular; e.g.,

/b6xowreyn/ 'Eat! (pl.), /b6xow/ 'Eat! (sing.)' In the periphrastic

form, it is formed by the past participle (of the main verb) with

/Ws/ or /b6row/ (the imperative forms of the auxiliaries /budin/ and

/rmftan/), e.g., /xord6 borOw/ or /xordell ba/ 'keep on eating.'

rr
t)
 50

The subjunctive mood occurs with all persons, while the imperative

occurs only with the second person (sing., pl.); e.g., /xord6 bem/

'He might have eaten'; /xord6 (reftth) Mira/ 'He right (should) keep

eating:, The dubitative is distinguished only by ie model /xdt/

'might' from subjunctive; e.g., /xordals 'At borm/ 'tic. might continue

eating' (J. Wei, pp. 36).

g. Tense

There are two tenses in Earl, "present" and "past." Each

stem with one or more affixes expresses an action in the present or

past tense. There is no future tense as such, at least formally, but

the prefix /mey-/, added to a present stem. sometimes indicates futurity.

Emmples are:

Present: ndn meyxorom/ eating now'

Future: /pmst6r ndn meyxorom/ 'I'll eat later on'

Past: /ndn x6rdom/ 'I ate my meal.'

h. Voice

The passive voice is formed by adding the auxiliary Aodalin/

'to become' to the past participle; e.g., /ketab xand6 meYgm/ 'The

book is going 6o be read'; /ketdb xanditod/ 'The book was read.' The

addition of tie affix /-an-/ to the present stem of verbs results in

the causative present stem. The further addition of /d/ to the latter

results in the past stem; e.g., /-x6r-/ 'eating (ste4.01:/meyxowranom/

'I make him eat':/meyxowrandom/ 'I made him eat.'

t)u
 16

PROBLEMS IN PASHTO MORPHOLOGY FOR SPEAKERS OF DARI

Introduction

Pashto and Dari are: as cognate languages: similar in some

ways. But they are also different in many ways: and this fact causes

difficulties for speakers of Dari learning Pashto. Our purpose in this

chapter: which is based partly on a contrastive analysis of the two

languages and partly on the writer's observations both as a student

and as a teacher of Pashto: is to examine some of the difficulties in

the area of morphology.

Broadly considered, the problems faced by the Dari speaker

may he said to fall within tvo general types. Some involve phenomena

which are present in both languages. Thus, the same major parts of

speech, or similar ones) exist in both; they both distinguish between

singular and plural in substantives and verbs; both have a three-way

person distinction in pronouns and verbs; and so on. On the other

hand, Pashto has certain grammatical categories with no formal paral-

lels in Dari; e.g.) case and gender. The Dari speaker faces problems

not only in the latter type of categories, but also in those of the

first type, where--even though the general norions are familiar to him

from his native Dari--he will have difficulties in mastering).besides

the Pashto forms, the distribution and function of each form. As a

 17

matter of fact, as will become clear from the following discussions

and examples, there is hardly a Pashto utterance which does not pre-

sent problems of both types. Thus, a noun usually appears in a case

and gender form, so that the mere recognition of the word as a noun

(a familiar concept) will not make it easy, because the total form

requires the formal indication of the unfamiliar and obligatory cate-

gories of case and gender.

In what follows, we shall describe the problems in the fol-

lowing order:

(1) Those involving number, gender, and case in parts of

speech other than the verb. These categories are all indicated by in-

flectional affixes.

(2) Those involving the verbal system. These include inflec-

tional as well as other problems (auxiliaries, meanings of verb forms,

etc.).

(3) Problems of agreement. These involve the entire Pashto

system, cutting across (1) and (2).

(4) Problems of order, though these will be treated only

very briefly and selectively--only as they affect phrasal construc-

tions.

In Part 11.1-3, description will focus on the noun.

Adjectives and several other parts of speech do inflect for number,

iH
 18

gender, and case, but since they usually agree in these categories

with the nouns with which they are related, the major problem is that

of agreement and will, therefore, be taken up in the section on agree-

ment. Any special features of number, gender, and case in substan-

tives other than the noun will be noted at the end of relevant sec-

tions.

1. Number

In both languages, substantives are inflected for number,

generally having distinctive forms for the singular and the plural.

The problems in this area are of three types:

(1) There is a larger array of plural forms in Pashto than

there is in Dari, especially in nouns and adjectives. This results in

the necessity for remembering not only a larger number of plural de-

vices, but also their correct distribution in relation to the stems

to which they are added.

(2) In Pashto, each group of nouns or adjectives forms its

plural according to a certain rule, and the rules are

obligatory. In Peri, however, there does exist a single standard rule

which can apply to all nouns and adjectives, side by side with a set

of rules (mostly for broken plurals) which have limited and specified

distributions, each applying to a different group of nouns and ad-

jectives. For example:

 19

D /kettib/ 'book'; kot6b/ /ketab6/

D /fekr/ 'thought'; /mtktir/ Ifekr6/

This arrangement in Dari makes the learning of Dari plural formation

comparatively easy for the Pashto speaker, for, evea when he cannot

remember the various rules of plural formation, of which two are seen

in the above examples (the first plural in each case), he can use the

general plural suffix /-a/.

(3) One of the Pashto plural suffixes is /-an/1 as in /mliktin/

'boys'; /bangmrtin/ 'farmers': -cc.. As it happens, Dari has a plural

morpheme phonologically identical with this, though D /-an/ is used

only in writing. The identical phonological form of /.an/ in Dari and

Pashto often misleads Dari learners to using it in Pashto in wrong

places; e.g., they say /smrmyttn/ instead of /smri/ 'men'; /mawran/

instead of /mtendi/ 'mothers.'

2. Gender

Several facts should be noted concerning gender: (a) There

is no grammatical gender in Dari. (b) In Pashto words denoting animate

beings, gender generally follows natural sex; so these words cause no

major difficulty except remembering the forms. (c) Feminine forms are

usually identified by their final phonemes; so the problem is primarily

a matter of remembering the feminine endings. In this respect, the

GO
 20

Pashto gender is easier than gender is in some languages in which one

cannot tell the gender by phonological criteria. (d) Adjectives, like

nouns, inflect for gender, but since they completely agree with re-

lated nouns In their gender, the major problem is une of agreement,

which, therefore, will be taken up in the section on agreement.

(e) The numerals in Pashto do not inflect for gender, except

/y64/ 'one' and /dw4/ 'two.'

3. Case

Pashto has a case system in the substantives while Dari has

only the suffix /-rea/0 which to some extent functions as a case marker,

but which lacks features of genuine full fledged case suffixes. Besides,

the Pashto case system is closely related to the prepositions. The

distribution of the various cases will be discussed here:

(1) The direct case is unmarked. It functions in two ways:

(a) With all intransitive verbs and with the present tense of transitive

verbs, it functions as subject; e.g., ism* OA) wfni/ 'The man sees

the woman'; ismfgrw141./ 'The man went.' (b) It functions as object

(the goal of action) with transitive verbs in the past tense; e.g.:

/ma sOm waidalm/ 'The woman was seen by me'.

(2) The oblique case functions in two ways: (a) With all

transitive past forms, the noun in the oblique case expresses the

agent; e.g., /zS spy xwalSley yam/ 'I have been bitten by the dog'-

61
 21

( /spi/ obl. sing.). (b) In all other situations, it expresses the

goal of action; e.g., /zS dowd4y xr4m/ 'I eat my meal (/dowdSy/ obl.

fem. sing.). The lack of oblique case in Dari may cause two types of

problems: (a) The use of the correct case ending (oblique II) with

certain prepositions and (b) the function of the oblique case in spe-

cific instances; that is to say, whether a given noun in the oblique

case is the agent or the goal of action. The students tend to say:

AlimA tm wSrkm/ instead of /21imey tv IdIrk.m/ 'Give it to Halima';

/tar kciwr pOwri 14rsamj instead of /tar kciwrm pOwri lersam/ 'I need to

go as far as to the house.' In these examples, the students omit the

case ending in /whiney/ and/kOwra (obl. sing.). (b) is a problem of

agreement and will be discussed later.

(3) The vocative case endings, whose use is restricted to

words designating human beings, are often omitted by Dari learners.

The endings are /-m/, /-ey/, /-i/. E.g., they tend to say /ey

instead of /ey wlfkm/ 'Hey, boy!'; /m91g4r/ instead of /inalg4rey/

'friend!'ilmciwr/instead of /mciwri/ 'Mother!' The vocative in Dari

is expressed by using the interjections /Ow/ 'Oh!' and /ey/ 'Hey!' as

/ey bmcQ 'Hey, boy!' and /614 rmffq/ 'Oh, friend!' It should be noted

that in addition to the obligatory vocative endings, Pashto may also

use the interjections /ey/ or /ow/, but that the latter are optional.

Furthermore, these interjections are phonologically identical with

the morphemes used to indicate the vocative in Dari, a fact which no

doubt compounds the problem.

62
 22

4. Verbal System

The verbal systems of Pashto and Dari are both characterized

by mood-aspect-tense distinctions; the existence of two stems for most

Dari verbs is parallel to the situation in Pashto; and both languages

use prefixes and suffixes in their verbal systems. A great deal of

difficulty, however, is caused by the differences between the languages

in the forms, functions, and distribution of various verbal elements

or combinations of elements. Some problems are caused by (a) irregular

morphonemic relationships; (b) others by the over- or under differen-

tiation of distinctions and/or forms in one or the other language; and

(c) still others by the meaning of certain verb forms.

a. Stem Forms

There exists a large number of stem forms which the student

has to memorize: /zSmi 'I go' vs. /lErram/ 'I went'; /gdwram/ '1 see'

vs. /kaltselam/ 'I looked at'; etc.

b. Over- or Underdifferentiation

The problems of this type involve the over- or underdifferen-

tiation of forms and/or functions and/or meanings in Pashto as compared

with Deri:

(1) In Dari, the prefix /mey-/ always forms the imperfective

aspect, as in /m4yrmwom/ 'I am going' or .'I will go' and /m4yraftomPI

was going,' while in Pashto the prefix /wal makes the imperfective
 23

aspect in the present and the perfective aspect in the past. This re-

sults in confusion for the student. For example, P /z6 spgy tserdm/ 'I

tie the dog' vs. /z6 spy w6tearam/ 'Shall I tie the dog?'; /me( spy

tgral/ 'I was tying the dog' vs. /m4 spy wataral/ 'I tied the dog.

(2) The prefix /ba-/, which indicates futurity as in P

/w4b6gowru/ 'We will see' is often omitted by Dari students,presumably

because in Dari there is no specific future maker as such, although the

prefix /mey-/ in some contexts indicates futurity, as in /meybineymi

'We'll se4:'

(3) Pashto makes an aspect distinction between perfective and

imperfective in the imperative as in NOV 'Keep tying!' and /wamiree/

'Tie!,' while Dari does not make such a formal distinction, having a

single form, as in /bdbmInd/ 'Tie!'

(4) In the present tense, Pashto makes no distinction between

singular and plural, as in P /cEfy Af/ 'He (she or they) drink(s) tea,'

while in Dari there are two forms (sing. and pl.), as in idly meyxora/

'He or she drinks tea'; /c4y meYxormn/ 'They drink tea.'

(5) Conversely, Pashto has two interchangeable second person

plural past forms apparently with no difference in meaning, as in

/xwmr6:14 and /xwer6last/ 'You (pl.) had your meal.' In Dari there is

only the one form /xdrdeyn/ 'You ate.'

(6) In the third person singular and plural, the Pashto verb

shows gender distinction between masculine and feminine in the past tense.

64
 24

Dari does not. Consequently, sentences like the following are diffi-

cult to master: /tw'al/ 'He was being tied'; Amrilmi 'She was being

tied'; /tmOla/ 'They (fem.) were being tied.' The first pair of

these sentences are both rendered as /meybmst/ 'He (she) was tying'

in Mari, and the last one as /bmstce meyAiodmn/ 'They were being tied: In

other words, there is overdifferentiation in Pashto as compared with

Dari.

c. Transitive Verb Forms

In the past stem transitive verb forms carry an automatically

passive meaning; in the sentence /a spi waxwaralami 'I was bitten

by the dog,' this feature is difficult for the Dari speaker to get

used to because in Dari the unmarked verb is in the active voice, and

the passive is formed by the past participle of the mein verb and the

relevant form of the auxiliary verb /god:5mi; e.g., /xordth g6d/ 'It

was eaten'; /kmrim did& god/ 'Karim was seen.'

d. Pronominal Forms

Pashto has a set of pronominal forms, /mil di, yey, mu/ (1 sg.,

2 sg., 3 sg. and p1., 1 and 2 pl., respectively, which function as sub-

jects when used with a transitive verb in the past tenses, as in /dmymi

w6lid/ 'I saw him,' and as objects or possessive markers elsewhere,

as in /z6 yey n6xrem/ 'I don't eat it'; /keteb mi rekm/ 'Give me my

book.' In Daril there is a set of pronominal suffixes ("suffix

(35
 25

pronouns"), /-em, -et, -err, -ema, -etan, egan/ (1 sg., 2 sg., 3 sg.

1 pl.,2 pl.,3 pl.) which function as possessive markers when attached

to substantives, as in /ketbem gom gdd/ 'My book was lost,' and as

object marker when added to transitive verbs. The Dari forms are op-

tional, being interchangeable with independent pronouns when used as

possessives, and with a combination of a noun or a pronoun and the

object-market /-rm/, or a combination of a preposition and a noun or a

pronoun when used as object markers. Not so with the Pashto pronominal

forms. To add to the confusion, there is a slight phonological simi-

larity in the first person singular in the two languages: /mil in

Pashto and /-em/ in Dari. Because of this somewhat complex situation,

the Dari speaker is likely either to omit the Pashto pronominals alto-

gether, or to substitute the Dari forms. Thus, he may say /u1 nkrom/

instead of /z4 yey n&crom/ 'I don't eat it'; ikettfbem cfri dAy/ instead

of iketdb mi cri db,/ 'Where is my book?'

5. Agreement

There arc three major sets of problems of agreement: (a) those

related to the government of prepositions over case; (b) those related

to agreement between modifier and head; and (c) those related to agree-

ment between the verb and its subject and in certain cases also its

object.

GI;
 26

(a) Government of Prepositions over Case

It is a special characteristic of Pashto morphology that the

noun is usually governed by a preposition; i.e., all prepositions re-

quire the accompanying nouns to be in the oblique case, e.g., /tar

ymkgmmbdy/ 'until Sunday.' The noun may at the same time be followed

as well as preceded by a preposition as in /pa ymwg bmjd/ 'at one

o'clock'; /ter pagmtinm pOwrii 'as far as Paghman!atar gp4y pOwriPuntil

night.' This distributional feature is absent in Dari, where preposi-

tions can only precede the substantives, as in /ta xan4/ 'as far as to

the house'; /bm dowstdn/ 'to the friends'; etc., and where there are

no postpositions of the type found in Pashto.

(b) The Agreement between Modifier and Its Head

Difficulties are also presented by the agreement between the

modifier and its head (noun): (3) An adjective modifying a noun must

agree in number, case, and gender; e.g., /VV. smr1/ 'big men'; /g4tte

ON 'a big woman.' (2) A numeral agrees in case with its noun; e.g.,

/pa Kpgrfow WOW 'at six o'clock.' (3) A demonstrative pronoun and a

noun agree in number, case, and gender, e.g., /da lab sOu/ 'for those

women.'

There is no agreement in Dari in any of these instances.

Thus in /thariNte kmldn/ 'a big tree,' the noun and the adjective are

both singular, and in /dearmxttlye kteldn/ 'big trees,' the noun is plural,

67
 27

but the adjective is in the singular. Dari students often fail to ob-

serve these rules of agreement, coming up with sentences such as the

following, in which sometithes the inflectional endings are omitted from

both the head and the modifier:

inof
stead /
i /gmt ketabling /64i ketabdna/ 'big books'

'from the
ii /de 64 ketabling /de gtStu ketabdnu/
big books'

iii /64 wane/ /tae wane/ 'a big tree'

'from the
iv /da 64 wanes/ /da gsti w6ni/
big tree'

'from the
v /da 64 w6ni/ /de gmtu wnu/
big trees'

'at four
vi /pa 416wr ba3j6/ /Pa knldwru bmjd/
o'clock'

vii /pa gp6; at ketablinm/ /pa tp4u g6tu 'on the five
ketabdnu/ big books'

/pa rill& squ/ 'to those

viii /pa hdgmq6Au/
women'

In examples i and v, the adjective (/64/) must agree with

the head in number (pl.), and in case (/da ga5tu/), direct and oblique,

respectively. In examples ii and vi, the modifiers, an adjective

Vg6V) and a numeral (/4lowr/), respectively, must agree with their

heads ( /ketabdne.), bmja..1/) in the oblique plural. In example iii, the

modifying adjective and the noun must agree in the feminine gender.

In example vii, the agreement is between the head word ( /ketabling) and

GP
 28

the two modifiers (/460 and the adjective (g4/). In example viii,

case agreement is required between the demonstrative pronoun /lidgm/

and the noun AgiaV in the oblique plural form.

c. Agreement Involving the Verb

There are several types of problems of agreement involving the

verb:

(1) There is person and number agreement between the verb and

the subject in all intransitive verbs and in the present tense of the

transitive verbs; e.g., /za iam/ 'I go'; /z6 yey wmhgm/ 'I beat him.'

(2) Wherever gender distinction is made in the verb (which is

in the 3 sg. present of the verb 'to be,' and in the 3 sg. past of all

the other verbs), it agrees with the subject in gender; e.g., /dg

=2:16 sr6 datThis apple (fem.) is red'; /da ketab sur day/ 'This book

(m.) is red; ihmlAlas w:1raglq('Halima(fem.) went (fem.).'

(3) In the past forms of the transitive verbs, there is person,

number, and gender agreement between the verb and its object, but not

with its subject, e.g., /mg lowAr wixwmpa/ 'I eat (fem.) my meal (fem.)';

/karrm spay wgwahalai 'Karim hit (fem.) the bitch (fem.)'; /ma xrg

biwel/ 'I led (m.pl.) the donkeys (masc.pl.).'

(4) There is also agreement between the transitive past forms

of verbs and the case of either the subject or the object, in the fol-

lowing way: If the grammatical subject is in the direct case, the

object will have to be in the oblique case, and the verb will agree

(39
 29

with the grammatical subject (in person, number, and gender); e.g.,

/z6 spy wlxwmpm/ 'I was bitten ' , the dog,' where /z6/ 'I' is in the

direct case and agrees with the verb in every respect, and where /spi/

is in the oblique case. If the grammatical subject is in the oblique

case, the grammatical object will have to be in the direct case, and

the verb agrees with the grammatical object; e.g., /dtfy dowdy

w6xwmpa/ 'They ate (fem.) their meal (fem.).'

4.6 Problems of Order

Problems of order strictly speaking belong in the syntax,

with which this thesis is not concerned. However, a few problems in-

volving order in phrases will be mentioned here.

(1) In some Pashto noun phrases, adjectives precede the nouns

they modify, as in P/jfg sal*/ 'a tall man.' An adverb also may pre-

cede a noun, as in /pdwrtm sm*/ 'the man above.' In Dari, modifying

nouns and adverbs follow the noun they modify in a connective /-e/ con-

struction, as in /adgme belgnd/ ' a tall man'; and /nmfgre bald/ 'the

man above.' Dari students of Pashto tend to transfer their own struc-

ture (without the connective /-e/) to Pashto, thus saying ism* jfg/

instead of /jig smT10,1; /soli* pdwrtm/ instead of /pdwrtm smrgy/.

(2) In Pashto noun phrases, the noun (1) may precede the

preposition, as in halfk tw/ 'to the boy'; (2) may follow the

preposition, as in /la kewrm/ 'from the house':, or (3) may be

70
 30

followed as well as preceded by prepositions, as in /tar kciwrm pOwri/

'as far as the house,' while in Dari no preposition follows the noun,

as in /az xatere gagard4/ 'for the sake of students.' The students

usually tend to drop the preposition after the nouns as in Ida

gagardgnu/ instead of /da gagerdgnu dapgrai 'for the sake of students';

Ida ngwey/ instead of Ida ngwey dapgra/ 'for the bride'; etc.

71
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. General

Agard, Frederick B. and Robert J. D. Pietro. The Grammatical Structures

of English and Italian. Chicago, 1965.

Gleason, H. A., Jr. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New

York, 1955.

Lodo, Robert. Language Teaching. New York, 1964.

. Linguistics Across Culture. Ann Arbor, 1957.

Moulton, William G. The Sounds of English and German. Chicago, 1966.

Stockwell, Robert P. and J. Dold Bowen. The Sounds of English and

Spanish. Chicago, 1965.

Stockwell, Robert, and others. The Grammatical Structures of English

and Spanish. Chicago, 1965.

II. Pashto

Bellew, Henry Walter. A Grammar of the Pukkhto or Pukshto Language.

Lohore, 1901.

Lorimer, J. G. Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pashto. Culkuta [sic.],

1902.

Morgenstierne, George. "Report on a Linguistic Mission on Northwestern

India," Instituteet to Sammenlignende Kullurforskning Publika-
tion. Oslo, 1932.

Penzl, Herbert. A Grammar of Pasto; A Descriptive Study of the Dialect

of Kandahar, Afghanistan. Washington, D. C., 1955.

. A Reader of Pashto. Ann Arbor, 1965.

66

72
 67

. "Afghan Descriptions of the Afghan (Pashto) Verb," Journal

of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 71, April-June, 1951.

Shafeev, D. A. A Short Grammatical Outline of Pashto. Trans. and ed.

by Herbert Paper. Indiana University, 1964. (Indiana Uni-
versity Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and
Linguistics)

III. Dari

Bogdanov. L. "Stray Notes on Kabuli Persian," Journal of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal. Vol. 26, Calcutta, 1930.

Boyle, John Andrew. Grammar of Modern Persian. Wiesbaden, Germany,

1960.

Elwell-Sutton, L. P. Elementary Persian Grammar. Cambridge, 1963.

Entezar, M. Ehsan, and David J. Burns. Farsi Reference Manual Basic

Course. Putney, Vermont, 1964.

Faroughy, A. A Concise Persian Grammar. New York, 1944.

Hawker, M. A. Simple Colloquial Persian. London, 1941

Lambton, Ann K. S. Persian Grammar. Cambridge, 1963.

Obolensky, Serge, and others. Persian Basic Course, 1-12. Washington,

D. C., 1963.

Phillott, D. C. Higher Persian Grammar. Calcutta, 1919.

Poindexter, Mary Ann. "The Problems of Persian Speakers in Learning

English," Unpublished M. A. Thesis, University of Texas
at Austin, 1965.

Rastorgueva, V. A. A Short Sketch of Ta.iik Grammar. Trans. and ed. by

Herbert Paper. Indiana University, 1963. (Indiana University
Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics)

Stokes, Donal Slater. "The Problems of Persian Speakers in Pronouncing

English." Unpublished M. A. Thesis, University of Texas
at Austin, 1965.

73
 68

Tisdal, W. St. Clair. Modern Persian Conversation Grammar. New York,

1959.

Wei, Jacqueline. "Dialectal Differences Between Three Standard Vari-

eties of Persian: Tehran, Kabul, and Tajik," vlashington, D. C.:
Center for Applied Linguistics of the Modern Language Asso-
ciation of America, 1962.

74
 VITA

Mohammad Alam Miran was born in Khoja Mesafer, Paghman,

Afghanistan, on August 15, 1939, the son of Mr. and Mrs. Said Alam.

After completing his work at the Ibn-e-Seena High School, Kabul,

Afghanistan, in 1958, he taught Pashto in BaghlaP for one year.

Returning to Kabul, he taught English as a foreign language in two

%11t

high schools, Ibn-e-Seena and Afghan Institute of Technology. Ii

1963 he entered the Faculty of Education at the University of Kabul.

He received the degree of Bachelor of Arts from the University of

Kabul in January, 1966. During the following year he was employed

as the departmental chairman of the English language program at

Darul Mo' Alemin (Teacher Training School) and as a Persian language

instructor at the Faculty of Education, University of Kabul. He

was employed as Persian instructor for three Peace Corps Training

Programs, where he also developed supplementary language materials.

In September, 1967, he entered the Graduate School of the University

of Texas at Austin.

Permanent address: Department of Dari

Faculty of Education
University of Kabul
Kabul, Afghanistan

7"