1

Pulse, Polytemporal Music and Some Basic Perceptual

Phenomena:

John Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts,

Conlon Nancarrow’s Canon X,

Steve Reich’s Piano Phase

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forme, sistemi e linguaggi musicali – Conservatorio di Musica di Perugia

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Parameters of sound, Pulse, Expectation, and John Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts

...with the advent of computer music, the composer is no longer bound by the constraints of
natural instruments, but is instead faced with an infinity of compositional possibilities. As a
result, the understanding of certain basic perceptual phenomena has become of critical
importance (Deutsch 1999, p.342)

Normal music notation is basically a pitch-time matrix (Fig. 1a).

e
br
tim
z:

y: pitch
y: pitch

a) b)

x: time x: time

Fig. 1 a) a pitch-time matrix, b) a pitch-time-timbre matrix

Until recently, historically speaking, western music has been more focused on the pitch parameter
and its functional use in time, than other sound organizing elements. In spite of the voice's ability to
both create interesting timbres and also transform a sound from one timbre to another, the primary
organizing feature for several hundred years has been pitch against time. Different timbres have
been applied to the voice by means of lyrics, which carry an enitre level of meaning in themselves
whether they are attached to a melody or not. Typically two phrases will end with the same vowel
sound which is a form of timbral organization. In instrumental music however, the limitations in the
pre-computer age have been far more restrictive. Beyond naming an instrumemt in a score, and
possibly a few ulterior instructions (sul ponticello, con sordino etc.), timbre has either been less
interesting (to certain composers) as a sound organizing parameter, and/or less controllable
technologically. Timbre is often analagous to colour1, and the colours available are represented by
the instruments at one's disposal. Each instrument could represent a certain point (or certain
regions) along an imaginary timbre z axis (Fig. 1b). Another way of making this point is to say that,

1 The colour analagy is good up until a certain point. Its main advantage is the lack of proportional relationships
within both colours or timbres. Human vision can sense the frequency of light between 430-770 THz. Within this
range there is no ‘octave’, ‘perfect fifth’ relationship between, for example, red and blue. The same is true for
timbres, however, it seems there are a more conceptually distinct timbres than colours. For example the sound of A
440Hz on a flute, violin, oboe, clarinet, theramin, piano, glockenspiel, voice, recorder, guitar, accordian, bell,
shakuhachi, bagpipes, organ, trumpet, saxophone etc. Each timbre for the same pitch is both perceptually different
and distinct in terms of our recognition of the sound source.

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pitch-based glissando's have been available for centuries, but timbre modulation or morphing, only
since the advent of the computer.

There may be a psychological, rather than a technological, explanation for the preoccupation of
European composers with pitch as a primary means of organizing sound. Pitched sound is often
perceived to be less ‘noisy’, at least in terms of our linguistic categorization of sound, and obviously
sung melody is distinct from normal speech. It is useful, however, to think of the other organizing
features as separate parameters or dimensions (Deutsch 1999, 299) (Fig. 2).

bre
e
y: pitch
y: pitch

a)
m br b)

tim
z : ti spa
ce
z: w:

x: time x: time

Fig. 2 a) pitch-time-timbre parameters, b) pitch-time-timbre-space parameters

The problem here, though, is to think of timbre and the spatial use of sound as possessing the same
importance and functional organizing properties as pitch. Timbre, pitch, and time are not completely
independent elements. Pulse speeds approaching 1/20 of a second tend towards timbral fusion.
Pitched tones, on the other hand, are never really timbre-less in that their waveforms are an integral
part in the perception of both pitch and timbre.

Pulse or a regular series of sonic events in time is important in order to generate musical
expectation (Meyer, [1956] 1961. Clarke, 1999, p. 484). A series of sonic events (at least two)
spaced equally in time will generate the expectation in the listener for the series to continue. In tonal
music the pulse provides a lattice upon which harmony and melody can be placed. Without this
lattice, sonic events cannot be organised hierarchically by the brain. At the meter level two equally
spaced events will generate the expectation for the arrival of the third, and with it’s confirmation a
further prediction of three more equally spaced events will be generated. In the case of Bach’s
keyboard music, there is an abundance of metrically fulfilled expectation which possibly

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contributes to it’s ‘solid’ character. Traditional harmony and composition analysis usually starts
with the music of JSBach, and his music fits very squarely onto the matrix. There is in other words
horizontal melodic material, aligned to vertical harmonic progressions occurring with a regular
pulse and tactus (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 JS Bach’s Fugue in C Major (BWV 846) as seen from a piano roll editor

Expectation as a psychological phenomenon in music (Meyer 1961, ch.2) is also present at larger
scale temporal events. For example the modified repetition of a fragment and it's adaptation the
third time. This is a typical technique used in for example the music of Mozart and Wagner.
Leonard Meyer, having combined Gestalt theory with the ideas of the pragmatists C.Sanders and
J.Dewey, based his theory of musical affect on the idea or fulfilled and denied expectations. The
following examples (Fig. 4 a and b) demonstrate a statement – modified repetition – adaptation
pattern. The interesting question to be asked here is whether this process represents an innate aspect
of human music cognition that is trans-cultural and exists outside a learned musical
‘syntax’(Bernstein 1981, Meyer 1961). For centuries composers have had a tacit understanding of
how to place their harmonic melodic inventions on the pitch-time matrix without ever discussing
the perceptual limits of it. Research in music psychology (MP), however, has provided some
numbers to describe the range within which temporal grouping can occur.

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Fig. 4 a) Third time different examples: R. Wagner's Tristan And Isolde (1859).

Fig. 4 b) Third time different examples: W.A. Mozart's Piano Sonata in C minor K457 (1784)

The minimum interval of time between events before perceivable rhythm occurs is 100ms. At the
other extreme there exists a maximum time interval before event separation, which is about 2.5
seconds – the duration of the perceptual present (McAuley, 2010, p.172). There is much variation in
these numbers within the research, especially the perceptual present or ‘temporal capacity of
working memory’ which may be as long as 5 seconds (Clarke 1999, p.484). These two limits are a
simplification of auditory grouping mechanisms, but they at least provide an approximate idea on
what kind of pulse speeds are possible (Fig. 5).

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A) b)

Fig. 5 a)Maximum pulse speeds - 0.1 second onset b) Minmum Pulse speeds – 5 second onset
intervals – timbral fusion intervals – stimulus separation

John Cage's String Quartet in Four Parts (1960) illustrates the affect of approaching a maximum
slowness point by taking an increasingly slower pulse for each of the first three movements.
Stimulus separation is approached in the third movement, which is essentially what Cage wanted to
achieve in order to make sounds “be themselves” (Cage, [1961] 1973, p.10). The first three
movements of cage’s String Quartet are a good example of perceived speed in music. The tempo
marked for each of the movements is the same, but the onset interval between events is gradually
increased. Musical information (de la Motte Haber 1982, p.65), if ever this were measurable, is
reduced to a minimum in the third movement, which is not merely slow in terms of the space of
time between notes, but approaches a kind of stasis due to the lack of intra-musical function
between events.

Fig. 6 a) J. Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts – [1st Mov.] Quietly Flowing Along

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Fig. 6 b) J. Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts – [2nd Mov.]Slowly Rocking

Fig. 6 c) J. Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts – [3rd Mov.] Nearly Stationary

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Pulse and Atonality

Why the first few hundred years of modern notated music were concerned with pitch groupings
instead of timbre is probably a result of the sound producing technology available in the 1600s and
also the fact that the consonance or dissonance of pitches is a particular feature of the pitch
parameter that isn't present in the other parameters (for example timbre, and space). To what extent
dissonance is subjective is another point to be raised. Whilst disagreements may continue
concerning the nature of musical dissonance (Hindemith [1937] 1945, p.85, Serafine [1983] 1986,
p. 48), it seems clear at least that when sufficient notes with close frequencies within a minor third
(Pierce 1999, p.12) are sounded simultaneously, sonorities or clusters are heard instead of
functional harmonies (Fig. 6).

Fig. 7 a) Chords as sonorities Examples. I. Stravinsky's Le Sacre. (1937),

Fig. 7 b) Chords as sonorities Examples. B. Bartok's Out Doors (1926) Piece 1.

Stacking major 2nds on top of one another and/or avoiding resolution, results in the absence of a
fundamental tone or tonic being perceived. Whether the major 2nd is disonant or not within a
certain historical-cultural milieu may be subjective, however the perceived result is a sonority
which precludes the dominance of a single note.

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The problem then, is understanding what a word like 'atonality' actually means. As exemplified
above clusters used as sonorities can be used in a tonal context, so the problem is not just that there
are different degrees of atonality but also the fact that there have been different ways of
approaching atonality, and consequently different types of atonality. Atonality understood as 'music
lacking reference to a fundamental tone' is too broad a term. From a PoM (Psychology of Music)
perspective the question to ask is whether atonality as a mode of listening exists. The answer is
probably no. Another problem with the word ‘Atonality’ is it's reference to the pitch dimension
rather than the others. Cage’s String Quartet, and for example experimentation with irregularly
spaced chord events (Fig. 8b) seem to suggest that non-tonality or stasis can be achieved by the
irregular temporal organization of ‘harmonious’ chords.

Fig. 8 a) Traditional Shoenberg-ian Atonality in the Seche Kleine Klavierstucke Op. 19 (1911)

Fig. 8 b)'Atonality(?)' resulting from non synchronous chord events spaced irregularly in order to
prevent pulse perception

The point to be made here is that 'a-tactus', 'a-repetition', or 'a-hierarchical' are just as valid terms as
‘atonal’ in the description of music lacking tonality.

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Stream Fusion and Steve Reich’s Piano Phase

The minimalist reaction in the 1960s to total serialism and Cage-ian experimentalism was a
consequence of what could be described as inaudible complexity or the disconnect between
compositional method and the resulting sound. This opinion has been most lucidly voiced by Steve
Reich, who described the situation in Music as A Gradual Process:

John Cage has used processes and has certainly accepted their results, but the processes
he used were compositional ones that could not be heard when the piece was performed.
The process of using the I Ching or imperfections in a sheet of paper to determine
musical parameters can't be heard when listening to music composed that way. The
compositional processes and the sounding music have no audible connection. Similarly,
in serial music, the series itself is seldom audible. (This is a basic difference between
serial—basically European—music, and serial—basically American—art, where the
perceived series is usually the focal point of the work.) (Reich [1968] 2002, p.34)

The music of Reich features slowly evolving processes that are self-evident in the music. No
structure is hidden from the listener, but the consequence of layering short rhythmic or melodic
fragments on top of each other is that human auditory grouping mechanisms become the foreground
of the music. Rather than separation of two melodic fragments in close canon, the human brain
tends towards fusion of the two lines and the interpretation of a resultant pattern. The optimum
condition required for the subjective interpretation of two or more opposing percepts is achieved by
stacking fifths on top of one another (fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Piano Phase (1967)

The subjective interpretation of resultant patterns (fig. 10a-10b) is an audible equivalent of the
ambiguous interpretation of images as a result of competing Gestalt principles namely: proximity,
similarity and good continuation (Deutsch 1999, p.300) (fig. 11a).

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pattern Potential percept

Fig. 10 a) Piano Phase - Section 5 and potential resultant patterns / percepts

pattern Potential percept

Fig. 10 b) Piano Phase - Section 8 and potential resultant patterns / percepts

The most famous visual examples of Gestalt-ian grouping ambiguity are the faces-vase image and
the necker cube (fig. 11b).

Fig. 11 a) Gestalt principles Fig. 11 b) examples of visual grouping ambiguity

Spontaneous switching, between one interpretation and another, is noted by Lerdahl and Jackendoff
(Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.42) who provide a very clear visual analogy in order to describe
competing grouping mechanisms of temporal proximity and (pitch-based) similarity(fig. 12).

Fig. 12 Ambiguous Grouping in Example b. Clearly defined examples of similarity and proximity
grouping in examples a and c.

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The same switching is evident in the subjective interpretation of Reich’s resultant patterns – two
differing percepts cannot coexist simultaneously in the human mind. Reich’s early phase pieces are
in appearance very similar to Diana Deutch’s study of auditory allusions, or the perceptual fusion of
intersecting melodic lines (Deutsch 1999, p. 324). However, Reich was not a pioneer in the use of
resultant patterns as a consequence of intersecting melodic lines. As Deutsch notes in her text on
grouping mechanisms, Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninov also used the technique2 (Deutsch 1999,
p325). Subjectivity is also not exclusive to Reich’s work which, in spite of it’s foreground
prominence in for example Piano Phase, has always existed in music. Reich is/was, however a
pioneer in the intentional use of perceptual ambiguity. Previously composers (in the western
tradition) had preferred a single, preferably, unambiguous interpretation of their music, and
phenomena such as auditory grouping ambiguity have been a secondary curiosity.

Rather than make the usual claim that Reich's work was a new influence on acoustic performance
coming from electronic music, it could be useful to see the deliberate use of perceptual ambiguity as
an influence from the psychology of music on music theory. Subjective perception was essentially
the main theme of Reich’s experimentation with his phaseing technique. Traditional texts on
counterpoint and harmony instruct students on how to achieve independant voice leading, but the
reasons for actually wanting this is completely tied to aesthetics (as in learning how to write in the
style of Bach, and Mozart), and the cognitive processes that make this perceived independance are
never explained3. In the words of Deutsch:

In treatises on music theory, we encounter a number of rules that instruct the student in
the art of composition. Among these are the “law of stepwise progression,”... because
stepwise progression is considered to be in some way “stronger” or “more binding”.
Another law prohibits the crossing of voices in counterpoint. What is left unspecified is
why these percepts should be obeyed: It is assumed that the reader will either follow them
uncritically or recognize their validity by introspection. The findings that we have been
reviewing [in the field of music psychology] provide such laws with rational bases by
demonstrating the perceptual effects that occur when they are violated. This in turn
enables musicians to make more informed compositional decisions. (Deutsch 1999,

2 Tchaikovsky in the beginning of the final movement of his Sixth Symphony (Op. 74), and Rachmaninoff in the
Second Suite for Two Pianos (Op. 17).
3 Although David Huron (Huron, 2001) has demonstrated the basis in perceptual principles of the standard
pedagogical rules.

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p.342)

'Conrrect' or 'incorrectness' in completed harmony exercises, for example, are essentially

aesthetically biased comments, and the rules (developed through centuries of practical experience)
used in the pedagogy, contain a tacit understanding of desired perceptual outcomes.

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Stream Fision and Conlon Nancarrow’s Canon X

Much of Steve Reich’s and Conlon Nancarrow’s work is an exploration of new forms of
counterpoint and canon. Both composers explored ways of writing canon using new technology that
enabled more precise control of tempo. Tape loops, in the case of Reich, or the player piano in the
case of Nancarrow allowed these composers to experiment with poly-tempoarlity. In a certain sense
Reich’s phased patterns are a subversion of canon in that the independence of the voices are no
longer the point of interest in the music. Nancarrow’s, work with the player piano, on the other
hand, shows a step forward in the use of complex rhythms and the more advanced use of prolation
canon. For Reich the affect of small tempo differences were the primary point of interest, whilst for
Nancarrow it was the possiblity of significantly different tempi and in some cases both
simultaneous accelerandos or decelerandos in two or more voices. Nancarrow’s favourite
composers were Stravinsky and Bach, and their influence is clear in his music.

Multiple time streams in music has a long history and the antecedents to Nancarrow’s work are
worth considering. Hemiola (fig. 13a), for example, is a simple 3:2 ratio that implies a multiple time
stream. More complex ratios – 3:4, 4:5, 5:8 etc. - are usually called polyrhythms (fig. 13c), and
higher ratios up to anything imaginable are all possible using a computer (although the limits of
perception and cognition have to be considered at some point). Multiple time steams can also be
implied in a single melodic line through the use of other parameters of sound such as intensity(fig.
13b, examples taken from Dobrian, 2012).

Fig. 13 a) Hemiola Fig. 13 b) Pitch contour vs Dynamic accent

Fig. 13 c) Polyrhythm
The prolation canon, also known as the mensuration canon, is a canon in which the melody
performed in imitation has its rhythmic values augmented or diminished. The technique dates back
at least to the renaissance in for example Johannes Ockeghem’s Missa Prolationum (Dobrian,

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2012). It is used, for example in JS Bach’s Canon a 4 per Augmentationem et Diminutionem at the
end of his Goldberg Variations (BWV 988, 1741). Kyle Gann uses a simple 4:3 ratio to describe the
terminology of tempo canons. In his example the theme of the canon enters in the second voice after
the first three notes of the preceding voice, but at a faster tempo of 4 notes in the time of the other
voice’ three (Gann, 1995).

Convergence
Convergence period point

Echo distance Echo distance

Fig. 14 Kyle Gann’s explanation of a simple mensuration canon
In Nancarrow’s studies for player piano, prolation canon is clearly evident in works such as Study
No. 19 Canon 12/15/20. Study No. 19 is a strict three voice canon with a tempo ratio between the
voices of 12:15:20 (Fig. 15a, morphology diagram taken from Gann, 1995. Vertical lines represent
convergence point). Study 36 is another example with a tempo ratio of 17:18:19:20 (Fig. 15c).
Nancarrow’s most adventurous canon is possibly Study 37 which is a 12 voice canon with each
voice proceeding with a different tempo. In very complex polyphonic, polytemporal work such as
Nancarrow’s Study 37, the effect for e listener is not so much the perception of polyrhythm or
multiple time streams, but the gestural or textural effect produced as a result of simultaneous and
slightly different tempi.

voice 3 voice 2
voice 2
voice 1 voice 1
Fig. 15 a) morphology diagram of Study 19 Fig. 15 b) morphology diagram of Study 21
voice 4
voice 3
voice 2
voice 1
Fig. 15 c) morphology diagram of Study 36

However, for some of Nancarrow’s other canons such as Study No. 19, or Study No. 21 (Canon X),
there is clear perceptual ‘fission’ of the voices. In the literature of PM this might be called the

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phenomenon of ‘perceptual dissociation’ (Deutsch 1999, p. 314). A very special feature of

Nancarrow’s Canon X is the apparent independence of the two voices flowing at different tempi.
The X in the title refers to the tempo intersection of the two voices at the center of the piece (Fig.
15b). Nancarrow carefully designed a point of tempo convergence which occurs at about 1’25’’.
The canon is based on a 54 note melody which is contemporaneously accelerated and decelerated in
the lower and higher voice (respectively).

Fig. 16 Nancarrow’s 54 note row in Study No. 21

The initial tempo proportion of the two voices based on Nancarrow’s time units is 32:3, so based on
this proportion at the start of the piece, the 54 note melody can be ‘heard’ during the 5 notes of the
same melody in the slower voice. Gann’s analysis is more accurate giving the initial speed of the
lower voice at 3.4 notes per second, and the initial speed of the higher voice at 36 notes per second.
The 54 note row provides unity to the piece but the pitch parameter is a secondary feature used in
order to highlight the interesting development of the tempi. Another process happening at the same
time as the incremental tempo changes is the reduction of the note row on each successive repetition
by subtracting the first note each time. The second statement of the row omits the first note and
contains 53 notes, the third statement omits the new first note and becomes 52 notes etc. Evidently
there are at least three processes happening simultaneously in Nancarrow’s Study No. 21 not all of
which are clearly audible as they are in Reich’s early works.

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Conclusions

There have been several defining characteristics of twentieth century music – the coexistence of
different styles (Meyer 1967), the emergence of atonality, the influence of electronic sound
producing technology, the influence of non-western music, the experimentation with new timbres –
however another characteristic or possible consequence of all these things is a new awareness of
music psychology as a solid objective base upon which music exists in the human mind. Rather
than a prescriptive doctrine on how music should be heard or written, research in this field helps
define the perceptual frame within which music resides. It also confirms common sense in that
perception and cognition are analysed using the sound. With some degree of objectivity scientists
can say how a series of tones will be organised by the listener’s brain/auditory system regardless of
compositional, processes, techniques used at the point of composition. However, invoking PdM in
academic environments where music is studied, as a basis for critical thinking is not always
encouraged. Serial and aleatoric compositional techniques can be criticised on the basis that they
are artificially constructed methods of composition in contrast to various versions of tonality or
‘atonality’ that share certain base characteristics grounded in perception and cognition. Making a
statement such as this in regard to the music of historically very important composers such as J.
Cage and P. Boulez is probably very devisive. Fundamentally there exists a problem with words
such as ‘atonality’ which, given that elements of tonality such as consanance, disonance, and
hierarchical grouping are likely to be innate facets of human experience, do not exist in perceptual
terms in the same way that choosing to see our world as a two-dimensional plane instead of a three-
dimensional environment doesn’t normally exist as an option. Hopefully PdM can resolve these
issues by providing a clearer foundation for composition and harmony theory. Expectation, stream
fusion/fision, rhythmic hierarchy, parameter-based similarity grouping are essentially universal and
innate properties of human perception and cognition of music. Though they are presented here in a
very superficial manner, and despite their universal nature, they are either never taught to music
students or only after more culturally specific skills such as, for example, the ability to do four-part
harmony in the style of Bach.

The three works presented here - Cage’s String Quartet in Four Parts, Reich’s Piano Phase, and
Nancarrow’s Canon X have - show 20th century experiments with pulse. Very broadly speaking
Reich’s and Nancarrow’s music explores polytemporality (Dobrian 2012) or the use of multiple

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pulse speeds and the perceptual fission or fusion of note streams. Cage’s String Quartet on the other
hand demonstrates metric hierarchy and it’s disintegration at very low pulse speeds. Nancarrow’s
prolation canons raise the question as to what extent it is possible to perceive multiple time streams
and to what extant independent tempi can be perceived to be independent but also create a viable
musical texture instead of just an inaudibly complex wall of sound. With current computer
technology the control of polytemporal note streams, complex polyrhythms, and hierarchical
rhythmic structures, is much easier compared to the technology available to Reich and Nancarrow
in the 1940-60s. Many of the compositional ideas presented hear, such as polytemporality, or
auditory grouping ambiguity can be easily explored using readily available software such as Max,
Pure Data, or Csound.

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References

Bernstein, L. (1981) The Unanswered Question: Six Talks at Harvard. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
UP (Original publication: 1976)

Cage, J. (1973) Silence. Wesleyan University Press

Clarke, Eric F. (1999) "Rhythm and Timing in Music." The Psychology of Music. Ed. Diana
Deutsch. Second ed. New York: Academic Press

Deutsch, D. (1999) "Grouping Mechanisms in Music." The Psychology of Music. Ed. Diana
Deutsch. Second ed. New York: Academic Press

de la Motte-Haber, (1982) La Psicologia della Musica: Una Introduzione. Italian translation by M.

Macciò and S. Miceli. Bologna: Editografica, Rastignano (Original publication: 1972)

Dobrian, C. (2012) Techniques for Polytemporal Composition. Accessed April 2016

<<http://music.arts.uci.edu/dobrian/polytemporal/TechniquesForPolytemporalComposition.
pdf>>

Gann, K. (1995) The Music of Conlon Nancarrow. Cambridge: Cambrdige University Press

Hindemith, (1945) The Craft of Musical Composition.Book 1, English translation by Arthur

Mendel. New York: Associated Music Publishers. (Original publication: 1937)

Huron, D. (2001) "Tone and Voice: A Derivation of the Rules of Voice-leading from Perceptual
Principles" Music Perception, Vol. 19. No. 1

Lerdahl, F. and Jackendoff, R. (1983). A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press

McAuley, J.D. (2010). Tempo and Rhythm. Music Perception. New York: Springer

Meyer, L. (1961). Emotion And Meaning In Music. University of Chicago Press, London
(Original publication: 1956)

Meyer., L. (1967) Music, the Arts, and Ideas. University of Chicago Press

Pierce, J. R. (1999) “The Nature of Musical Sound” The Psychology of Music. Ed. Diana
Deutsch. Second ed. New York: Academic Press

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Reich, S. (2002). Writings on Music 1965-2000. Oxford University Press.

Serafine, M. L.. (1986) "I Processi Cognitivi Nella Musica" Processi Cognitivi in Musica Ed. L.M.
Lorenzetti, A. Antonietti. (Original publication: 1983)

Scores

Bartok, B. (1954) Out Doors. New York: Universal Edition (Composition 1926) Public Domain in
the US

Cage, J. (1960). String Quartet in Four Parts. Edition Peters

Mozart, W.A. (c.1938) Piano Sonata in C Major K. 457 from Sonaten für Klavier zu zwei Händen
[Urtext]. Leipzig: C.F.Peters (Composition 1784) Public Domain

Reich, S. (1980). Piano Phase. London: Universal Edition (Composition 1967)

Schoenberg, A. (1913) Seche Kleine Klavierstucke Vienna: Universal Edition (Composition 1911)
Public Domain in the US

Stravinsky, I. (1989) The Right of Spring Arranged by The Composer [for two Pianos]. Dover
Publications (Composition 1913) Public Domain in the US

Wagner, R. (N.D.) Tristan And Isolde. Arranged for piano by Richard Kleinmichel. Leipzig:
Breitkopf & Härtel (Composition 1859) Public Domain

Audio Recordings

Cage, John. “String Quartet in Four Parts” Lutosławski • Penderecki • Cage • Mayuzumi - String
Quartets. Deutsche Grammophon 2007. CD

Nancarrow, Conlon. Studies For Player Piano. Wergo 1999. CD

Reich, Steve. Sextet, Piano Phase, Eight Lines. CPO 2007. CD

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