ncompressible flow equation[edit]

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be
considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:
(
A
 

   

)
where:
v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
p is the pressure at the chosen point, and
ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the
streamline chosen, whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on
that streamline.
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
[2](p265)

 the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density,
etc...) at any point cannot change with time,
 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the
density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.
For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),
Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[2](p265)
where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline.
E.g. for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where

 q = 1/2 ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the
sum of the elevation z and the pressure head)  and
[11][12]

 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static

pressure p and dynamic pressure q). [13]
 The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A
common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at
which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the
pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not
capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero
pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid
before zero pressure is reached. In liquids – when the
pressure becomes too low – cavitation occurs. The above
equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or
for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density
become significant so that the assumption of constant
density is invalid.

Simplified form[edit]
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in
the ρgz term along the streamline is so small compared
with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in
the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a
streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following
simplified form:
where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic
pressure".[14] Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from
total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q.
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it
from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual
pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its
motion but with its state, is often referred to as the
static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is
used it refers to this static pressure."[1](§ 3.5)
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be
summarized in the following memorable word
equation:[1](§ 3.5)
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of
the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique
static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their
sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p0.
The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be
summarized as "total pressure is constant along a
streamline".
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on
every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's
principle can be summarized as "total pressure is
constant everywhere in the fluid flow". [1](Equation 3.12) It is
 reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists
in any situation where a large body of fluid is
flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in
flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water.
However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary
layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
If the fluid flow at some point along a streamline is
brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation
point, and at this point the total pressure is equal
to the stagnation pressure.

Applicability of incompressible
flow equation to flow of gases[edit]
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow
of gases: provided that there is no transfer of
kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the
compression or expansion of the gas. If both the
gas pressure and volume change simultaneously,
then work will be done on or by the gas. In this
case, Bernoulli's equation – in its incompressible
flow form – cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric,
or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas,
(so the simple energy balance is not upset).
According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric
process is ordinarily the only way to ensure
constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will
be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary
upon compression or expansion, no matter what
non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed.
The only exception is if the net heat transfer is
zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in
an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic)
process, and even then this reversible process
must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus density.
Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli
equation applicable. In this case the equation can
be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently
below the speed of sound, such that the variation
in density of the gas (due to this effect) along
each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at
less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be s

ncompressible flow equation[edit]

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be
considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:
(
A
 

   

)
where:
v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
p is the pressure at the chosen point, and
ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the
streamline chosen, whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on
that streamline.
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
[2](p265)

 the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density,
etc...) at any point cannot change with time,
 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the
density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.
For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),
Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[2](p265)
where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline.
E.g. for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where

 q = 1/2 ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the
sum of the elevation z and the pressure head)  and
[11][12]

 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static

pressure p and dynamic pressure q). [13]

The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A

common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at
which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the
pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not
capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero
pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid
 before zero pressure is reached. In liquids – when the
pressure becomes too low – cavitation occurs. The above
equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or
for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density
become significant so that the assumption of constant
density is invalid.

Simplified form[edit]
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in
the ρgz term along the streamline is so small compared
with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in
the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a
streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following
simplified form:
where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic
pressure".[14] Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from
total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q.
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it
from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual
pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its
motion but with its state, is often referred to as the
static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is
used it refers to this static pressure."[1](§ 3.5)
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be
summarized in the following memorable word
equation:[1](§ 3.5)
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of
the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique
static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their
sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p0.
The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be
summarized as "total pressure is constant along a
streamline".
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on
every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's
principle can be summarized as "total pressure is
constant everywhere in the fluid flow". [1](Equation 3.12) It is
reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists
in any situation where a large body of fluid is
flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in
flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water.
However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary
layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
 If the fluid flow at some point along a streamline is
brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation
point, and at this point the total pressure is equal
to the stagnation pressure.

Applicability of incompressible
flow equation to flow of gases[edit]
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow
of gases: provided that there is no transfer of
kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the
compression or expansion of the gas. If both the
gas pressure and volume change simultaneously,
then work will be done on or by the gas. In this
case, Bernoulli's equation – in its incompressible
flow form – cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric,
or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas,
(so the simple energy balance is not upset).
According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric
process is ordinarily the only way to ensure
constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will
be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary
upon compression or expansion, no matter what
non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed.
The only exception is if the net heat transfer is
zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in
an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic)
process, and even then this reversible process
must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus density.
Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli
equation applicable. In this case the equation can
be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently
below the speed of sound, such that the variation
in density of the gas (due to this effect) along
each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at
less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be s

vv
Note that the relation of the potential to the flow velocity is unaffected by this
transformation: ∇Φ = ∇φ.
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow also appears to play a central role in Luke's
variational principle, a variational description of free-surface flows using the Lagrangian (not to
be confused with Lagrangian coordinates).

Compressible flow equation[edit]

Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations on liquids, and his equation is applicable
only to incompressible fluids, and steady compressible fluids up to approximately Mach
number 0.3.[15] It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar
equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a
particular application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli's equation and all rely on nothing more
than the fundamental principles of physics such as Newton's laws of motion or the first law of
thermodynamics.

Compressible flow in fluid dynamics[edit]

For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic equation of state, and under the action
of conservative forces,[16]
where:

 p is the pressure
 ρ is the density and  indicates that it is a function of pressure
  is the flow speed
 Ψ is the potential associated with the conservative force field, often the gravitational
potential
In engineering situations, elevations are generally small compared to the size of the Earth,
and the time scales of fluid flow are small enough to consider the equation of state
as adiabatic. In this case, the above equation for an ideal gas becomes:[1](§ 3.11)
where, in addition to the terms listed above:

 γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the fluid

 g is the acceleration due to gravity
 z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane
In many applications of compressible flow, changes in elevation are negligible
compared to the other terms, so the term gz can be omitted. A very useful form of the
equation is then:
where:

 p0 is the total pressure

 ρ0 is the total density
Compressible flow in thermodynamics[edit]
The most general form of the equation, suitable for use in thermodynamics in case
of (quasi) steady flow, is:[2](§ 3.5)[17](§ 5)[18](§ 5.9)
Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass (also known as specific enthalpy), which is
also often written as h (not to be confused with "head" or "height").
Note that  where  is the thermodynamic energy per unit mass, also known as
the specific internal energy. So, for constant internal energy  the equation
reduces to the incompressible-flow form.
The constant on the right-hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant, and
denoted b. For steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks
of energy, b is constant along any given streamline. More generally,
 when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves a useful parameter, related to
the "head" of the fluid (see below).
When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:
where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal
gas, the enthalpy is directly proportional to the temperature, and this leads
to the concept of the total (or stagnation) temperature.
When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is
stationary and the flow is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli
equation suffer abrupt changes in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli
parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An exception to this rule is
radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli
equation, namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.

Unsteady potential flow[edit]

For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic equation of state, the unsteady
momentum conservation equation
With the irrotational assumption, namely, the flow velocity can be described
as the gradient ∇φ of a velocity potential φ. The unsteady momentum
conservation equation becomes
which leads to
In this case, the above equation for isentropic flow becomes:

Derivations of the Bernoulli equation[edit]

showBernoulli equation for incompressible fluids

showBernoulli equation for compressible fluids

Applications[edit]

Condensation visible over the upper surface of an Airbus A340 wing

caused by the fall in temperature accompanying the fall in pressure.

In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be

successfully explained by application of Bernoulli's principle, even
though no real fluid is entirely inviscid[22] and a small viscosity often
has a large effect on the flow.
 Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an
airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is
known. For example, if the air flowing past the top surface of an
aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the
bottom surface, then Bernoulli's principle implies that
the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above
than below. This pressure difference results in an
upwards lifting force.[d][23] Whenever the distribution of speed
past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift
forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using
Bernoulli's equations[24] – established by Bernoulli over a
century before the first man-made wings were used for the
purpose of flight. Bernoulli's principle does not explain why the
air flows faster past the top of the wing and slower past the
underside. See the article on aerodynamic lift for more info.

 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines contains

a venturi to create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the
carburettor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air. The low
pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its
fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).
 The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to
determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices are
connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines
the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic
pressure is the difference between stagnation
pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to
calibrate the airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated
airspeed appropriate to the dynamic pressure.[1](§ 3.8)
 A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create
a force by turning pressure energy generated by the
combustion of propellants into velocity. This then generates
thrust by way of Newton's third law of motion.
 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such
as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be placed into
a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal
device, the continuity equation shows that for an
incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an
increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently, Bernoulli's
principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the
pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is
known as the Venturi effect.
 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap
at the base can be calculated directly from Bernoulli's equation,
and is found to be proportional to the square root of the height
of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that
Torricelli's law is compatible with Bernoulli's
principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the
discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds
number and the shape of the orifice. [25]
 The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-
contact adhesive force between a surface and the gripper.
 Bernoulli's principle is also applicable in the swinging of a
cricket ball. During a cricket match, bowlers continually polish
one side of the ball. After some time, one side is quite rough
and the other is still smooth. Hence, when the ball is bowled
and passes through air, the speed on one side of the ball is
faster than on the other, due to this difference in smoothness,
and this results in a pressure difference between the sides; this
leads to the ball rotating ("swinging") while travelling through
the air, giving advantage to the bowlers.

Misunderstandings about the

generation of lift[edit]
Main article: Lift (force)
Many explanations for the generation of lift
(on airfoils, propeller blades, etc.) can be found; some of these
explanations can be misleading, and some are false. [26] There has
been debate about whether lift is best introduced to students using
Bernoulli's principle or Newton's laws of motion. Modern writings
agree that both Bernoulli's principle and Newton's laws are
relevant, and either can be used to correctly describe lift. [12][27][28]
Several of these explanations use the Bernoulli principle to connect
the flow kinematics to the flow-induced pressures. In cases
of incorrect (or partially correct) explanations relying on the
Bernoulli principle, the errors generally occur in the assumptions on
the flow kinematics and how these are produced. It is not the
Bernoulli principle itself that is questioned, because this principle is
well established (the airflow above the wing is faster, the question
is why it is faster).[29][2](Section 3.5 and 5.1)[30](§17–§29)[31]

Misapplications of Bernoulli's principle

in common classroom
demonstrations[edit]
There are several common classroom demonstrations that are
sometimes incorrectly explained using Bernoulli's principle. [32] One
involves holding a piece of paper horizontally so that it droops
downward and then blowing over the top of it. As the demonstrator
blows over the paper, the paper rises. It is then asserted that this is
because "faster moving air has lower pressure".[33][34][35]
One problem with this explanation can be seen by blowing along
the bottom of the paper: were the deflection due simply to faster
moving air one would expect the paper to deflect downward, but
the paper deflects upward regardless of whether the faster moving
air is on the top or the bottom. [36] Another problem is that when the
air leaves the demonstrator's mouth it has the same pressure as
the surrounding air;[37] the air does not have lower pressure just
because it is moving; in the demonstration, the static pressure of
the air leaving the demonstrator's mouth is equal to the pressure of
the surrounding air.[38][39] A third problem is that it is false to make a
connection between the flow on the two sides of the paper using
Bernoulli's equation since the air above and below are different flow
fields and Bernoulli's principle only applies within a flow field. [40][41][42][43]
As the wording of the principle can change its implications, stating
the principle correctly is important. [44] What Bernoulli's principle
actually says is that within a flow of constant energy, when fluid
flows through a region of lower pressure it speeds up and vice
versa.[45] Thus, Bernoulli's principle concerns itself with changes in
speed and changes in pressure within a flow field. It cannot be
used to compare different flow fields.
A correct explanation of why the paper rises would observe that
the plume follows the curve of the paper and that a curved
streamline will develop a pressure gradient perpendicular to the
direction of flow, with the lower pressure on the inside of the curve.
[46][47][48][49]
 Bernoulli's principle predicts that the decrease in pressure
is associated with an increase in speed, i.e. that as the air passes
over the paper it speeds up and moves faster than it was moving
when it left the demonstrator's mouth. But this is not apparent from
the demonstration.[50][51][52]
Other common classroom demonstrations, such as blowing
between two suspended spheres, inflating a large bag, or
suspending a ball in an airstream are sometimes explained in a
similarly misleading manner by saying "faster moving air has lower
pressure".[53][54][55][56][57][58][59]

See also[edit]
 Daniel Bernoulli
 Coandă effect
 Euler equations – for the flow of an inviscid fluid
 Hydraulics – applied fluid mechanics for liquids
 Navier–Stokes equations – for the flow of a viscous fluid
 Terminology in fluid dynamics
 Torricelli's law – a special case of Bernoulli's principle
 Venturi effect

Notes[edit]
1. ^ If the particle is in a region of varying pressure (a non-vanishing
pressure gradient in the x-direction) and if the particle has a finite
size l, then the front of the particle will be ‘seeing’ a different
pressure from the rear. More precisely, if the pressure drops in
the x-direction (dp/dx  < 0) the pressure at the rear is higher than
at the front and the particle experiences a (positive) net force.
According to Newton’s second law, this force causes an
acceleration and the particle’s velocity increases as it moves
 along the streamline... Bernoulli's equation describes this
mathematically (see the complete derivation in the appendix). [7]
2. ^ Acceleration of air is caused by pressure gradients. Air is
accelerated in direction of the velocity if the pressure goes down.
Thus the decrease of pressure is the cause of a higher velocity. [8]
3. ^ The idea is that as the parcel moves along, following a
streamline, as it moves into an area of higher pressure there will
be higher pressure ahead (higher than the pressure behind) and
this will exert a force on the parcel, slowing it down. Conversely if
the parcel is moving into a region of lower pressure, there will be
a higher pressure behind it (higher than the pressure ahead),
speeding it up. As always, any unbalanced force will cause a
change in momentum (and velocity), as required by Newton’s
laws of motion.[9]
4. ^ "When a stream of air flows past an airfoil, there are local
changes in velocity round the airfoil, and consequently changes
in static pressure, in accordance with Bernoulli's Theorem. The
distribution of pressure determines the lift, pitching moment and
form drag of the airfoil, and the position of its centre of
pressure."[1](§ 5.5)

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:              Clancy, L.J. (1975).  Aerodynamics.
a b c d e f g

Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-15837-1.
2. ^ Jump up to:                Batchelor, G.K. (2000).  An Introduction to
a b c d e f g h

Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66396-0.
3. ^ "Hydrodynamica". Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 2008-10-30.
4. ^ Anderson, J.D. (2016),  "Some reflections on the history of fluid
dynamics", in Johnson, R.W. (ed.), Handbook of fluid
dynamics (2nd ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 9781439849576
5. ^ Darrigol, O.; Frisch, U. (2008), "From Newton's mechanics to
Euler's equations",  Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena, 237 (14–
17): 1855–
1869,  Bibcode:2008PhyD..237.1855D, doi:10.1016/j.physd.2007
.08.003
6. ^ Streeter, Victor Lyle (1966).  Fluid mechanics. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
7. ^ Babinsky, Holger (November 2003), "How do wings
work?", Physics Education, 38 (6): 497–
503,  Bibcode:2003PhyEd..38..497B, doi:10.1088/0031-
9120/38/6/001
8. ^ "Weltner, Klaus; Ingelman-Sundberg, Martin, Misinterpretations
of Bernoulli's Law, archived from  the original on April 29, 2009
9. ^ Denker, John S. (2005).  "3 Airfoils and Airflow".  See How It
Flies. Retrieved  2018-07-27.
10. ^ Resnick, R. and Halliday, D. (1960), section 18-4, Physics,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
11. ^ Mulley, Raymond (2004). Flow of Industrial Fluids: Theory and
Equations. CRC Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8493-2767-4.
12. ^ Jump up to:    Chanson, Hubert (2004).  Hydraulics of Open
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