Grammar points » B1 Grammar lessons and exercises

Present simple vs present continuous – form

Present simple – short forms

We normally use short forms in spoken English.

• do not = don’t
• does not = doesn’t

Present continuous – short forms

We normally use short forms in spoken English.

• am not = ‘m not
• is not = isn’t/’s not
• are not = aren’t/’re not
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 Present simple vs present continuous – use

Present simple use

Habits or situations that happen regularly

We use the present simple to talk about actions that we do (o we don’t do) regularly:

• I wash my hair every day.

• I never go to the library.
• I sometimes go to the library.

Permanent situations or things that are usually or often true

I don’t drink coffee.

• She’s very tall.

• I have two brothers.
• Water boils at 100 degrees.
• I like soup.

Adverbs of frequency

We often use the present simple with adverbs of frequency (always, sometimes, etc.)
and expressions of frequency (once every three months, twice a week, every other day, etc.).

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Adverbs of frequency go in mid position (before the main verb or after be).

• She doesn’t often eat hamburgers.

• He usually gets up very early.
• I am never late.

Expressions of frequency go at the end of the sentence

• We go to the cinema once a month.

• I buy clothes twice a year.

Future events that are timetabled

We use the present simple to talk about future events that are scheduled or timetabled.

• The train leaves at 4.

• Shops close at 6.
• My yoga class is tomorrow at 10.

Present continuous use

Actions in progress

We use the present continuous to talk about things that are happening now or ‘around now’ (a time
around this moment, such as these days, weeks or months)

• I can’t talk know. I’m brushing my teeth.

• I finished the Lord of the Rings and now I’m reading a new book.

Temporary actions

The present continuous is used to talk about temporary actions:

• I’m going to work by bus this week because my car is at the garage.
• I’m living with my cousins until I find a flat.

With expressions meaning ‘now’ or ‘around now’.

The present continuous often appears next to expressions such as now, these days, this
week/month, or at the moment.

• He’s studying a lot this week.

• I’m not feeling very well these days.

Situations that are changing or developing

The climate is changing very quickly.

• More and more people are trying to eat more healthily nowadays.
• Your English is improving.

Future arrangements

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We use the present continuous to talk or ask about future actions that are already planned or
decided.

• I‘m meeting John this evening. Do you want to come?

• We are leaving tomorrow at 7.

Stative verbs

Non–action verbs (or stative verbs) cannot be used in present continuous. They must be used in
present simple. The most frequent are the verbs of the senses (hear, see, smell, look, seem, sound),
verbs of opinion (believe, consider, like, love, hate, prefer, think, etc.) verbs of possession (have,
own, belong, etc.). Other common non-action verbs are: agree, be, depend, need, mean,
remember, realise, recognise, seem, want, etc.

• Please, give me my money; I need it now.

• Look at her; she seems sad.

Some verbs have an action and a non-action meaning; for example, have or think:

• I have a car (=possession) / I’m having a siesta (=action)

• I think he is great (=opinion) / What are you thinking? (=action)

The verb see also has a dynamic and a stative meaning.

• I‘m seeing the doctor tomorrow at 9. (see= ‘have an appointment’)

• What do you see in this picture? (see= ‘see with your eyes’)

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Future forms – will, be going to, present continuous
Future forms – summary chart

Predictions

We use will to talk about something we think that will happen:

• I think he’ll win the election.

• He will be a good doctor.

We use be going to to talk about something that is very near to happen or that we see is going to
happen (there is present evidence)

• Don’t drive like a crazy man. We’re going to have an accident!

• The doctor said I’m going to have a girl.

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Decisions

We use will for decisions that we take at the moment of speaking (instant decisions).

• ‘Oh, we don’t have sugar.’ ‘Don’t worry, I’ll buy some.’

We use be going to for decisions that we have already taken at the moment of speaking (intentions
or plans).

• ‘Why are you undressing?’ ‘Because I’m going to go to the swimming pool.’

Arrangements

We often use the present continuous to talk about future events that are already planned or
decided. When we use the present continuous for arrangements, we must always
include when (at 7, this evening, next month, etc.) in the sentence.

• I’m seeing the dentist at 6.

• We are getting married next week.
• I’m flying to New York tomorrow morning.

We can also use be going to for future arrangements.

• I’m going to play tennis with Elisabeth today.

Future time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before, after)

Use the present simple to talk about the future in sentences with when, as soon as, until, before,
after.

• I’ll retire when I’m 70. (NOT when I’ll be)

• I won’t call you until I arrive (NOT will arrive.)

Other uses of will

Promises and refusals

• I will help you whenever you need me.

• I won’t lend him my car.

Future facts

• The president will visit the Vatican next November.

Offers

We use I will in statements or shall I in questions.

• I’ll carry that bag for you.

• Shall I organise the meeting?

Suggestions

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We use shall we…?

• Shall we eat out today?

Requests

When we ask someone to do something for us.

• Will you open the door, please?

may or might as a future form

We use may or might for possible actions in the future (when ‘we are not sure’). Compare:

• I’ll be late for dinner today. (=I am sure.)

• I might be late for dinner today. (=It’s possible, but I am not sure.)
• I’m going to Denmark next September. (=Sure.)
• I might go to Denmark next September. (=Not sure.)

We use may or might for things that will possibly happen in the future, but we are not too sure. It’s
like a prediction about something that we think perhaps will happen.

• The economy might suffer a global recession next year.

• Temperatures may go up next week.

We use may or might not for actions or things that will possibly not happen.

• She looks very tired. She might not come with us.
• We may not have enough time to finish the report for tomorrow.

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Past simple or present perfect?
Present perfect – form

Short forms

• has= ‘s
• have= ‘ve
• have not= haven’t

Note that short forms are not used in positive short answers.

• ‘Have you washed the dishes yet?’ ‘Yes, I have.’ (NOT Yes, I’ve.)

Present perfect – use

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Summary chart

Past events when time is not mentioned

We use the present perfect to talk about past actions or events when time is not mentioned, i.e.
we don’t say when these events happened.

• I‘ve broken my arm.

• I’ve passed the exam.
• She’s found a job.

just already, yet

We often the present perfect with just, already and yet. We can use just after the verb have to
emphasise that these events are very recent.

• Tony has just called.

We use already in positive sentences to talk about actions that we have completed sooner than
we expected. Already goes after the verb have.

• I‘ve already finished my homework.

We use yet in negative sentences and questions to talk about things that we expect to happen
soon. Yet goes at the end of the sentence.
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 • Have you finished your homework yet?
• I haven’t finished my homework yet.

recently

We often use the present perfect with recently to talk about past recent actions.

• They‘ve recently bought a new car.

today, this week, this month, this year

We can use the present perfect with time expressions when the time we mention has not finished.

• I‘ve seen John today. (=Today has not finished.)

• Has she called you this week?

Past experiences – never, ever, before

We use the present perfect to talk about past experiences when we don’t say or we don’t
know when something happened.

• He has been to the moon. He’s an astronaut.

• I haven’t been to India.

never, ever, before

We often use the words never, ever, or before to talk about experiences.

• I‘ve never read this book.

• Have you ever seen a John Wayne film.
• I haven’t experienced anything like this before.

The best thing I’ve ever done

We can use the present perfect simple with a superlative adjective and ever.

• This is the best meal I’ve ever had.

• It’s the most amazing place we’ve ever travelled to.

How many times

We can also use the present perfect to say how many times something has happened until now.

• I’ve watched this film three times.

• We’ve been to Paris twice.

have gone to or have been to?

We say someone has gone somewhere when this person is still away, and we say someone has
been somewhere when this person has already come back from that place.

• Tom has gone to Ireland. He’ll be there for a couple of weeks. (=He’s in Ireland now.)
• We have been to Ireland three times. We love it. (=We are not in Ireland now.)
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Duration from the past until now – for, since

We can use the present perfect with for, since and how long to ask or talk about situations that
started in the past and have not finished.

• We‘ve been married for 25 years.

• I‘ve had this watch since I was a kid.
• How long have you been friends?

Compare:

• We‘ve been married for 20 years. (=We are married now)

• We were married for 20 years. Then we divorced. (We are not married now)

for + period of time; since + moment in the past

We use for + period of time (2 hours, 3 days, 20 years, etc.) and we use since + the moment in the
past when something started.

• I’ve been here for hours.

• She’s been my teacher for three years.
• I’ve been unemployed since May.
• I’ve lived in this town since I was born.

lately, all morning/day/year/etc.

We can also use the present perfect with lately or with all + period of time (all day, all morning, all
my life, etc.) to talk about actions that started in the past and continue in the present.

• She’s been with me all day.

• I’ve been very busy lately.

Don’t useago

We can’t use ago with the present perfect.

• I‘ve had my watch for 2 years. (NOT I’ve had my watch since 2 years ago.)

Past simple or present perfect?

When did it happen?

We use the present perfect (NOT past simple) to talk about past experiences and actions when
we don’t say or don’t know when they happened.

• I’ve lost my keys.

• We‘ve been to a very nice restaurant.

We use the past simple (NOT present perfect) when we mention or ask about when something
happened, or when the time is known by the speaker and the listener. We often use a past
expression (last week, yesterday, when I was a child, etc.)
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 • We arrived yesterday. (NOT We’ve arrived yesterday.)
• When did the accident happen?

Giving details in past simple

We use the present perfect to introduce a past event or experience, but if we continue talking and
we give details, then we use the past simple.

A: I‘ve been to the cinema.

B: What did you see?
A: I saw a very good film by…

A: Oh, you‘ve broken your arm.

B: Yes, I have.
A: How did it happen?

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Present perfect simple and present perfect continuous
Present perfect simple – use

Summary chart

We use the present perfect simple with past finished actions or experiences when we don’t
mention or we don’t know when they happened. And we also use the present perfect simple to
ask or talk about situations that started in the past and have not finished.

Present perfect continuous – form

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We form the present perfect continuous with the present perfect simple of be + the -ing form of the
main verb.

Present perfect continuous – use

Summary chart

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Actions from the past till now – duration

We use the present perfect continuous with action verbs (dynamic verbs) to talk about situations
that started in the past and have not finished or have just finished.

• Have you been crying?

• Sorry I am so dirty, but I‘ve been painting.

There is often a present result from doing these actions.

• You‘ve been crying. (Your eyes are red.)

• I am dirty because I‘ve been painting.

We can use the present perfect continuous to talk about continuous or repeated actions or
situations from the past till now.

• She‘s been calling you for days. (=She has repeated this action for several days.)
• I‘ve been studying since you left. (=I have done this action continuously without stopping.)

for, since, how long, lately, all day/week/month/etc.

We can use for, since, how long, lately, all day/week/month/etc. to ask or say how long a
situation has been happening.

• I haven’t been feeling well lately.

• He’s been annoying us all evening.
• She’s been studying very hard for weeks.
• How long have you been playing golf?

Present perfect simple or continuous?

Situations that started in the past and still continue

We can use the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous to talk about situations
that started in the past and still continue. But we must use the present perfect simple with non-
action verbs (stative verbs), and we normally use the present perfect continuous with dynamic
verbs (although the present perfect simple is also possible.)

• We‘ve had this car for years.

• I haven’t been sleeping well lately.

We use the present perfect continuous (and NOT simple) with dynamic verbs for situations that
started in the past and still continue when we want to emphasise how long the situation has lasted.

• I have been waiting for hours! (=I want to emphasise that I’ve been waiting for a long time).
• I couldn’t do the dishes. I’ve been working all day.

Finished and unfinished situations

We use the present perfect simple for finished actions in the past when we don’t say when. We
use the present perfect continuous for actions or situations that maybe have not finished or that
maybe have finished (very recently)

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 • Who has eaten my cookies? (=We would say this if there are no cookies left. The action is
finished.
• Who has been eating my cookies? (=We would say this if there are some cookies left)
• I‘ve been watching the series you recommended. I’ll tell you about it when I finish watching it.
• I‘ve watched the series you recommended. I watched the last episode yesterday.

Actions with present results

We can use present perfect simple and present perfect continuous for actions with present results.
We use the present perfect simple if the present results come from completing the action.

• Look how nice my car looks. I‘ve washed it. (=The car looks nice because I have finished
washing it.)
• Something is different in this house. Have you painted it? (=The house looks different
because you have completed the action of painting it.)

We use the present perfect continuous if the present results come from the process of doing
the action.

• Sorry I’m so sweaty. I‘ve been washing my car. (=I am sweaty because of the physical
activity that washing the car involves.)
• How come you are so dirty? Have you been painting? (=You are dirty because of the process
of painting.)

how long vs how many/much

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about the duration of an action, i.e. about how
long we have been doing something. And we use the present perfect simple to talk about how
many things or how much of something we have done.

• I’ve written twenty e-mails. (I’m talking about how many emails I’ve written.)
• I’ve been writing emails for hours. (=I’m talking about how long I have spend writing emails)

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during, for, while
during, for, while – grammar chart

during

We use during + noun to talk about when something happens. With during, we answer the
question when.

• Some people got lost during the journey.

• I will finish the novel during the summer break.
• Most burglaries happen during the night.

for

We use for + length of time to say how long something happens. With for, we answer the
question how long.

• We have known each other for a long time.

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 • I waited for more than an hour, but I finally left.
• He worked in this company for over twenty years.

while

We use while + subject + verb to talk about two things that are happening at the same time.

• I had breakfast while you were in the shower.

• I always listen to the radio while I’m cleaning.
• You shouldn’t use your phone while you are driving.

during vs for

The difference between during and for is that during refers to ‘when’ something happens
and for refers to ‘how long’ something happens. Compare:

• Every day I run for one hour. (=How long do you run?)
• I usually run during the weekend. (=When do you run?)

during vs while

The main difference between during and while is that we use while + clause (subject + verb), and
we use during + noun. Compare:

• I fell asleep during the film.

• I fell asleep while I was watching the film.

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Comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs
Comparative and superlative adjectives

The comparative form

We use the comparative form of the adjective to compare two things.

• White meat is healthier than red meat.

• Travelling by bus is more comfortable than travelling by train.

less … than

We can also use the form less + adjective + than. Less is the opposite of more.

• Peter is less considerate than Marta. (=Marta is more considerate)

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(not) as … as

We can also use the form (not) as + adjective + as.

• Peter isn’t as considerate as Marta. (=Marta is more considerate)

than me / than I am

After than or as … as we use an object pronoun (me, you, him, etc.) or a subject pronoun (I, you,
he, she, etc.) + auxiliary verb.

• My sister is taller than me.

• My sister is taller than I am.

much/a lot/a bit more…

Before the comparative (more or -er) we can use much, a lot or a bit.

• He’s a bit taller than me.

• Florence is much more interesting than Pisa.
• This car is a lot more expensive.

any/no more than

We can use any/no + comparative (any better, no faster, any more expensive, etc.). We use any in
negative sentences and no with positive verbs.

• Your performance was no better than mine.

• Your performance wasn’t any better than mine.

Superlative adjectives

We use the superlative form of an adjective or adverb to compare more than two things.

the most … in …

After the superlative we use in + names of places or singular words for groups of people (class,
school, team, family, etc.)

• She is the best student in the class.

• He’s the tallest in the family.
• Messi is the best player in the world. (NOT of the class, etc.)

We normally use of + periods of time or a number of people (of the year, of my life, of my brothers, of
the students, etc.).

• It was the best evening of my life.

• I am the tallest of my brothers.

the most … I have ever …

We often use the superlative with the present perfect tense and ever.
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 • This is the best movie I’ve ever watched.
• She is the most beautiful woman I have ever seen.

the/my/Tom’s best …

Before the superlative we always use the, or my/your/his/etc. or Tom’s/Jenny’s/etc.)

• He is the best.
• This is my most expensive jacket.
• This is Paul’s best friend.

the least

The opposite of the most is the least

• He is the least hardworking student in the class.

Comparing actions with adverbs

We can use the comparative or superlative form of adverbs to compare actions.

• She drives fast, but I drive faster.

• He plays well, but I play better than him.

With adverbs ending in –ly, you must always use more to form the comparative, and most to form
the superlative

• She speaks more quietly than her boss. (NOT quietlier)

• He cooks well, but more slowly than his workmates. (NOT slowlier)

For adverbs that that have the same form as adjectives, the comparative and superlative forms are
like adjectives: add –er to form the comparative and –est to form the superlative. The most common
of these adverbs are: late-later, early-earlier, fast-faster, hard-harder, long-longer.

• He works harder than me.

• She always arrives earlier than her boss.
• It took us longer than usual to arrive because of the traffic.

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A(n), the, no article
Use a/an

When we mention something for the first time.

• I saw an old woman with a dog.

To say what kind of person or thing something/somebody is.

• That’s a chimpanzee.
• When I was a teenager, I enjoyed sleeping.
• Paula is a teacher.

When we mean ‘one’.

• Can I have an orange?

For frequency, rates and speeds etc.

• I work 6 hours a day, and I go to English classes three times a week.

• The rent is €500 a month.
• We were driving at 70 km an hour.

In the expressions what a/such a + singular countable noun.

• What a fantastic idea!

• Yesterday was such a horrible day!
• This is such a difficult problem!
• Thanks, you are such a good friend.

Note that you cannot use singular countable nouns alone (without a/the/my/etc.)

• I don’t have a driving license. (NOT I don’t have driving license.)

• I have a car. (NOT I have car.)
• When I was a teenager… (NOT When I was teenager.)

Use the

With things or people already mentioned, or when we know which things or people we are talking
about.

• A man and a woman sat in front me. The man was British, but I think the woman wasn’t.
• ‘Where are the kids?’ ‘They’re in the garden.’ (=Both speakers know which kids and which
garden).
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When a noun is made specific by details we give after it.

• I sat on a chair (maybe one of many).

• I sat on the chair in the corner.
• I saw the man who tried to rob me.

When there is only one of something: the earth, the moon, the planet, the internet, the universe,
the sky, the city (=not the country), the country (=not the city), etc.

• I need to talk to the manager. (=There’s only one manager.)

• I’d like to live in this country, but not in the capital.
• The moon looks beautiful today.

With places in a town where we commonly go (the park, the cinema, the doctor, etc.)

• I’m going to the bank.

• I found Peter at the station.
• I’m at the library.

With superlatives

• This is the best restaurant in town.

With the names of oceans, seas, rivers and canals (the Mediterranean, the Amazon, the Panama
canal, etc.).

Use no article

To describe something in general (with plural or uncountable nouns).

• Love and health are more important than money.

• Women drive more cautiously than men.

Compare

• I love music. (= music in general)

• The party was great. I loved the music. (=specific music)

With home, work, bed, hospital, school, university, prison when we speak in general (as the
place used to live, work, sleep, be hospitalised, learn or be imprisoned.)

• David isn’t at school this morning. (=learning)

• She has been in bed all morning. (=sleeping or resting)
• Maria is in hospital. (=hospitalised, as a patient)
• They are going to send him to prison (=to be imprisoned)

But we use the article if we refer to these places just as places, or buildings; when they are not used
for their main purpose.

• I found the keys under the bed.

• I’m going to the school to pick up my children.
• Yesterday I went to the hospital to visit my grandmother.
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With names of meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)

• Dinner is served at 8.
• I always have breakfast with my children.

With names of years, months and days of the week.

• Friday is my favourite day of the week.

• I think 2020 will be an excellent year.

With name + number.

• He is in room 15.
• Go to page 86.

With TV (when used as a broadcasting service, NOT as an appliance)

• I saw it on TV.
• I don’t watch TV.

But Turn off the TV. I’ve bought a new TV.

With next and last + time expression (when they mean before or after NOW)

• The meeting is next Thursday.

• I saw him last week.

But Last year we spend three weeks in London. The last week in London was one of the best in my
life. (=It does not mean ‘the week before NOW’)

With most names of places, such as continents (Europe, Africa, etc.), countries (Spain, China, etc.),
cities or towns (Rome, Bangkok, etc.), mountains (mount Everest, Annapurna, etc.)

But names of countries that are plural or that include words such as State or Republic,
or Kingdom are used with the: the US (the United States), the UK (the United
Kingdom), the Philippines, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic.

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another, other, others, the other, the others
another vs other (determiners)

We can use another and other as determiners, i.e. before a noun.

Use another + singular noun.

• I need another cup of coffee.

Use other + plural noun.

• I want to talk to other doctors.

Note that determiners don’t have a plural form. We say:

• I want to talk to other doctors. (NOT to others doctors)

another vs others (pronouns)

We can use another as a pronoun, i.e. not followed by a noun.

• I’ve already had one beer, but I’ll have another.

Others is always a pronoun, i.e. never followed by a noun.

• I don’t want to use these glasses. Aren’t there any others? (=other glasses)

other vs others

We normally use other + plural noun.

• I want to see other shops before deciding.

Others is a pronoun, i.e. not followed by a noun.

• A lot of volunteers have joined us, but we need to find others.

the other, the others

the other + noun

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Use the other + singular noun to mean ‘the second of two things or people, or the opposite of a set
of two’.

• This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.

We could also say the other one instead of the other computer.

Use the other + plural noun to mean ‘the remaining people or things in a group or set’.

• Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining kids in the group)

the other or the others + noun

We can also use the other as a pronoun (not followed by noun).

• This computer here is new. The other is about five years old.

We can also use the others as a pronoun (not followed by noun).

• Joel and Karen are here, but where are the others? (the remaining kids in the group)

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Can, could, be able to – ability and possibility
can, could

Ability

We use can/could to describe ability, and we use can’t/couldn’t to describe absence of ability.

• She could play the piano very well.

• Children can’t concentrate for long periods of time.
• I can speak Chinese.

Possibility

We also use can to talk about possibility.

• Anyone can win this competition. All the participants are very good.
• I can’t come to the party next week.

Permission

We use can/could to talk about something that is or was allowed and we use can’t/couldn’t to talk
about something that is not allowed.

• You can’t smoke in the house, but you can smoke in the terrace if you want.

We also use can to ask for permission.

• Can I come in?

Requests

We us can/could in requests, i.e. when we ask somebody to do something.

• Can you help me?

• Could you speak more slowly, please?

see, smell, hear, feel, taste

Verbs of perception (see, smell, hear, etc.) are stative verbs and cannot be used in a continuous
form. Instead, we use can.

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 • Can you hear that? (NOT Are you hearing that?)
• I can smell gas! (NOT I’m smelling gas!)

be able to

Be able to is often similar to can and we may use it instead of can to talk about ability. But be able
to is more formal and is not as common.

• They are able to do the job faster than anyone else.

But can only has present and past forms: can–could. For all other verb forms (infinitive, gerund,
present perfect, etc.) we should use be able to.

• I haven’t been able to study for the exam. (present perfect)

• I’d like to be able to talk to her more often. (to-infinitive; NOT to can)
• I don’t like loud music in pubs. I like being able to talk with my friends. (-ing form)
• Will we be able to talk to the singer after the concert? (infinitive)

can/could vs be able to

We can use can and be able to to talk about general ability in the present.

• She can speak five languages.

• She’s able to speak five languages.

We can use could and be able to to talk about general ability in the past.

• My son could walk when he was 11 months old.

• My son was able to walk when he was 11 months old.

But if we want to say that someone did something in a specific situation, we must use was/were able
to, or managed to + infinitive.

• There was a fire in the office but all the workers were able to/managed to
escape. (NOT could escape)
• He lost his maps but after driving around for a long time, he was able to/managed to find the
place. (NOT could find)

In negative sentences, both could and be able to can be used to say that we were not capable of
doing something on a specific occasion.

• It was very dark and they couldn’t find the exit. (Or They weren’t able to find the exit.)

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have to, must, should – obligation, prohibition, necessity, advice
must/mustn’t, have to/don’t have to – form

have to

Have to is NOT a modal verb. We need do/does/did to make negatives and questions in present
and past.

• Do you have to get up early tomorrow? (NOT Have you to get up early?)
• Did you have to change the sound card?
• We don’t have to stay until the end.

We can use have to in all the verb forms (present, past and perfect tenses, gerund, to infinitive, etc.)

• I don’t like having to get up early.

• She’s had to work at weekends since she started working.

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 • I had to cancel the meeting.

It is used to describe an obligation, a rule, something that is necessary.

• You have to drive on the left in England.

• I’ll have to get up early tomorrow. The exam is at 8.

have got to

In spoken informal English, you can often use ‘ve got to instead of have to.

I can’t stay; I’ve got to go to the supermarket.

must

Must is a modal verb and it has a present form, which can be used to talk about the present or the
future. The negative form is must not or mustn’t and the question is must I, must you, etc.

• I must go to the doctor.

• I must get up early tomorrow.
• You mustn’t call me before 8.

It is used to describe something that the speaker thinks is necessary to do.

• You must eat less candy.

• I must try to do more exercise.

We can also use must to express strong advice.

• You must see the new film; it’s amazing!

must/mustn’t, have to/don’t have to – meaning

34
must or have to ?

Must only has a present form, so for all other verb forms (past, future, perfect forms, infinitive, etc.)
we need to use have to.

• You will have to come with me.

• We had to drive very fast.

We normally use have to for questions. Questions with must are not common.

• Do we have to sit here?

Regarding the meaning, sometimes there is little difference between have to and must.

• I must go to the hospital.

• I have to go to the hospital.

But we normally use have to when there’s an external obligation, and must when the obligation
comes from the opinion of the speaker.

• We have to get up early tomorrow. The meeting is at nine. (external obligation)

• We must get up early tomorrow if we want to finish painting. (it’s the speaker’s opinion)
• You have to wear a suit at the meeting. (it’s a rule in the company)
• You must buy a new suit for the meeting. (it’s my opinion)

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mustn’t or don’t have to?

Don’t have to and mustn’t have opposite meanings. We use don’t have to when we don’t need to
do something, when there’s no obligation; and we use mustn’t to talk about prohibition, when
there is obligation not to do something.

• You mustn’t wait here. (=it’s not allowed)

• You don’t have to wait here. (=you can do it, but it’s not necessary)

If you don’t have to do something, it means that you can do it if you want, but you don’t need to do it.

can’t/be not allowed to = mustn’t

We can use can’t or be not allowed to instead of mustn’t.

• You mustn’t smoke in this area. = You are not allowed to/can’t smoke in this area.
• Children mustn’t eat chewing gum. = Children can’t/are not allowed to eat chewing gum.

should, shouldn’t

Should is used to give advice or an opinion about what we think is right or wrong.

• You should go to a therapist.

• I think schools shouldn’t offer soft drinks to their students.

Should is not as strong as must or have to.

• You should be patient with me. (=advice)

• You must be patient with me. (=strong advice)

ought to/ought not to = should/shouldn’t

Ought to has the same meaning as should, although it is more formal and not as common.

• You ought to go to a therapist.

• You ought not to be so strict with your daughter

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Reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself
Reflexive pronouns

The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves. .

Same subject and object

The reflexive pronouns are normally used when the subject and the object are the same person.

• She cut herself chopping the onions.

• We really enjoyed ourselves at the party.
• Talking to oneself is not necessarily a sign of madness.

After preposition

We can use reflexive pronouns after most prepositions if they refer back to the subject.

• He should be really proud of himself.

• With the 3-D printer and this scanner you can print a small version of yourself.

To emphasise who did the action

We also use a reflexive pronoun to emphasise that the subject does the action, and nobody else. In
this sense, we can use the reflexive at the end of the sentence or after the subject.

• I will talk to Anna myself.

• I think you should do it yourself, instead of having it done.
• Paul himself designed the everything.

Verbs with NO reflexive pronoun

Students of English often make mistakes when they use some verbs which are are used reflexively in
their language but not in English. Some of these verbs are concentrate,
dress, shave, wash, relax, hurry, or open.

• The first thing I do is wash, shave, and dress.

• When I arrive home I only want to relax on the sofa.
• Please, hurry or we’ll be late.
• The door opened and everybody got in.

by myself

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 We can say by myself, by yourself, etc. to mean ‘alone, without anybody else’, or also to mean
‘without anybody’s help’.

• My son doesn’t like to be by himself, he always wants us around.

• She raised her four children by herself.

We can also say on my own, on your own, etc.

• I was on my own, all morning.

• She did it on her own.

Reciprocal pronouns

We use each other or one another when person A does something to person B, and person B does
something to person A.

• When the twins found each other, they had been living apart for more than 10 years.
• You should try to understand one another.

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-ed/-ing adjectives – adjectives from verbs
-ed/-ing adjectives

A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding –ing or –ed. They are called participial adjectives
they take the forms of the present (-ing) and past participle (-ed) of the verb.

-ed adjectives

-ed adjectives are used to describe how we feel. Look at the following examples:

• We’re tired. Can we stop running?

• I’m bored. Let’s play cards.
• I was surprised to see her.

-ing adjectives

-ing adjectives are used to talk about the things that produce these feelings. Check the examples
below:

• Running is very tiring. We don’t want to run.

• This film is very boring. Let’s play cards.
• Her visit was very surprising. We weren’t expecting her.

A list of some common adjectives

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40
Past simple, past continuous, past perfect
Past simple, past continuous, past perfect – grammar chart

Past simple

We use the past simple to talk about completed actions in the past.

• We ate out yesterday. (the action is finished)

In a story, we use the past simple to talk about past events in chronological order; i.e. the main
events of a story.

• When she opened the door, she pretended that we weren’t there and she went to her room.
• He called me and told me to go, but when I arrived he wasn’t there.

41
We also use the past simple to talk about past habits or past states.

• We often went to the bar for a drink before dinner.

• He really liked sport, and was very fit.

Past continuous

We use the past continuous the set the scene in a story.

• Last night I was walking home and listening to my ipod when …

• The sun was shining and lots of tourists were lying on the beach. Suddenly …

We use the past continuous for actions in progress in the past or longer actions interrupted by
shorter actions in past simple.

• After dinner I went into the living room and saw that she was crying.
• When she opened the door, we were talking about her.

Past perfect

We use the past perfect simple to talk about an earlier past: events which happened before the main
event.

Earlier single events

We use the past perfect simple to talk about earlier events and experiences, or single
actions completed earlier in the past.

• When she opened the door, he had already left.

• I realised that I had been there before.
• When I met her, I had never been in a serious relationship.
• He noticed I had cleaned the car. It was smooth and shiny.

We use the past perfect simple to say how much or how many we had done of something earlier in
the past.

• We had driven 500 miles and we needed some rest.

• How many hours had he slept when you woke him up?

Duration from earlier in the past (stative verbs)

We use the past perfect simple with stative verbs to talk about states or situations that had started
earlier in the past. We often use how long, for or since, always, etc.

• The day Anne died, they had been married for 48 years.
• The day I left, I had been in England for exactly 4 years.
• She told me she had always hated her sister.

42
In the picture below, you can see an example of a narrative with the past tenses explained.

43
44
Review of all verb tenses B1
Review of verb tenses B1 – summary table

45
46
usually, used to, be used to, get used to
Summary table – used to

used to + infinitive

Repeated actions in the past

We can use used to + infinitive to talk about past habits or things that we did repeatedly in the
past.

• When I was a child, I used to go skiing every winter.

• I didn’t use to smoke before I got this job.

Situations or states that are no longer true

47
We can use used to + infinitive to talk about situations or states (stative verbs) which were true in
the past, but they are no longer true.

• As a child I used to be blond.

• I used to live with my mum when I was a child.

used to, didn’t use to, did you use to

The negative form of used to + infinitive is didn’t use to…, and we make questions with did you
use to …

• I didn’t use to do sport as a teenager.

• Did you use to study in the library when you were in uni?

I usually do (NOT I use to do)

Used to only has a past form. If we want to talk about present habits or things that we do
repeatedly in the present, we should use usually, normally, often with present simple.

• We usually go to the cinema on Friday evenings. (NOT we use to go)

be used to

If you are used to something or to doing something, you are accustomed to it. Maybe it’s
something that is new, strange or difficult, but you have done it for some time and now you don’t find
it new, strange or difficult any more. Be used to is a state, so it is never used in continuous forms. It’s
normally used in simple tenses.

• When I started working, it was hard to get up at 6 a.m., but now I’m used to it.
• I’ve been living in England for a short time and I’m still not used to driving on the left.

get used to

If you get used to something or to doing something, you become accustomed to something. Get
used to something is the process of becoming used to something.

• I’ve just started my new job and I’m still getting used to getting up so early.
• It might be difficult at first, but you’ll get used to driving on the left.

used to + infinitive, be/get used to + -ing

The past verb used to is always followed by infinitive. The word to is part of the infinitive.

• I used to play basketball when I was in school.

After be used to, or get used to, we use a noun or a –ing verb. The word to is a preposition, not
part of an infinitive. That is why when a verb follows, it must take the –ing form.

• I’m not used to this cold and rainy weather.

• I’m sure you’ll get used to working with John. (NOT get used to work)

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Passive verb forms
Active and passive

In a passive sentence, the object of an active sentence becomes the subject. In a passive voice
sentence, the subject is the receiver of the action, not the doer of the action.

• They take the photos in Africa. (active)

• The photos are taken in Africa. (passive)

Passive voice in the different verb tenses

To make a passive verb form, we have to use be in a particular verb tense and add the past
participle of the main verb after it. You can see how to use the passive voice with different tenses
below.

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50
Active and passive voice
Active sentences vs passive sentences

When A does B, we have two possible ways of talking about it: active or passive. In active
sentences A is the subject (before the verb). In passive sentences B is the subject. Check the
following examples:

• Somebody cleaned the classroom yesterday. (Active)

• The classroom was cleaned every day. (Passive)

As you can see, the object of an active sentence is the subject of a passive sentence. You can learn
how to form the passive in all the different verb tenses here.

When do we use the passive?

The passive is more formal than the active and it is more common in written language. We often use
the passive when we don’t know, when it is obvious, or when we don’t want so say who or what is
responsible for the action.

• A bank was robbed yesterday. (We don’t know who robbed the bank.)
• The robber was arrested last night. (It’s obvious that the police arrested the robber.)
• I was told that you insulted my brother. (I don’t want to say who told me.)
• Jurassic Park was filmed by Spielberg in 1993. (I’m talking about Jurassic Park and not about
Spielberg.)

The passive voice is very common in the news and in formal writing.

• Arsenal have been defeated 3-‐0 and they are now 4th in the table.
• The British embassy in Israel has been destroyed by an earthquake.
• The Catalan election will be held next September.

Passive voice + by

We can use by to say who or what is responsible for the action.

• The painting was bought by a very rich American.

• Penicillin was invented by Alexander Fleming.

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52
Modal verbs of deduction – must, may, might, could, can't
Modal verbs of deduction – summary chart

may, might

We use may and might to talk about things that are possibly true, but we don’t know for sure.

• He’s more than 2 meters tall. He might be a basketball player. (=perhaps he is)
• He says Betty is his friend, but I think she may be his girlfriend.

We use may not or might not to talk about things that are possibly not true, but we don’t know for
sure.

• You should call her. She might not know where you are. (=perhaps she doesn’t know)

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canan

We don’t use can as a modal of deduction.

• He might/may be at home now. (NOT He can be at home now)

must, can’t

We use must when we are sure, or quite sure, that something is true.

• You must be tired after the long journey. (=I’m sure you are tired)
• I’m sure I had the keys when I left. They must be in the car.

But we use can’t (NOT mustn’t) when we are sure, or quite sure, that something is not true.

• We’ve been walking for hours. It can’t be far from here. (NOT It mustn’t be far)
• They’ve lived here only for a couple of months. They can’t know many people.

+ be -ing

After may, might, must or can’t we can use be + -ing, when we are talking about actions in
progress.

• They’ve gone to Ibiza, and right now they must be having a great time.
• Call him. He might be waiting for us.

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First conditional, future time clauses
First conditional – grammar chart

if clause and main clause

All conditional sentences have two parts: the if clause and the main clause. It doesn’t matter which
clause comes first, but when the if clause comes first, we should put a comma after it.

• If it rains, we’ll stay home

• We’ll stay home if it rains.

if + present, future

In the first conditional, the verb in the if clause is present and the verb in the main clause is future
(will).

• If you don’t go to sleep, you’ll be very tired tomorrow.

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The if clause may have a present or a future meaning, but the verb is always in present (NOT
future)

• If you are a good boy tomorrow, mummy will buy you a present. (NOT If you will be a good
boy)

Main clause: will, modal verb, imperative

In the main clause, we can use may, might, can, must, should instead of will.

• If he doesn’t train harder, he may/might lose the championship.

• If your room is tidy, you can leave.
• If you want to lose weight, you must/should eat less sugary things.

Or we can also use an imperative instead of will.

• If you arrive after midnight, ring me on my mobile.

unless = if (not)

We can also use unless in conditional sentences to mean if … (not)

• I won’t go on holiday unless I save some money.

• = I won’t go on holiday if I don’t save some money.

Future time clauses – grammar chart

when, as soon as, before, after, until

56
 When we use a verb after when, as soon as, before, afteror until to talk about the future, we have
to use this verb in present tense (NOT future). We use the future in the other part of the sentence.

• I’ll retire when I’m 70. (NOT: when I’ll be)

• I won’t call you until I arrive. (NOT: until I will arrive.)

Similar to first conditional

Future time clauses are similar to the first conditional. There’s a main clause and a when/after/etc.
clause. We use the verbs in these clauses like in the first conditional.

We use a comma when the when/after/etc. clause is at the beginning of the sentence. But we don’t
use a comma if the when/after… clause is at the end of the sentence.

• I’ll retire when I’m 70.

• When I’m 70, I’ll retire.

We use present in the when/after/etc. clause and we use future in the main clause.

• Before you go to sleep, daddy will tell you a story.

In the main clause, we can also use may, might, can, must, should or an imperative instead
of will

• As soon as you finish, you can leave.

• After you arrive, call me.

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58
Second conditional – unreal situations
Second conditional – grammar chart

if clause and main clause

We use if + past to talk about an imaginary present or future situation (although the verb is in
past, the meaning is present or future). And we use would + infinitive to talk about the result or
consequence of that imaginary situation.

• If we had a mansion in the country, we’d go there every weekend.

• Would you travel around the world if you won the lottery?

Comma

When the if clause comes first, we normally put a comma after it. We don’t use a comma when
the main clause comes first and the if clause comes second.
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 • If I won the lottery, I’d buy a mansion.
• I’d buy a mansion if I won the lottery.

unless = if (not)

We can also use unless in conditional sentences to mean if … (not)

• I wouldn’t live in a big city unless I had a lot of money.

• = I wouldn’t live in a big city if I didn’t have a lot money.

would, could, might

In the main clause, we can use could or might instead of would.

• If there was a fire, it would be difficult to escape.

• If you were a bit taller, you could be a basketball player.
• We might save enough money if we both worked overtime.

was or were?

In the second conditional we can use if I/he/she/it were (more formal) instead of if I/he/she/it was.

• If I were/was fit, I would run a marathon.

• We wouldn’t have any problems if he were/was more reasonable.

But we use were (NOT was) when we give advice with the expression if I were you.

• If I were you, I would stay home and rest.

• I wouldn’t pay any attention to what he says if I were you.

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First and second conditionals
First and second conditionals – grammar chart

First conditional vs second conditional

We use the first conditional and the second conditional to talk about present or future situations.

We use the first conditional to talk about possible situations, things that may easily happen. We use
the second conditional to talk about unrealistic situations.
61
 • If I see Sara, I’ll tell her to call you. (=possible)
• If I won the lottery, I’d buy a new house. (=unrealistic)

Sometimes we use either the first or second conditional, and we use one or the other depending on
how probable we think the situations are to happen.

• If I find her, I’ll tell her that I love her. (=I think it’s possible that I find her)
• If I found her, I’d tell her that I love her. (=I think it’s improbable that I find her)

62
Third conditional – past unreal situations
Third conditional – table

if clause and main clause

We use if + past perfect to talk about an imaginary or hypothetical situation in the past. And we
use would have, could have or might have + past participle in the main clause to talk about the
result or consequence of that imaginary situation.

• If you had come to class more often, you would have passed the test.
• If he hadn’t taken his helmet, he could have died.
• If the jacket had been a bit cheaper, I might have bought it.

Comma

As with all conditional types, we use a comma after the if–clause when it goes at the beginning of
the sentence, but we don’t use a comma when the if-clause goes at the end.
63
 • If I hadn’t overslept, I wouldn’t have been late.
• I wouldn’t have been late if I hadn’t overslept.

unless

We can also use unless in conditional sentences to mean if … (not)

• I wouldn’t have arrived on time unless I had taken a taxi.

• = I wouldn’t have arrived on time if I hadn’t taken a taxi.

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Indirect speech – reported speech
What is indirect speech or reported speech?

When we tell people what another person said or thought, we often use reported speech or
indirect speech. To do that, we need to change verb tenses (present, past, etc.) and pronouns (I,
you, my, your, etc.) if the time and speaker are different. For example, present tenses become
past, I becomes he or she, and my becomes his or her, etc.

• Sally: ‘I don’t have time.’ ⇒ Sally said that she didn’t have time.
• Peter: ‘I am tired .’ ⇒ He said that he was tired.

Omission of that

We often leave out that after reporting verbs like say, think, etc.

• She said she was late. (=She said that she was late.)
• I thought I would get the job.

say or tell?

The most common verbs we use in reported speech are say and tell. We must pay attention here.
We say tell somebody something, and say something (to somebody).

• They told me (that) they would help me. (NOT They said me they would help me.)
• He said (that) he didn’t have a car. (NOT He told that he didn’t have a car.)

Tense changes in indirect speech

When a person said something in the past and now we tell somebody what that person said, the
time is different, and for this reason, the verb tenses change. Look at a summary of these changes.

¿¿

Changes in expressions

There are adverbs or expressions of time and place that change when we report what someone said.
Here you have a list.

65
¿¿

Questions in indirect speech

We use the normal order of words in reported questions, i.e. the subject comes before the verb, and
it is not necessary to use do or did.

¿¿¿

Imperatives in indirect speech

When we report an order or instruction, we use the form ask or tell someone to do something.
¿¿¿

Pronoun changes in indirect speech

In reported or indirect speech we must also pay attention to the use of pronouns. When a person tells
us something, he or she uses the first person (I, me, my, we, us, our) to talk about himself or herself
and the second person (you, your) to talk about us, the person listening. But when we tell someone
else what that person said, we are going to use the third person (he, she, his, her, etc.) to talk about
the speaker and the first person (I, me, my) to talk about ourselves, the listener.

• ‘I will help you.’ ⇒ He said that he would help me.

• ‘That’s my pen.’ ⇒ She said that it was her pen.
• ‘I need your help.’ ⇒ She said that she needed my help.

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Gerund or infinitive – do, to do, doing
When do we use gerund or infinitive?

When we have to use a verb after another verb, or a certain kind of word, we sometimes use an
infinitive or a gerund. It often depends on the word that comes before. Here you have a list of the
main situations in which we use infinitives or gerunds.

¿¿¿¿

Verbs that take gerund or infinitive with a change of meaning

forget

Forget to do something: Used to talk about things that we need to do, and we forget to do them.

• I think forgot to lock the door when we left.

• Don’t forget to call me when you finish.

Forget doing something: It’s normally used in negative sentences. Used to talk about memories;
normally about things that we did in the past and that we will not forget.

• I’ll never forget walking on that amazing beach for the first time.

remember

Remember to do something: Used to talk about things we need to do.

• He didn’t remember to turn off the heating after class.

• Please, will you remember to close the windows if you leave?

Remember doing something: Used to talk about memories. We remember things from the past.

• I remember eating on this same chair the day I graduated.

• I remember mentioning the issue to Elisabeth last week.

try

Try to do something: When we try to do something, we make an effort to achieve something that we
maybe will or will not accomplish.

• Could you please try to be a bit less rude?

• I’ll try to convince him, but I’m not sure that’s going to change anything.

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Try doing something: Used when we have an objective and we try something as an experiment to
see if it helps us achieve that objective. We try something in order to achieve an objective.

• A: “I need to sleep but I can’t.” B: “Why don’t you try drinking a glass of hot milk?”
• I can’t contact Jane. I’ve tried calling her home number and also on her mobile, but nothing.

stop

Stop to do something: Used when we stop doing an activity so as to start doing a different one.

• We had been driving for hours, so we had to stop to eat something and go to the toilet. (=We
stopped driving in order to eat.)

Stop doing something: It means to finish doing something that we are doing.

• Could you stop biting your nails?

• I need to stop smoking once and for ever.

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much, many, a lot, little, few, some, any, no – quantifiers
much, many, little, few, some, any, no – table

¿¿¿¿¿

many/much

many for countable, much for uncountable in (?) and (-)

We use many before plural (countable) nouns and much before uncountable nouns. We use them
in negative sentences and questions. We don’t often use them in affirmative sentences.

• There isn’t much coffee in the jar.

• Were there many people in the party?

too much/too many, so much/so many

Note that we don’t normally use much/many in affirmative sentences, but we can use too
much and too many or so much and so many in affirmative sentences.

• There’s too much salt in the soup.

• You eat too many biscuits.
• There were so many people that we had to leave.
• He ate so much cake that it made him sick.

how much/how many

We use how many and how much to ask about quantity.

• How many concerts have you ever been to?

• How much coffee have you had today?

a lot of/lots of/plenty of

Before both countable and uncountable

We use a lot of, lots of (more informal), or plenty of before both plural (countable)
and uncountable nouns. We normally use them in positive sentences.

• She spends a lot of time watching TV.

• We had lots of good moments together.
• We’ve got plenty of time.

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of before noun; no of at the end of sentence

We must always use a lot of or lots of including of at the end. However, we can use the
expressions a lot or lots (without of) at the end of a sentence.

• ‘How many beers did you have?’ ‘I don’t know; I had lots/a lot.’
• I like her a lot.
• I don’t want any more cake, thanks. I’ve had plenty.

a) few/(a) little/a bit of

few for countable; little for uncountable

We use (a) few before plural (countable) nouns and (a) little or a bit of (more informal)
before uncountable nouns in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences.

• I have to do a few things this afternoon.

• He always gets good results with very little effort.
• Can you put a bit of sugar in the tea.

few or a few? little or a little?

A few means ‘some but not many; enough’, and a few means ‘some but not much; enough’ .

Few means ‘almost none; not enough’.

Normally, the difference between a few/little (WITH a) and few/little (WITHOUT a) is that a
few/little is positive in meaning, and few/little is negative. Compare:

• There’s little milk in the fridge; we have to buy more. (=Not enough; we need more)
• ‘Shall I buy some beers?’ ‘No, it’s OK, there are a few in the fridge.’ (=Enough; we don’t need
more)
• ‘Do you speak English?’ ‘No, I speak very little English.’ (=Negative)
• ‘Do you speak English?’ ‘Yes, I speak a little English.’ (=Positive)

some/any/no

some in (+) and any in (?) and (-)

We use some in affirmative sentences and any in negative sentences and questions.

• There isn’t any sugar in the cupboard.

• Have you got any new friends?
• I have some questions to ask you.

no in (+)

We use no in affirmative sentences.

• There are no biscuits left.

• I have no questions to ask.
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With both countable (plural) and uncountable

Some, any and no can be used before countable and uncountable nouns. But if we use them
before a countable noun, the noun must be plural.

• Are there any students in the classroom? (NOT Is there any student in the classroom?)
• There are no students in the classroom.

some for offers and requests

We use some (NOT any) in interrogative sentences when we are offering or requesting (=asking for)
something.

• Would you like some help?

• Can I have some tea, please?

none

None is a pronoun. It means ‘zero’. We use it in affirmative sentences as a pronoun to replace

countable and uncountable nouns. This means that it’s not followed by a noun.

• There were three bottles before we left and now there is none.
• ‘How much cake did you have?’ ‘None.’

none of

We can also use none of + noun (countable or uncountable).

• None of the questions were answered.

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72
all, both – quantifiers
all/both – grammar chart

all/all the; both/both (the)

We can use both or both the/my/etc. + noun in the same way to refer to two people or things.

• Both students/Both the students passed the exam.

• They won both matches/both the matches.

We use all + noun (without the) to refer to things/people in general.

• All students hate homework. (all + plural countable nouns)

• All music makes people feel something. (all + uncountable nouns)

We use all + the/my/etc. + noun to refer to particular people or things.

• All the students in my class hate homework. (all the + plural countable nouns)
• All the music I download makes me feel something. (all the + uncountable nouns)

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all (of) the; both (of the)

We can use of in both/all of the/my/Tom’s + noun. But it is often omitted.

• All (of) the students in my class hate homework.

• Both (of the) students passed the exam.

But we cannot use both/all of + noun.

• All/Both of the students passed the exam. (But NOT All/Both of students)

all/both: word order with pronouns

all of us / both of them / etc. (subject)

We can use all/both of + you/us/them before a verb (as the subject of a sentence).

• All of us were at the party.

• Both of them are wrong.

Note that of is necessary; we cannot omit it.

• All of us were at the party. (NOT All us were at the party.)

us all / them both / etc. (object)

We can use you/us/them + all/both after a verb (as the object of a sentence).

• The judge sent them all to jail. (=The judge sent all of them to jail.)
• She loves them both. (=She loves both of them.)

all/both: word order with verbs (mid position)

All and both can be used in mid position. Mid position is:

before the verb.

• We both like going to the cinema. (=Both of us like going to the cinema.)
• They all left without saying goodbye. (=All of them left without saying goodbye.)

after the verb be when it’s the only verb in a sentence.

• The boys were all happy. (=All the boys were happy.)
• The players are both tired. (=Both [the] players are tired.)

after an auxiliary verb, or after the first auxiliary verb if there is more than one.

• They are all going to disappear. (=All of them are going to disappear.)
• The robbers have both been arrested. (=Both [the] robbers have been arrested.)

In questions mid position is after the subject.

• Have they both finished?

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both, either, neither – quantifiers
both, either, neither – grammar chart

We use both, either and neither to talk about two things or people.

both= A and B (the two things or people)

either= A or B (one thing/person or the other thing/person)

neither= not A and not B (zero out of two things or people)

both / either / neither + noun

We can use both/either/neither + noun

• I like both cars.

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 • You can park on either side of the street.
• Neither parent was at the meeting.

Note that we use both + plural noun and either/neither + singular noun.

both (of) / either of / neither of

We can use both (of) / either of / neither of + the/these/my/her/Peter’s/etc. + noun

• Both (of) your parents are really nice.

• Either of those two dates is perfect for the wedding. (=We can choose one or the other)
• Neither of the tennis players had a great game.

Note that we don’t need of after both.

• Both of your parents are really nice. = Both your parents are really nice.

We can use both of / either of / neither of + us/you/them

• Both of them did very well in the exam. (NOT Both them)
• Can either of you give me a coin for the vending machine?
• Neither of us knows the truth.

both / either / neither (without a noun)

We can use both/either/neither alone, without a noun.

• A: Do you speak French or Spanish? B: I speak both.

• A: Do you want tea or coffee? B: Either. I don’t mind.
• A: Which car do you prefer? B: Neither. I think both of them are horrible.

both … and …/ either … or … / neither … nor …

We can say both … and …/ either … or … / neither … nor … to mention the two things or people
that we are talking about.

• She ate both the rice and the meat.

• Both Susan and Peter helped me with my report.
• You need to speak one foreign language, either Spanish or French.
• You can either wait here or go home.
• I like neither maths nor physics.
• He neither called nor texted.

Remember this!

Use either and neither a singular verb.

• Either candidate is good.

• Neither of the candidates is good.

(not) either= neither.

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 • I don’t like either of the options. = I like neither of the options.

The word neither is negative, so we use it with positive verbs.

• Neither John nor Paula can come. (NOT Neither … can’t come.)

We also use the word both with positive verbs. We can only use either with negative verbs.

• I didn’t like either of the pictures. (NOT I didn’t like both/neither of the pictures.)

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78
any, no, none – quantifiers
no, any, none – grammar chart

no/any + noun

We use no + noun in sentenes with a positive verb, and we use any + noun in negatives and
questions. No= not a or not any

• I have no friends.
• I don’t have any friends.
• Do you have any friends?

any without noun

We can also use any as a pronoun, i.e. not followed by a noun.

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 • ‘Is there any milk left?’ ‘No, there isn’t any.’

any in affirmative sentences

We can also use any in affirmative sentences when it means ‘one or some, but it is not important
which’.

• You can come any weekend. (=one weekend; it doesn’t matter which)
• Any idiot would know how to use this phone.

none

We use none as a pronoun, i.e. not followed by a noun. We use none to replace countable or
uncountable nouns.

• ‘How many friends do you have?’ ‘None.’

• I thought there was some coffee, but there’s none.’

We can also use none of the/my/Tom’s/etc. + noun or none of + us/you/them.

• None of my students is/are from France.

• None of them is/are from France.

Note that when None of … is the subject of a sentence, we can use the verb in singular (more
formal) or plural form (more informal).

nothing/anything, nobody/anybody, nowhere/anywhere

We use nothing, nobody, nowhere with positive verbs and anything, anybody, anywhere in
negative sentences and questions. Nothing, nobody, nowhere = not anything, not anybody, not
anywhere

• There’s nothing that we can do. (=There isn’t anything that we can do.)
• Have you seen John anywhere?
• We saw nobody. (=We didn’t see anybody)
• Nothing happened.

anything, anybody, anywhere in affirmative sentences

We can use anything/anybody/anywhere in affirmative sentences to mean ‘it doesn’t matter

what/who/where.’

• We can do anything. (=it doesn’t matter what.)

• Anybody in the school could help us. (=it doesn’t matter who.)
• We can go anywhere. (=it doesn’t matter where.)

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so, such, such a, so much, so many
Grammar chart

so, such

so + adjective/adverb + (that…)

We use so + adjective or adverb

• Why don’t you try to understand. You are so stubborn!

• He gets on my nerves. You drive so slowly.

We often use so + adjective or adverb + (that…)

• He is so good (that) he gets bored when he plays against me.

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 • John drives so slowly (that) other drivers get impatient around him.

such a + (adjective) + noun + (that…)

We use such a + (adjective) + countable singular noun

• I love her. She is such a brilliant actress.

• It was such a party! We had a lot of fun.

We often use such a + (adjective) + countable singular noun + (that…)

• It had been such a terrible day (that) I just wanted to go to bed.

• He is such a liar (that) nobody trusts him any more.

such + (adjective) + noun + (that…)

We use such + (adjective) + uncountable noun or plural noun

• The trip was a disaster. We had such terrible weather!

• Everybody loves being with Tom. He tells such funny stories!

We often use such + (adjective) + uncountable noun or plural noun + (that…)

• We had such terrible weather (that) we decided to go back home.

• She said such nice things (that) we were all moved.

so/such – meaning

We can use so and such to make the meaning of an adjective, adverb or noun stronger
(=’very/really’):

• Why did you do it? You are so stupid!

• He was such a terrible father that now his kids don’t want to be around him.

We can also use so and such to mean ‘like this’:

• Sorry I didn’t call. I didn’t know it was so important for you. (=important like this).
• I don’t understand how you could make such a terrible mistake. (= a mistake like this)

so much/so many + noun

so much + uncountable noun + (that…)

We use so much + uncountable noun

• Did you see her house? I didn’t know she had so much money.
• I wish you wouldn’t spend so much time on the phone.

We often use so much + uncountable noun + (that…)

• She always cooks so much food that we have to throw half of it away.
• There is so much furniture that it’s difficult to walk around the house.

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so many + plural noun + (that…)

We use so many + plural noun

• He couldn’t even walk among so many fans.

• You don’t need to repeat everything so many times.

We often use so many + plural noun + (that…)

• There were so many people at the concert (that) we didn’t really enjoy it.
• She had so many problems (that) she just didn’t know what to do.

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84
Defining and non-defining relative clauses
Defining vs non-defining – grammar chart

Defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses carry essential information, because they identify which thing or person
we are talking about, and they are used without commas.

• This is the music which was used at the show.

• Have they found the prisoner who escaped last week?

We can use that

In defining relative clauses we can use that instead of which or who.

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 • This is the music that was used at the show.
• Have they found the prisoner that escaped last week?

When can we omit who/which/that?

Who/which/that, can be omitted if they are followed by subject + verb

• Can you pass me the box (which/that) I keep in the top drawer?
• You are not the man (who/that) I thought you were.

Non-defining relative clauses

Non-defining relative clauses are used between commas, and they add extra information which
is not necessary to know who or what we are talking about.

• This music, which I really like, was used at the show.

• My sister, who I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.

We cannot use that, and we cannot omit who/which

In non-defining relative clauses (between commas) we cannot use that, and we cannot
omit who/which.

• This music, that I really like, was used at the show.

• My sister, I truly admire, is coming for Thanksgiving.

Defining vs non-defining relative clauses

In a defining relative clause the information is essential to identify who or what we are talking about,
whereas in non-defining relative clauses we just add extra the information, which is not necessary.
Compare:

• My brother who lives in Cardiff is much older than me. (=I have more than one brother and
the relative clause helps identify which brother I am talking about)
• My brother, who lives in Cardiff, is much older than me. (=I have only one brother, so we
don’t need the relative clause to know who I am talking about)

Relative pronouns and adverbs

Here you can see a grammar chart with the relative pronouns and adverbs that we normally use in
relative clauses.

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Common mistakes

Two subjects

When who, which or that is the subject of a relative clause, we don’t use another pronoun or noun
after it, because we can only have one subject (who, which or that).

• I saw a man who was very tall. (NOT: I saw a man who he was very tall.)
• That is the painting that was stolen from the gallery. (NOT: That is the painting that it was
stolen from the gallery.)

that between commas

We cannot use the relative pronoun that in a non-defining relative clause (between commas)

• The victim, who suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident. (NOT, The
victim, that suffered a concussion, said he didn’t remember the accident.)

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88
Question tags – aren't you? don't you?
Function

Question tags are used at the end of statements to turn the statements into questions. We normally
use question tags to check something you think you know or you think is true.

Form

Use the same auxiliary verb as in the main sentence. If there is no auxiliary verb, use do for present
and did for past. And always use a comma before the question tag and a subject pronoun at the end
(I, you, he, she, it, we, you they)

• You are his brother, aren’t you?

• He will be there, won’t he?
• You work here, don’t you?
• Sam used to live in Scotland, didn’t he?

If the main sentence is negative, use a positive auxiliary. If the main sentence is positive, use a
negative auxiliary.

• You like it, don’t you?

• You don’t like it, do you?

aren’t I?

Note when we have an affirmative sentence with I am, the question tag is aren’t I?

• I’m totally wrong, aren’t I?

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90
Clauses of contrast, purpose and reason
Clauses of contrast, purpose and reason – summary table

Clauses of contrast

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although, even though

We can use although/even though at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence followed by a
clause (subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma after although or event though.

• Although/Even though we had a bad game, we won.

• We won, although/even though we had a bad game.

however

We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally use however after a full stop (.) or
a semi-colon (;). However should ALWAYS be followed by a comma.

• We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time.

• We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect.

despite / in spite of

Despite and in spite of are normally followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They can go at the
beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

• Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.

• They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early.

We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.

• We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining.

Clauses of purpose

to + infinitive

The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.

• The student worked hard to pass the test.

in order to/so as to + infinitive

In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing. The
negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.

• We were asked to stay in order to finish the project.

• He left home early in order not to be late.
• Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage.
• They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children.

so that + clause

We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal verb with
this connector. (could, can, would, etc.)

• We left early so that we could park near the centre.

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 • He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the
instructions.

for + noun

We can also use for + noun to express purpose.

• We went to the bar for a drink.

• Would you like to go the the park for a run?

Clauses of reason

When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone did something, we
use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction (as, since, because) or a noun phrase
introduced by because of or due to.

because

We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or at the end of a
sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the
beginning of the sentence.

• We didn’t go because it was raining heavily.

• Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits.

as/since

We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb and can
be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal
expressions, and more common in written than in spoken English.

• The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire
weekend.
• As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter.

because of

We use because of before a noun.

• The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain.

due to

Due to means ‘because of’ although it is more formal. We also use due to before a noun.

• The event was cancelled due to lack of interest.

• I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to their constant arguing.

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Verb + preposition – dependent prepositions
Verbs & prepositions – dependant prepositions

Some verbs are usually followed by a preposition before the object of the verb. These prepositions
are called dependant prepositions. Check the list of some of the most common of these verbs below.

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Adjective + preposition – dependent prepositions
Adjectives & prepositions – dependant prepositions

Some adjectives are usually followed by a preposition. These prepositions are called dependant
prepositions. Check the list of some of the most common of these adjectives below.

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98
Table of grammar contents – B1
Complete list of B1 grammar contents

This is a list of all the grammar topics covered in level B1. But if you want to learn B1 grammar, we
recommend studying the topics in the order that they appear in: Grammar points » B1 Grammar
lessons and exercises.

Present tenses
B1 Present simple or present continuous
B1 Past simple or present perfect?
B1 Present perfect simple and present perfect continuous

Past tenses
B1 Past simple, past continuous, past perfect

Future
B1 Future forms – will, be going to, present continuous

Verb tense reviews

B1 Review of all verb tenses B1

Modals, the imperative, etc .

B1 have to, must, should – obligation, prohibition, necessity, advice
B1 Can, could, be able to – ability and possibility
B1 Modal verbs of deduction – must, might, could, can’t
B1 usually, used to, be used to, get used to

Conditionals, if, wish, etc.

B1 First conditional, future time clauses
B1 Second conditional – unreal situations
B1 First and second conditionals
B1 Third conditional – past unreal situations

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Passive
B1 Passive verb forms
B1 Active and passive voice

Reported speech
B1 Indirect speech – reported speech

-ing and the infinitive

B1 Gerund or infinitive – do, to do, doing

Articles, nouns, pronouns, and determiners.

B1 A(n), the, no article
B1 Reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself
B1 much, many, a lot, little, few, some, any, no – quantifiers
B1 all, both – quantifiers
B1 both, either, neither – quantifiers
B1 any, no, none – quantifiers
B1 Another, other, others, the other, the others

Relative clauses, relative pronouns and adverbs

B1 Defining and non-defining relative clauses

Auxiliary verbs
B1 Question tags – aren’t you? don’t you?

Adjectives and adverbs

B1 Comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs
B1 -ed/-ing adjectives – adjectives from verbs
B1 so, such, such a, so much, so many

Conjunctions and clauses

B1 Clauses of contrast, purpose and reason

Prepositions
B1 Verb + preposition
B1 Adjective + preposition
B1 during, for, while

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