Arid Landforms

Geography with Sandeep Sir
Arid Landforms
Arid lands are in many ways distinctive from humid ones, but there are no
obvious boundaries to separate the two. It also important to understand that some of today‘s
deserts had quite different climates in the geologic past. Parts of today‘s Sahara Desert, for
example, were much wetter just a few thousand years ago than they are today. Thus, in
addition to processes operating today, some desert landscapes we see have also been shaped
by a different set of processes that were at work in the past.
Desert terrain is usually stark and abrupt, unsoftened by regolith, soil, or

vegetation. Despite the great difference in appearance between arid lands and humid, most of
the terrain-forming processes active in humid areas are also at work in desert areas. There
are, however, special conditions found in deserts that do significantly influence landform
development.
Special Conditions in Deserts
Desert landforms are often conspicuously different from those found in wetter
locations. These differences are largely the result of a variety of factors and special
conditions found in arid regions. The most important of these special conditions include the
following:
Weathering: Because moisture is required for nearly all kinds of chemical weathering, in
many desert regions mechanical weathering is dominant—although chemical weathering is
likely to be absent in only the driest of deserts. Mechanical weathering processes such as salt
wedging are more common in arid regions than in humid ones. This predominance of
mechanical weathering results not only in a generally slower rate of total weathering in
deserts, but also in the production of more angular particles of weathered rock.
Soil and Regolith: In deserts, the covering of soil and regolith is either thin or absent in most
places, a condition that exposes the bedrock to weathering and erosion, and contributes to the
stark, rugged, rocky terrain.
Soil Creep: Soil creep is a relatively minor phenomenon on most desert slopes. This is due
partly to the lack of soil but primarily to the lack of the lubricating effects of water.
Creep is a smoothing phenomenon in more humid climates, and its lack in deserts accounts in
part for the angularity of desert slopes.
Impermeable Surfaces: A relatively large proportion of the desert surface is impermeable to

percolating water, permitting little moisture to seep into the ground. Caprocks (resistant
bedrock surfaces) and hardpans (hardened and generally water-impermeable subsurface soil
layers) of various types are widespread, and what soil has formed is usually thoroughly
compacted and often does not readily absorb water. Such impermeable surfaces lead to high
runoff when it rains.
Sand: Some deserts have an abundance of sand in comparison with other parts of the world.
This is not to say, however, that deserts are mostly sand covered. Indeed, the notion that all
Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Page | 1
deserts consist of great seas of sand is incorrect. Nevertheless, the relatively high proportion
of sand in some deserts has three important influences on topographic development: (1) A
sandy cover allows water to infiltrate the ground and inhibits drainage via streams and
overland flow, (2) sand is readily moved by heavy rains, and (3) it can be transported and
redeposited by the wind.
Rainfall: Although rainfall is limited in desert areas, much of the rain that does fall comes
from intense convective thunderstorms—which result in very high and rapid runoff. Floods,
although often brief and covering only a limited area, are the rule rather than the exception in
deserts. Thus, fluvial erosion and deposition, however sporadic and rare, are remarkably
effective and conspicuous.
Fluvial Deposition: Almost all streams in desert areas are ephemeral, flowing only during
and immediately after a rain. Such streams are effective agents of erosion, shifting enormous
amounts of material in a short time. This is mostly short-distance transportation, however. A
large volume of unconsolidated debris is moved to a nearby location, and as the stream dries
up, the debris is dumped on slopes or in valleys, where it is readily available for the next rain.
As a consequence, depositional features of alluvium are unusually common in desert areas.
Wind: Another fallacy associated with deserts is that their landforms are produced largely by
wind action. This is not true, even though high winds are characteristic of most deserts and
even though sand and dust particles are easily shifted.
Basins of Interior Drainage: Desert areas contain many watersheds that do not drain
ultimately into any ocean. For most continental surfaces, rainfall has the potential of flowing
all the way to the sea. In dry lands, however, drainage networks are frequently
underdeveloped, and the terminus of a drainage system is often a basin or valley with no
external outlet.
Vegetation: All the previous environmental factors have important effects on topographic
development, but perhaps the single most obvious feature of dry lands is the lack of a
continuous cover of vegetation. The plant cover consists mostly of widely spaced shrubs or
sparse grass, which provide little protection from the force of raindrops and function
inadequately to bind the surface material with roots.

Page | 2
Fluvial Desert Landforms

Probably the most fundamental fact of desert geomorphology is that running
water is by far the most important external agent of landform development. The erosional and
depositional work of running water influences the shape of the terrain surface almost
everywhere outside areas of extensive sand accumulation. The lightly vegetated ground is
defenseless to whatever rainfall may occur, and erosion by rain splash, sheetwash, rilling, and
streamflow is enormously effective. Despite the rarity of precipitation, its intensity and the
presence of impermeable surfaces produce abrupt runoff, and great volumes of sediment can
be moved in a very short time.
The steeper gradients of mountain streams increase the capacity of these

streams for carrying large loads, of course, but the sporadic flow of mountain streams in arid
lands results in an unpredictable imbalance between erosion and deposition. At any given
time, therefore, much transportable rock debris and alluvium sit at rest in the dry stream bed
of a desert mountain, awaiting the next flow. Loose surface material is either thin or absent
on the slopes, and bedrock is often clearly exposed, with the more resistant strata standing out
as Caprocks and cliff faces.
Where slopes are gentle in an arid land, the streams rapidly become choked
with sediment as a brief flood subsides. Here stream channels are readily subdivided by
braiding, and main channels often break up into distributaries in the basins. Much silt and
sand are thus left on the surface for the next flood to move, unless wind moves them first.
Badland, pediments, bajadas and playas are special types of landforms of arid and semi-arid
regions caused by mechanical disintegration of rocks and water action.
1. Badland Topography:
The regions of weak sedimentary formations are extensively eroded by

numerous rills and channels which are occasionally developed due to occasional rainstorms.
The linear fluvial erosion results in the formation of ravines and gullies which are divided by
numerous undulating narrow ridges. Thus, the ground surface becomes so uneven and
corrugated due to numerous gullies and ravines that it becomes entirely difficult to walk on it.
Such type of landscape is called badland topography.
2. Bolsons and Playas:
The intermountain basins in arid or semiarid areas are generally called Bolsons. Such basins
are characterized by 3 unique landforms which from the mountain front downward are
pediments, bajadas and playas. Numerous ephemeral streams after originating from the
surrounding mountain fronts drain into the Bolsons. Some water collects in the centre of is a
playa in the centre of the Tarim Basin.
The playas range in areal extent from a few square metres to tens of square
kilometres. These are called ‗khabari‘ and ‗mamlaha‘ in Arabian deserts while they are
known as ‗shafts‘ in Sahara. Playa lakes may last for days, weeks or even longer before they

Page | 3
are completely dried up by evaporation. Evaporation of playa lake water results in the
formation of encrustation of alkaline materials (sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate),
salt deposits such as borax. Such salt-covered playa beds are called salinas.
3. Bajada:
Gently sloping depositional plain between pediments and playa is called bajada. Bajada is
formed due to coalescence of several alluvial fans. Thus, bajada is a wholly depositional
feature. The slope in its upper part ranges between 8° and 10° but it becomes 1° to zero in its
lowermost portion touching the playa.
4. Pediments:
Pediments situated between mountain front and bajada in intermontane basin

are broad, extensive, and gently sloping areas of rock cut surfaces which spread as aprons
around the bases of mountains. The term (pediment) was first used by G.K. Gilbert (1882) for
the surfaces of the alluvial fans that encircle mountains in deserts.
According to Kirk Bryan (1922) ‗pediments are slopes of transportation cut on

bedrock, usually covered with a veneer of alluvium in transit from high to lower levels. In
form and function, a pediment is similar to an alluvial fan, the difference being that a
pediment is an erosional landform and a fan is constructional‘ (A. Bloom).
It may be pointed out that pediments are now not considered to be confined
only to the arid and semiarid regions rather they are found widely in tropical and temperate
climate. A true pediment represents rock cut surfaces of mountain side.
This feature is, in fact, a slope of derivation or transportation as thin veneer of

debris also moves through this surface down the slope. These bare rock surfaces extend for
several kilometres in length. The general gradient ranges between 1° – 7°. Several theories
have been postulated to account for the development of desert pediments.

Page | 4
1. Lawson’s Recession Theory:
According to A.C. Lawson (1915) pediments are developed because of

gradual recession of mountain front caused by weathering and erosion. Due to back wasting
of mountain front through mechanical disintegration of rocks and consequent Aeolian and
fluvial erosion mountain front is subjected to gradual recession. This process results in the
formation of more and more smooth rock-cut plains.
As the mountain front recedes debris is deposited in the lower segment of the pediment and
thus the alluvial deposits in the form of alluvial fans extend upslope on the pediments. Thus,
the thickness of the veneer of deposits also increases. Pediments are exhumed due to removal
of deposits under the impact of diastrophic movements. The thin cover resting on the
pediment may also be removed through climate changes or from long continued aeolian
deflation
2. Sheet-Flood Theory of McGee:
According to W.J. McGee (1897) pediments are formed due to erosion of

weathered bedrocks by sheet-floods originating from occasional torrential rainfall in deserts.
The eroded materials are transported downslope and are deposited as bajadas. The advocates
of this concept do not attach any importance to lateral erosion in the development of
pediments because, according to them, concave surface of pediments cannot be formed by
lateral erosion. The critics maintain that sheet-floods may have ancillary influence on
pediments once they are formed but they cannot initiate the formation of pediments.
3. Lateral Erosion Theory:
G.K. Gilbert attributed the formation of pediments to lateral corrasion by

streams. Later on S. Paige (1912), Eliot Black-welder (1931), D.W. Johnson (1932), Berkey,
Morris etc. also advocated for lateral erosion by streams as powerful mechanism of pediment
formation.

Page | 5
According to D.W. Johnson there are 3 zones along the mountains encircling an
intermontane basin viz.:
(i) Inner zone,

(ii) Outer zone, and
(iii) Intermediate zone
Inner zone represents the mountain front where down-cutting (vertical

erosion) by streams is most active. This zone is, thus, zone of degradation. Outer zone
represents the lower segment which extends upto the margin of the intermontane basin
(playa). In fact, this zone is characterized by deposition to form bajada. This zone, thus, is the
zone of aggradation.
Intermediate zone represents the zone between degradational zone (inner zone) and
aggradational zone (outer zone) where lateral erosion is most active. This zone is also called
as zone of pedimentation. The formation of pediment is initiated by active down-cutting of
inner zone resulting into rapid rate of erosion of mountain front. The eroded materials are
removed and deposited by ephemeral streams resulting from occasional strong rainstorms in
the basins.
Thus, several alluvial fans are formed on the lower segments of hillslopes.
These alluvial fans gradually coalesce to form bajadas. Gradually, the streams are graded
and braided in the intermediate zone. Rock fans are formed in the intermediate zone due to
lateral erosion by the steams. These rock fans gradually extend to become pediments.
4. Composite Theory:
It may be mentioned that the above mentioned theories of pediment formation

are based on the mechanism of mono-geomorphic process. On the other hand, some
geomorphologists have opined that pediments are formed by more than one geomorphic
process. For example, Kirk Bryan, W.M. Davis, R.P. Sharp, James Giluly, J.L. Rich, W.H.
Bradley, L.C. King, T.J.D. Fair etc., have pleaded for composite origin of pediments.

Page | 6
(i) Kirk Bryan (1923) has postulated that pediments are developed in three ways viz.:
1. due to lateral erosion by streams coming out from the mountain front,
2. due to erosion of foothill zones by rills, and
3. due to disintegration of mountain fronts under the impact of mechanical weathering.
(ii) According to W.M. Davis (1938) first the mountain front is disintegrated due to
mechanical weathering and then the weathered materials are transported downslope by sheet-
floods. These twin processes cause gradual recession of mountain front and consequent
development of rockcut pediment surface. It is evident that Davis‘ concept involves the views
of A.C. Lawson (recession of mountain front) and McGee (sheet-flood erosion) for the
development of pediments.
(iii) According to R.P. Sharp (1940) lateral erosion, weathering and rill wash play their
relative roles in the development of pediments. According to him the pediments of Nevada
(USA) owes their existence 40 per cent to rainwash.
Arid Cycle of Erosion

William M. Davis considered the arid cycle as a modification imposed upon
the humid cycle. Davis‘ ideal arid cycle exists in a desert, especially in western USA. Davis
found a few significant differences between the cycle in arid regions and humid regions, viz.,
differences in the manner of runoff, maximum relief in youth rather than in mature stage,
relief decreasing as the cycle progressed, consequent drainage flowing into enclosed basins
with few antecedent streams, highlands actively dissected in youth and basin aggradation,
lack of continuous streams resulting in local base levels of erosion and continuous upliftment
of local base levels mainly due to basin aggradation.
1. Initial Stage:
The initial stage of arid cycle of erosion of mountain-grit deserts is

characterized by extremely dry climate (mean annual rainfall less than 25 cm), upliftment of
deserts by folding or faulting, development of intermontane basins, initiation of inland and
centripetal drainage etc. Initially, the intermontane basins (of tectonic origin) have their
independent drainage system and there is no drainage communication among the basins. The
centres of isolated intermontane basins become base level of erosion. Evaporation is very
active. Playa is formed due to accumulation of some water in the centre of the basins.
Nearly all of the streams are consequent and drain into the enclosed basins.
The cycle of erosion begins with the degradation of mountains and filling (through
sedimentation) of the basins.

Page | 7
2. Youth Stage:
Erosion and deposition both go hand in hand and thus the initial reliefs are
gradually reduced because of erosion of the mountains and filling of the basins. The water
divides are gradually narrowed and lowered because of backwasting and downwasting
respectively. The lower segments of hillslopes are more vigorously dissected by rill and gully
erosion caused by occasional rainstorms.

Page | 8
It is evident that there are two zones of geomorphic significance viz.: (i) Zone of
degradation on higher lands, and (ii) Zone of aggradation (of the basins).
Alluvial fans are formed at outer margins of the enclosed basins. Bajadas are
formed due to coalescence of several alluvial fans. Deflation by wind becomes active
whenever loose sands are available. Deflation causes smaller depressions known as blowouts.
Playa Lake is formed in the centre of the basin. Some sand dunes are formed here and there
along the margins of playa. Relief is remarkably reduced by the end of youthful stage.
3. Maturity Stage:
Relief decreases rapidly because of progressive erosion of mountain divides

and filling of enclosed basins. The progressive recession of water divides increases the size of
enclosed basins. The level of these basins also rises because of gradual sedimentation.
Bajadas are further enriched, widened, and extended upslope. Extensive rock-cut pediments
are formed between the receding mountain fronts and bajada zone. Mountain divides are
breached due to their progressive recession.
This process leads to the integration of basins and drainage system. The higher
basins become tributary to the lower basins as the water of the former is drained into the
latter by the streams which have breached the divides between them. Deflation of sands by
winds becomes more active. This process causes the formation of bare surfaces-desert
pavements.
4. Old Stage:
All the highlands are reduced to almost plain surface of very low height.
Numerous residual hills project above the general flat desert surface. These low hills known
as inselbergs or bornhardts look like islands in the vast deserts. Deflation of sands by wind is
most active. Several pediments are coalesced and form extensive pediplains.

Page | 9
Aeolian Landforms
The irrepressible winds of the desert create spectacular sand and dust storms
and continuously reshape minor details of the landscape. However, the effect of wind as a
sculptor of terrain is very limited, with the important exception of such relatively
impermanent features as sand dunes.
Aeolian processes are those related to wind action (Aeolus was the Greek god
of the winds). They are most pronounced, widespread, and effective wherever fine-grained
unconsolidated sedimentary material is exposed to the atmosphere, without benefit of
vegetation, moisture, or some other form of protection—in other words, in deserts and along
sandy beaches.
Aeolian Erosion
The erosive effect of wind can be divided into two categories: deflation and abrasion.
Deflation:
Deflation is the shifting of loose particles as a result of their being blown

either through the air or along the ground. Except under extraordinary circumstances, the
wind is not strong enough to move anything more than dust and small sand grains, and
therefore no significant landforms are created by deflation. Sometimes a blowout, or
deflation hollow, may be formed this is a shallow depression from which an abundance of
fine material has been deflated. Most blowouts are small, but some exceed 1.5 kilometres (1
mile) in diameter. Along with fluvial erosion, deflation is also a factor in the formation of a
reg surface.
Abrasion:
Aeolian abrasion is analogous to fluvial abrasion, except that the aeolian

variety is much less effective. Whereas deflation is accomplished entirely by air currents,
abrasion requires ―tools‖ in the form of airborne sand and dust particles. The wind drives
these particles against rock and soil surfaces in a form of natural sandblasting. Wind abrasion
does not construct or even significantly shape a landform; it merely sculpts those already in
existence. The principal results of aeolian abrasion are the pitting, etching, faceting, and
polishing of exposed rock surfaces and the further fragmenting of rock fragments. Rocks so
faceted by such wind ―sandblasting‖ are called ventifacts.
Aeolian Transportation
Rock materials are transported by wind in much the same fashion as they are
moved by water, but less effectively. The finest particles are carried in suspension as dust.
Strong, turbulent winds can lift and carry thousands of tons of suspended dust. Some
dust storms extend for hundreds of meters above Earth‘s surface and may move material
through more than 1600 kilometres (1000 miles) of horizontal distance.

Page | 10
Wind transport encompasses four processes – saltation, reptation, suspension,

and creep.
1. Saltation. Sand grains bound, land, and rebound, imparting renewed impetus to other sand
grains. Such motion is confined to short distances and heights of about 2 m.
2. Reptation. On hitting the surface, saltating grains release a small splash-like shower of
particles that make small hops from the point of impact. This process is reptation.
3. Suspension. Particles of silt and clay lifted into the atmosphere become suspended and
may be carried great distances. Sand particles may be lifted into the lower layers of the
atmosphere, as in sandstorms, but will fall out near the point of take-off. Dust particles may
be carried around the globe. Dust storms may carry 100 million tonnes of material for
thousands of kilometres. A dramatic dust storm, which carried an estimated 2 million
tonnes of dust, engulfed Melbourne, Australia, on 8 February 1983 (Raupach et al. 1994).
4. Creep and related near-surface activity. Coarse sand and small pebbles inch forward by
rolling and sliding with the momentum gained from the impact of jumping sand particles and
down the tiny crater-slopes produced by an impacting particle. This movement is
called surface creep.
It should be stressed that saltation is the key process. Once saltation cuts in, it
powers all the other processes, especially creep and reptation. Even the entrainment of fine
particles destined to become suspended is mainly induced by jumping grains. The dividing
line between saltation and suspension appears to lie at about particles of 100 micrometres
diameter. Particles smaller than 100 micrometres have fall velocities lower than the upward
velocity of the turbulent wind and so stay in the air until the wind abates, which may be
thousands of kilometres from the point of entrainment. Indeed, dust particles can be
carried around the world (in less than 80 days!). Dust is a somewhat loose term but can be
taken as a suspension of solid particles in the air (or a deposit of such particles, familiar to
anyone who has done housework). Most atmospheric dust is smaller than 100 micrometres
and a large portion is smaller than 20 micrometres.

Page | 11
Aeolian Deposition
Wind moves much sediment around the globe, although by no means so much
as the sediment moved by rivers. Some of this sediment, representing 10 per cent of that
carried by rivers, is delivered to the oceans. The rest falls on land.
Wind deposition may take place in three ways (Bagnold 1941): (1) sedimentation, (2)
accretion, and (3) encroachment.
Sedimentation occurs when grains fall out of the air or stop creeping forward.
For sand grains, this happens if the air is moving with insufficient force to carry the grains
forwards by saltation or to move other grains by creep. For silt and clay, this happens if
particles are brought to the ground by air currents or if the air is still enough for them to settle
out (dry deposition), or if they are brought down by rain (wet deposition). Wet deposition
appears to be significant where dust plumes pass over humid regions and out over the oceans.
It is the main process bringing down Saharan dust in the Mediterranean region (Löye-Pilot
and Martin 1996). Wet deposition may give rise to blood rains and red rains.
Accretion occurs when grains being moved by saltation hit the surface with
such force that some grains carry on moving forward as surface creep, but the majority come
to rest where they strike. Accretion deposits are thus moulded by the combined action of
saltation and surface creep.
Encroachment takes place when deposition occurs on a rough surface. Under

these conditions, grains moving as surface creep are held up, while saltating grains may move
on. Deposition by encroachment occurs on the front of a dune when grains roll down the
surface and come to rest. Coarse grains are often associated with erosional surfaces, as the
fine grains are winnowed by the wind. Fine grains tend to occur on depositional surfaces.
Coarse particles may also move to the ground surface from below.
Types of aeolian land features
On the basis of the two major actions of wind, aeolian landforms are classified
into two broad categories — erosional and depositional aeolian features
Aeolian erosional land features
Wind erodes in two ways, one: it picks up lose particles and removes them to
create depressions. Secondly, wind attacks rocks with sand particles and destroys weak rock
beds. The following are the features formed by these actions.
1. Lag Deposits:
While blowing over a surface, wind removes all unconsolidated fine particles.
Those with less than 100 micrometres diameter are suspended and are taken to long
distances. Those particles that are of 100 micrometres diameter, like sand, are removed
gradually to short distances. The larger ones are left at their place of origin and keep rolling
and shifting their place till they are tightly packed by this random jostling. These surfaces are

Page | 12
called ‗lag deposits‘, because the surface is made of particles that could not keep pace with
the rest of smaller ones moving out and ‗lagged behind‘. They are also known as ‗desert
pavement‘ as the grains are fitted tightly, just like any man-made tiled pavement surface. The
top of these desert pavements are polished by wind abrasion and have a thin shiny layer of
oxides of iron and manganese, called desert varnish. These lag deposits have different names,
e.g., desert armour in North America, serir, reg and hammada in the Arab world and gibber in
Australia.
2. Deflation Hollow:
As the name suggests, these are low-lying surfaces which have been cleared of
all loose particles and converted into hollows. The size of these depressions may range from a
few metres in diameters and depth, to several kilometers. The dimension, especially the
depth, is controlled by the underground water table. As deepening reaches humid layers close
to the water table, wind fails to move the moist particles and no further hollowing is allowed.
These are also known as blowouts. E.g. Quattara Depression in North Egypt, which has its
deepest part 134 metres below the sea level.
The process involved in their formation essentially shows alternation of wet

and dry periods. During the wet period, moisture helps in destruction of rocks due to agents
of weathering. Unconsolidated rock grains created during this period are later transported by
wind during the dry phase of the cycle. Repetition of the two phases gradually enlarges the
depression.

Page | 13
3. Pans
Pans are closed depressions that are common in many dryland areas and that
seem to be at least partly formed by deflation. In size, they range from a few metres wide and
only centimetres deep, to kilometres across and tens of metres deep. The largest known pan,
which was discovered in eastern Australia, is 45 km wide. Pans are prominently developed in
southern Africa, on the High Plains of the USA, in the Argentinian pampas, Manchuria,
western and southern Australia, the west Siberian steppes, and Kazakhstan (Goudie 1999).
They sometimes have clay dunes or lunette dunes
formed on their leeside that are composed of sandy, silty,
clayey, and salty material from the pan floor. The
presence of a lunette is a sure sign that a pan has suffered
deflation. The evolution of pans is a matter of debate.
A uniquely aeolian origin for pans is disputable. Recent

research indicates that a range of processes may lead to
pan formation. Deflation may top the list, but excavation
by animals and karst-type solution may play a role in
some cases. Pan formation appears to run along the
following lines (Goudie and Wells 1995). First, certain
environmental conditions are prerequisites to pan
formation. Low effective precipitation and sparse
vegetation cover are the main necessary conditions, but
salt accumulation helps as it curbs vegetation growth.
Second, the local ground surface and sedimentary cover
must be susceptible of erosion. Vulnerable materials
include sands and sandstones, clays and shales, and
marls. These materials are susceptible only where more than a thin layer of a resistant deposit
such as calcrete does not cap them. Once an initial depression is created, several processes
may assist its growth. Deflation is the chief process but it may be enhanced by animals‘
overgrazing and trampling the ground and by salt weathering, which may attack bedrock. A
depression will not continue to grow unless it is protected from fluvial processes by being
isolated from an effective and integrated fluvial system. Such protection may be afforded by
low slope angles, episodic desiccation and dune encroachment, dolerite intrusions, and
tectonic disturbance.

Page | 14
4. Yardang and Zuegen:
Yardangs are elongated grooves, first described by Hedin in Turkestan

(Thornbury p.299). Eliot Blackwelder used the term ‗Yardang‘ for these grooves in 1934.
These are parallel ridges separated by parallel ‗u‘-shaped grooves, both developed in the
direction of dominating wind flow in the region. They are called Mega-Yardang when they
are large in scale. In central Sahara and Egypt Yardangs are 100 metres long and 1000 metres
wide.
It is believed that formation of Yardangs is initiated by some conditions that

favour differential wind erosion. Some believe that initial depressions are made by the
erosive action of water, and are later enlarged by wind deflation and abrasion. Arthur Bloom
has given the example of such narrow parallel gullies in the cold desert of the central Andes.
Here the gullies are cut along the joints that run parallel to the strong winds. Such initial
grooving is mostly held responsible for evolution of Yardangs everywhere. The feature itself
is considered ‗dynamic‘, that is, Yardangs are both destroyed and made continuously.
Zuegen (singular Zuege) – These are similar to Yardang, except they are smaller in scale
and grooving is related to softer material alternated with more resistant rock beds.
5. Ventifacts:
Ventifacts are rock pieces with smooth, sand-blasted facets pointing to the
direction of dominant wind flow. Sometimes there may be several such facets developed on a
rock, indicating varying wind direction. All facets in this type of case intersect along sharp
and angular edges. The number of edges or keels they carry is sometimes connoted by the
German terms Einkanter (one-sided), Zweikanter (two-sided), and Dreikanter (three-sided).
The pyramid-shaped Dreikanter are particularly common.

Page | 15
Dreikanter
Besides the above main landforms other features that result from near-surface
abrasion by sand laden winds are mesa, butte and mushroom rocks. These are formed when
the base of a rock projection is eroded while the top is untouched by wind action, or is
protected by some harder rock. Weak rock beds are eroded while harder beds stand out.

Page | 16
Aeolian depositional land features
All particles transported by wind are ultimately dropped under two conditions
– one, if the velocity of wind drops; or two, if the wind meets an obstacle in its path.
Different circumstances lead to formation of different landforms. Most important of these are
sand dunes. Besides these, sand ripples and sand ridges cover vast areas. Bagnold has
classified all depositional features into two broad classes on the basis of scale
1. Sand dunes:
Sand dunes are defined as hills and mounds of sand. They have a large variety
and are classified on different bases. Bagnold defines dunes as ―mobile heap of sand whose
existence is independent of either ground form or fixed wind obstruction‖. His classification
mentioned only two types – barchans (transverse dune) and seif (longitudinal dune).
Dune formation – All dunes have more or less similar morphology and require similar ideal
conditions. When wind meets an obstacle, it slows down and leaves some of the transported
sand on the windward side of the obstacle. Gradually this deposition adds height to the
evolving dune. When the crest of the deposit gains the maximum height possible under the
available supply of sand and wind velocity, and the front becomes too steep, particles begin
to slip forward and the leeward slip-face slope slumps. At this stage two simultaneous
processes shape the dune. One, on the windward side sand particles arrive and move up the
slope by creeping action; two, the leeward side keeps slumping and wind eddies remove lose
particles from the dune. It is to be noted here that sand particles can achieve stability only on
a surface with a slope of 34 degrees or less. As soon as the slope exceeds this critical point

Page | 17
sand becomes unstable and shows a tendency to roll down. This critical angle is called the
‗angle of repose‘ for sand, and plays an important role in all aeolian features. The processes
active on windward and leeward sides continue, and gradually the dunes move towards the
slip-face side. The balance between incoming sand on the windward side and the sand
removed by eddies from the slip face, maintains the size of the dune as it moves ahead.
Strong winds may add bulk to the dune, while gentle winds only rearrange its mass.
Barchan – Barchans are crescent shaped dunes. They are either single or may form groups.
They migrate in the downwind direction, but maintain their shape as they move. They have
the following distinct characters
 Slip-face, it is a downwind steep slope, across which sand particles roll down when
steepness is more than 34 degrees.
 Gently sloping windward slope, that receives fresh amount of sand. Sand here is
compacted and not loose.
 A sharp lip marking the meeting line of the two slopes.
 Two limbs or horns gradually tapering and pointing downwind.
 They develop on rocky or lag deposit surfaces.
 Their height ranges from 0.5 to 100 metres.
 Their width ranges from 30 to 300 metres.
 They form under unidirectional winds.
 They can move at a rate of 40 metres per year.
 When several barchans join their horns they form transverse dunes

Page | 18
Seif – Seif is a linear dune with its axis aligned parallel to the prevailing strong winds. Its
crest runs along its length and is marked by a sharp edge, hence it is also called sword dune.
There are several theories to explain it. One theory believes that seif is a result
of bi directional wind pattern. ―The longitudinal or seif dune occurs when the wind regime is
such that the strong winds blow from a quarter other than that of the general drift of sand
caused by the more persistent gentle winds‖ – Bagnold.
Seif is formed when gentle winds collect sand to form a normal, crescent-shaped dune, which
is intermittently disturbed by strong winds, and the shape and mass of initial dune is
modified. The two winds take turns to develop a seif in the following stages:
 Steady gentle wind forms a dune with two horns.

 When the seasonal strong wind approaches it adds a lot of new sand to the windward
limb b and disturbs the balanced growth of the two horns.
 Again, during the gentle-wind phase, development and arrangement of all sand is
aligned parallel to the wind flow. Thus b‘ is created.
 Alternatively, the seasonal wind again works on the windward side of the dune and
adds more supply to b‘‘ and pushes it to the lee of its flow.
 The two winds work on the seif turn by turn, but the axis of the dune is controlled and
kept parallel to its flow by the gentle wind, giving it a linear shape.
 Slip face on a seif is always to the lee of the prevailing wind; therefore it changes
according to the changes in the wind direction. In general, the slip face runs on the
two sides of the crest parallel to the axis of the dune.
Seif dunes have several summits; their number depends on the height of the
seif. In lower seifs summits may be as close as 20 metres, while on higher seifs summits may
be 500 metres apart. These dunes are capable of maintaining their straight alignment to winds
for several kilometres. They can run across low cliffs or moderate depressions without losing
their straightness.

Page | 19
Other important types of dunes are:
Parabolic dunes – These are typical of moist regions like the sea shore. In these dunes,
the horns of the crescent are fixed, because shallow sand in horns allows vegetation
growth, which stabilizes the sand. The higher, dry, central part of the dune keeps moving
forward in the downwind direction. The shape of parabolic dune looks like an inversion
of barchans, as its horns point towards the windward direction.
Star dune – These dunes are formed in multi-directional wind regions. They have several
limbs joined along a crest. Star dunes are fixed and have been at one site for several years.

Page | 20
2. Sand ripples
Ripples are small-scale aeolian features. They are 1 to 30 centimetres high and a few
centimetres to some metres apart. The develop perpendicular to the wind direction. Their
shape changes very quickly.
3. Sand ridges
Ridges are long, undulating aeolian features parallel to the wind direction. The
main process responsible for their formation is saltation. In the beginning there are windward
and slip-face activities, just like in the formation of sand dunes. Particles on the leeward side
are protected from impact of the wind. The depression continually gets deeper as particles are
removed from here rapidly. Due to saltation, large grains are pushed up along the windward
slope to the crest of feature. The crest receives grains faster than it loses them. On the other
hand, depressions lose grains faster than they receive, and hence get hollowed.
4. Whalebacks, Dunefields and Sand Sea:
Whalebacks are ―Coarse grained residues or platforms built up and left

behind by the passage of a long-continued succession of seif dunes along the same path‖ –
Bagnold

Page | 21
Chains of transverse and seif dunes, barchans and other small scale features develop on these
whalebacks to make dunefields.
Dunefields:
Dunefields are accumulations of sand, occupying areas of less than 30,000

km2 with at least ten individual dunes spaced at distances exceeding the dune wavelength
(Cooke et al. 1993, 403). They contain relatively small and simple dunes. They may occur
anywhere that loose sand is blown by the wind, even at high latitudes, and there are
thousands of them. In North America, dunefields occur in the south-western region, and in
intermontane basins such as Kelso and Death Valley, California.
Sand seas differ from dunefields in covering areas exceeding 30,000 km2 and
in bearing more complex and bigger dunes. In both sand seas and dunefields, ridges or
mounds of sand may be repeated in rows, giving the surface a wavy appearance.
5. Sand Shadow – Formation of this feature dependents on the presence of an obstacle in the
path of the wind. The velocity of wind dips in the lee of such an obstacle, while the flow
circumventing the obstacle maintains its force. As a result, weak flow fails to remove any
sand particle that arrives in the leeward side of the obstacle; this allows sand to collect and
form a depositional feature called Sand Shadow of the obstacle. It is formed close to the
obstacle in its shelter.
6. Sand Drift – This feature is related to presence of gaps in landforms that allow wind to
blow as a channelized strong stream. In such cases, the rest of the landform obstructs wind
and transportation of sand while the gap allows unobstructed flow. All sand accumulating
against such obstacles is directed to the gap and moves forward through it. Close to the gap
there is no deposition because here the force of channelized wind is strong and transports its
entire load. As wind moves farther from the gap and loses its force, it drops the sand it is
carrying. Right in the line of the gap a mound builds up. Later this mound forces the wind to
slow down and deposit more sand here.

Page | 22
7. Loess
Loess is very fine soil that wind has transported and deposited in thick layers
far away from the place of its origin. Loess is terrestrial sediment composed largely of
windblown silt particles made of quartz. It covers some 5–10 per cent of the Earth‘s land
surface, much of it forming a blanket over pre-existing topography that may be up to 400 m
thick. On the Chinese loess plateau, thicknesses of 100 m are common, with 330 m recorded
near Lanzhou.
To form, loess requires three things: (1) a source of silt; (2) wind to transport
the silt; and (3) a suitable site for deposition and accumulation (Pye and Sherwin 1999).
Loess is easily eroded by running water and possesses underground pipe systems, pseudo-
karst features, and gullies. In areas of high relief, landslides are a hazard.
Source: Physical Geography -Savindra Singh; ePG Patashala-MHRD; McKnight‘s Physical Geography;
Fundamentals of Geomorphology- Richard John Huggett; Wikipedia; etc.

Page | 23

Arid Landforms

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arid Landforms

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arid Landforms

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are some of the special conditions found in deserts?

What are some of the special conditions found in deserts?

What are the differences between sand seas and dunefields?

What are the differences between sand seas and dunefields?

Geography with Sandeep Sir

Desert terrain is usually stark and abrupt, unsoftened by regolith, soil, or

Special Conditions in Deserts

Impermeable Surfaces: A relatively large proportion of the desert surface is impermeable to

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Fluvial Desert Landforms

The steeper gradients of mountain streams increase the capacity of these

The regions of weak sedimentary formations are extensively eroded by

2. Bolsons and Playas:

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Pediments situated between mountain front and bajada in intermontane basin

According to Kirk Bryan (1922) ‗pediments are slopes of transportation cut on

This feature is, in fact, a slope of derivation or transportation as thin veneer of

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

1. Lawson’s Recession Theory:

According to A.C. Lawson (1915) pediments are developed because of

2. Sheet-Flood Theory of McGee:

According to W.J. McGee (1897) pediments are formed due to erosion of

3. Lateral Erosion Theory:

G.K. Gilbert attributed the formation of pediments to lateral corrasion by

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

(i) Inner zone,

Inner zone represents the mountain front where down-cutting (vertical

It may be mentioned that the above mentioned theories of pediment formation

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Arid Cycle of Erosion

The initial stage of arid cycle of erosion of mountain-grit deserts is

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Relief decreases rapidly because of progressive erosion of mountain divides

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Deflation is the shifting of loose particles as a result of their being blown

Aeolian abrasion is analogous to fluvial abrasion, except that the aeolian

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Wind transport encompasses four processes – saltation, reptation, suspension,

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Encroachment takes place when deposition occurs on a rough surface. Under

Types of aeolian land features

Aeolian erosional land features

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

The process involved in their formation essentially shows alternation of wet

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

A uniquely aeolian origin for pans is disputable. Recent

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

4. Yardang and Zuegen:

Yardangs are elongated grooves, first described by Hedin in Turkestan

It is believed that formation of Yardangs is initiated by some conditions that

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Aeolian depositional land features

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

 Steady gentle wind forms a dune with two horns.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Other important types of dunes are: