REVIEWER IN EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

THE BIG BANG THEORY AND OTHER THEORIES

Hubble Space
- Large reflecting telescope which is orbiting earth in outer space.

First two elements formed after the Big Bang

- Hydrogen
- Helium

BIG BANG THEORY

- Proponents of the theory were Alexander Friedman and Georges Lemaitre in 1920.
- Around 13.7 billion years ago
- There was a great explosion or expansion
- The expansion sent space, time, matter, and energy in all directions.
- The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
- It is also called expanding universe hypothesis because universe is expanding by accelerating speed.
- The theory that affirm the Universe was created by a great explosion at the beginning of the time.

OTHER THEORIES

INFLATION THEORY
- Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy Albrecht
- Proposed a period of exponential expansion of the universe prior to the more gradual big bang expansion.
- Rapid expansion, the energy density of the universe was dominated by a cosmological constant type of vacuum
energy.
STRING THEORY
- Is consistent with quantum gravity.
- It is able to describe interactions of strings.
M-THEORY
- Suggest that one or both ends of the strings are attached to a sheet on brane.

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM: EARLY THEORIES

DESCARTES’ VORTEX THEORY

RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650)
- A French mathematician and physicist
- Was one of the first proponents of a model on the origin of the Solar System.
- According to his model, the Solar System was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the
whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar materials.
- He explained the orbits of the planets are the primary whirlpool motion and the satellites the secondary
whirlpool motion.
BUFFON’S COLLISION THEORY
- George Louise Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)
- Is a French naturalist in the eighteenth century proposed that the planets were formed by the collision of the sun
with giant comet?
- The resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the same direction as they revolved round the sun.
- Planets were formed from debris after the sun’s collision with a giant comet
KANT-LAPLACE NEBULAR THEORY
- The nebular theory suggested that the great cloud of gas and dust, called nebula, begins to collapse because of
gravitational pull.
- Nebula collapses because of gravitational force and contracts as it spins more rapidly.
- The spinning cloud flattens with bulges at the center. As the collapse continues, the bulges became the sun and
the planets.
JEANS-JEFFREY’S TIDAL THEORY
- Planets are formed from condensed materials from the sun.
- Solar system was formed as a result of condensation of hydrogen gas and dust referred to as interstellar gas or
dust cloud.
- Nebula is interstellar cloud made up of gas and cloud
- Contraction in the dense region of an interstellar gas and dust cloud forms a protostar or protosun.
- proposed that the planets where formed from the substance that was torn out of the sun
SOLAR SYSTEM: PROPERTIES AND CURRENT INFORMATION
- Planets orbit a nearly circular path and revolve around the sun in counterclockwise direction.
- The Solar System comprises the Sun and its eight planets.
- All the planets revolve round the Sun in elliptical orbits
ASTEROIDS
- are made up of rocks and sometimes referred to as minor planets in many ways.
- they are atmosphere-free and they orbit around the sun.
- they tend to congregate in what is known as main asteroid belt
COMETS
- Composed mainly of ice (frozen water and gas) and nonvolatile dust a (silicate minerals and carbon grains).
-The frost line is the distance of the of the solar nebula from the protostar.
-The orbits of all planets are almost in the same place. This means that the solar system is flat.
Planets classified based on their mass, size, and location in the solar system.

The Kuiper belt is often called the Solar System’s ‘’ final frontier’’ because it is at the outermost region of
the solar system
The Kuiper belt, located beyond the orbit of Neptune, is reservoir of short-period comets like Halley’s comet.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANETS
The planets are grouped into two categories based on composition:
- TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
- JOVIAN PLANETS
- TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
- Planets are Earth-like planets, which include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
- They sometimes referred to as inner planets
- They composed mostly of dense, rocky, and metallic materials.

JOVIAN PLANETS
- Planets are Jupiter-like planets which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
- They are referred to as gas planets and are made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLANETS ARE BASED ON THEIR POSITION RELATIVE TO THE

SUN OR EARTH
1. Position relative to the sun
- Inner planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
- Asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter from the boundary between the inner and outer planets.
2. Position relative to Earth
- Inferior planets are located outside the orbit of Earth, which includes Mars, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
- Superior planets are located outside the orbit of Earth, which includes Mars, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
WHY EARTH CALLED BLUE AS PLANET?
- Because it consists mostly of water.
EARTH: HISTORY AND GEOLOGIC TIME
Petrology- is a branch of geology that deals with the origin, composition, structure, and classification of rocks.
Stratigraphy- is the study of rock layers(strata) and layering (stratifications.)
Paleontology- studies the life that existed prior to, or sometimes at the start of, the Holocene epoch.
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING
Relative dating places events or rocks in their chronological sequence or order of occurrence without knowing
the actual age.
The relative order of geologic events can be established by applying the following basic principles.
-Geologic features like faults or igneous intrusion are younger than the rocks as they cut across. This principle
called Principle of cross- cutting relationship
-The age of the dinosaurs happened during Mesozoic era.
-Classification of fossils created when mold fossils get filled with mineral is called Cast fossils.
-Geologist developed the geologic time scale based on the information gathered from the study of the earth’s
structure, composition, and properties.
-The longest eon, almost as long as Earth’s age is called Phanerozoic eon.
- This classification of fossils refers to the hollow impressions of a living thing in a rock is called Mold fossils.
- The method used in absolute dating technique is based on the decay rate of certain radioactive isotopes
within fossils, rocks, and artifacts.
 THE RELATIVE ORDER OF GEOLOGIC EVENTS CAN BE ESTABLISHED BY APPLYING THE
FOLLOWING BASIC PRINCIPLES:
1. Principle of Original Horizontality
2. Principle of Superposition
3. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
4. Principle of Inclusion
The remnant or trace of organisms of a past geologic age is called fossils.
FOSSILS: EVIDENCE OF PAST LIFE
When you visit a natural museum, you will find different types of fossils. They classified based on their
formation.
1. True form fossils- shows a complete structure of an organism.
2. Mold fossils- contain impressions of a living thing in a rock.
3. Cast fossil- when a mold fossil is filled with minerals.
4. Trace fossils- showing foot prints of animals.
The Phanerozoic eon consists of three eras;
1. Paleozoic Era
2. Mesozoic Era
3. Cenozoic Era
During the Paleozoic era many fossils where found in the sedimentary rocks.
Cleavage refers to the mineral’s resistance to being broken
EARTH: STRUCTURE AND SUBSYSTEMS
-The atmosphere is divided into several layers based on temperature: troposphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere
-Layer of the atmosphere that contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere is called troposphere.
- Has ozone layer that protects Earth from the sun’s radiation is called Mesosphere.
OCEAN ZONE
-Oceans may be divided into layers known as zones. The zones may be horizontal or vertical.
- Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to the sea. It consists of the coastal zone and pelagic zone.
1. Coastal zone- is the region in which sea bottom is exposed during low tide and is covered high tide.
2. Pelagic zone- is located seaward of the coastal zone’s low tide mark.
There are two divisions of Pelagic Zone:
- Oceanic zone- lies above the continental shift. It begins from the low tide mark outward from the
seashore and extends to a depth of 200 m. Sunlight penetrates the water. Many sea animals are found in
this zone.
- Neritic zone- extends from the edge of the continental shelf, over the continental shelf, and over the
ocean floor

Vertical zones divide the ocean based on depth, beginning at the sea level to the deepest point in the
ocean. There are five zones. Each zones receives different amount of sunlight.
1. Epipelagic zone or sunlight zone (0-200 m)- is the zone that gets a lot of sunlight, resulting to an
abundance of aquatic plants. Common animals found in this zone include seals, sea turtles, sea lions,
rays, and sharks.
2. Mesopelagic zone or twilight zone (200-1000 m)- is characterized by dim light due to the limited
amount of sunlight it receives. Only plants and Lilly fish, octopus, and squid are found in this
region.
3. Bathypelagic zone or midnight zone (1000-4000 m)- does not receive any sunlight. Animals that
live here lack eyes. Some animals can be found in this area like viperfish, anglerfish, stripe eel, and
tripod fish.
4. Abyssopelagic or abyss (4000-6000 m)- is described as deep sea. Most animals living in this area
are invertebrates like blind shrimps, small squids, and hagfish.
5. Hadalpelagic zone or trenches (6000-bottom)- is the deepest part of the ocean.

How are vertical zones divide the ocean?

-based on depth, beginning at sea level to the deepest point in ocean

BIOSPHERE
- The lithosphere contains the entry of Earth’s living things.
- “zone of life”
BIOMS
- Are the world’s major communities?
 THERE ARE FIVE MAJOR BIOMES:
1. AQUATIC- includes freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, estuaries, etc.). The
aquatic region houses numerous species of plants and animals.
2. FOREST- includes tropical, temperate, and boreal forests, as well as taiga. Each type of forest has
distinctive features dominated by grasses rather than shrubs or trees.
3. DESERT- is characterized by low rainfall (less than 50 cm/year). Most desert have specialized
vegetation as well as specialized animals that can adapt to its condition.
4. TUNDRA- is the coldest of all the biomes. It has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation
structure.

BEST described about water cycle?

- as water vapor rises into the atmosphere, it cools, and then condenses to form clouds.

How are ionized gas formed?

- when ultra violet rays knock off electron from nitrogen and oxygen

The boarder between tectonic plates is called boundary.

Process of Carbon Cycle

- begins with the fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the process of photosynthesis conducted
by plants and microorganisms.
- the carbohydrates produced are directly consumed to supply the plant with energy.
- CO2 generated is released either through plant leaves or plant roots.
The gas that exists in the atmosphere in great amount is hydrogen.
- The presence of oxygen in the early atmosphere is due to splitting of water by ultraviolet radiation.
- The process by which NH3 or NH4 is oxidized into nitrates is called nitrification.
- Ammonia is poisonous and is hazard to health.
- The carbon in their tissues is oxidized to carbon dioxide and returns to the atmosphere.

A minor source of O2 in the atmosphere is the stratosphere or dissociation of water by ultraviolet light in
the outer atmosphere.
- Minor source of molecular oxygen is the dissociation of ozone.
Eutrophication is the condition where the oxygen content of water is reduced due to the growth of
algae.
The Laws of Thermodynamics can be stated as:
1. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed (first law)
2. No transfer of energy is 100% complete (second law)

MOVEMENT OF ENERGY IN THE BIOSPHERE

- The sun is Earth’s major source of energy. When light energy reaches Earth, three things happen:
1. Light is reflected back into space.
2. Light is transmitted through an object.
3. Light energy is absorbed and captured in photosynthesis.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF MACRONUTRIENTS
- Protein
- Fats
- Carbohydrates