TYPES OF CORROSION

 Uniform Attack
 Galvanic Corrosion
 Crevice Corrosion
 Pitting Corrosion
 Intergranular Corrosion
 Selective Leaching
 Erosion Corrosion
 Stress Corrosion
 Waterline Corrosion

MECHANISM OF CORROSION
Uniform Attack

Uniform corrosion is characterized by corrosive attack proceeding evenly

over the entire surface area, or a large fraction of the total area. General
thinning takes place until failure. On the basis of tonnage wasted, this is the
most important form of corrosion.

However, uniform corrosion is relatively easily measured and predicted,

making disastrous failures relatively rare. In many cases, it is objectionable
only from an appearance standpoint. As corrosion occurs uniformly over
the entire surface of the metal component, it can be practically controlled
by cathodic protection, use of coatings or paints, or simply by specifying a
corrosion allowance. In other cases uniform corrosion adds colour and
appeal to a surface. Two classics in this respect are the patina created by
naturally tarnishing copper roofs and the rust hues produced on weathering
steels.

The breakdown of protective coating systems on structures often leads to

this form of corrosion. Dulling of a bright or polished surface, etching by
acid cleaners, or oxidation (discoloration) of steel are examples of surface
corrosion. Corrosion resistant alloys and stainless steels can become
tarnished or oxidized in corrosive environments. Surface corrosion can
indicate a breakdown in the protective coating system, however, and should
be examined closely for more advanced attack. If surface corrosion is
permitted to continue, the surface may become rough and surface corrosion
can lead to more serious types of corrosion.

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion (also called ' dissimilar metal corrosion' or wrongly

'electrolysis') refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar
materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte.
When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the
anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself, while the other
becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. For galvanic
corrosion to occur, three conditions must be present:
 1. Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present
2. These metals must be in electrical contact, and
3. The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte
The relative nobility of a material can be predicted by measuring
its corrosion potential. The well-known galvanic series lists the relative
nobility of certain materials in sea water. A small anode/cathode area ratio
is highly undesirable. In this case, the galvanic current is concentrated onto
a small anodic area. Rapid thickness loss of the dissolving anode tends to
occur under these conditions. Galvanic corrosion problems should be
solved by designing to avoid these problems in the first place. Galvanic
corrosion cells can be set up on the macroscopic level or on the
microscopic level. On the microstructural level, different phases or other
microstructural features can be subject to galvanic currents.

Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion usually associated with a

stagnant solution on the micro-environmental level. Such stagnant
microenvironments tend to occur in crevices (shielded areas) such as those
formed under gaskets, washers, insulation material, fastener heads, surface
deposits, disbonded coatings, threads, lap joints and clamps. Crevice
corrosion is initiated by changes in local chemistry within the crevice:

a. Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice

b. Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
c. A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
 d. Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g. chloride) in the crevice

As oxygen diffusion into the crevice is restricted, a differential aeration cell

tends to be set up between crevice (microenvironment) and the external
surface (bulk environment). The chronology of the aggravating factors
leading to a full blown crevice is illustrated here. The cathodic oxygen
reduction reaction cannot be sustained in the crevice area, giving it an
anodic character in the concentration cell. This anodic imbalance can lead
to the creation of highly corrosive micro-environmental conditions in the
crevice, conducive to further metal dissolution. This results in the
formation of an acidic micro-environment, together with a high chloride
ion concentration.

All forms of concentration cell corrosion can be very aggressive, and all
result from environmental differences at the surface of a metal. Even the
most benign atmospheric environments can become extremely aggressive
as illustrated in this example of aircraft corrosion.

The most common form is oxygen differential cell corrosion. This occurs
because moisture has a lower oxygen content when it lies in a crevice than
when it lies on a surface. The lower oxygen content in the crevice forms an
anode at the metal surface. The metal surface in contact with the portion of
the moisture film exposed to air forms a cathode.
Pitting Corrosion

Pitting is one of the most destructive types of corrosion, as it can be hard to

predict, detect and characterize. Pitting is a localized form of corrosion, in
which either a local anodic point, or more commonly a cathodic point,
forms a small corrosion cell with the surrounding normal surface. Once a
pit has initiated, it grows into a “hole” or “cavity” that takes on one of a
variety of different shapes. Pits typically penetrate from the surface
downward in a vertical direction. Pitting corrosion can be caused by a local
break or damage to the protective oxide film or a protective coating; it can
also be caused by non-uniformities in the metal structure itself. Pitting is
dangerous because it can lead to failure of the structure with a relatively
low overall loss of metal.

Intergranular Corrosion
The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated by
grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack along the grain
boundaries, or immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of
the grains remain largely unaffected. This form of corrosion is usually
associated with chemical segregation effects (impurities have a tendency to
be enriched at grain boundaries) or specific phases precipitated on the grain
boundaries. Such precipitation can produce zones of reduced corrosion
resistance in the immediate vicinity.

The attack is usually related to the segregation of specific elements or the

formation of a compound in the boundary. Corrosion then occurs by
preferential attack on the grain-boundary phase, or in a zone adjacent to it
that has lost an element necessary for adequate corrosion resistance - thus
making the grain boundary zone anodic relative to the remainder of the
surface. The attack usually progresses along a narrow path along the grain
boundary and, in a severe case of grain-boundary corrosion, entire grains
may be dislodged due to complete deterioration of their boundaries. In any
case the mechanical properties of the structure will be seriously affected.

A classic example is the sensitization of stainless steels or weld decay.

Chromium-rich grain boundary precipitates lead to a local depletion of Cr
immediately adjacent to these precipitates, leaving these areas vulnerable to
corrosive attack in certain electrolytes. Reheating a welded component
during multi-pass welding is a common cause of this problem. In austenitic
stainless steels, titanium or niobium can react with carbon to form carbides
in the heat affected zone (HAZ) causing a specific type of intergranular
corrosion known as knife-line attack. These carbides build up next to the
weld bead where they cannot diffuse due to rapid cooling of the weld
metal. The problem of knife-line attack can be corrected by reheating the
welded metal to allow diffusion to occur.

Many aluminium base alloys are susceptible to intergranular corrosion on

account of either phases anodic to aluminium being present along grain
boundaries or due to depleted zones of copper adjacent to grain boundaries
in copper-containing alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise
worked heavily, with a microstructure of elongated, flattened grains, are
particularly prone to this damage.

Selective Leaching
Dealloying or selective leaching refers to the selective removal of one
element from an alloy by corrosion processes. A common example is
the dezincification of unstabilized brass, whereby a weakened, porous
copper structure is produced.The selective removal of zinc can proceed in a
uniform manner or on a localized (plug-type) scale. It is difficult to
rationalize dezincification in terms of preferential Zn dissolution out of the
brass lattice structure. Rather, it is believed that brass dissolves with Zn
remaining in solution and Cu replating out of the solution. Graphitic
corrosion of gray cast iron, whereby a brittle graphite skeleton remains
following preferential iron dissolution is a further example of selective
leaching. The term "graphitization" is commonly used to identify this form
of corrosion but is not recommended because of its use in metallurgy for
the decomposition of carbide to graphite.

During cast iron graphitic corrosion the porous graphite network that
makes up 4-5% of the total mass of the alloy, is impregnated with insoluble
corrosion products. As a result, the cast iron retains its appearance and
shape but is weaker structurally. Testing and identification of graphitic
corrosion is accomplished by scraping through the surface with a knife to
reveal the crumbling of the iron beneath. Where extensive graphitic
corrosion occurs, usually the only solution is replacement of the damaged
element.

Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is an acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in metal
due to the relative motion of a corrosive fluid and a metal surface. The
increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal surfaces of a tube can
result in rapidly increasing erosion rates and eventually a leak. Erosion
corrosion can also be aggravated by faulty workmanship. For example,
burrs left at cut tube ends can upset smooth water flow, because of
localized turbulence and high flow velocities, resulting in erosion
corrosion. A combination of erosion and corrosion can lead to extremely
high pitting rates. Erosion-corrosion is associated with a flow-induced
mechanical removal of the protective surface film that results in a
subsequent corrosion rate increase via either electrochemical or chemical
processes. It is often accepted that a critical fluid velocity must be exceeded
for a given material. The mechanical damage by the impacting fluid
imposes disruptive shear stresses or pressure variations on the material
surface and/or the protective surface film. Erosion-corrosion may be
enhanced by particles (solids or gas bubbles) and impacted by multi-phase
flows. The morphology of surfaces affected by erosion-corrosion may be in
the form of shallow pits or horseshoes or other local phenomena related to
the flow direction.

Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a result of the combination of tensile
stress and a corrosive environment, often at elevated temperatures. Stress
corrosion may result from external stress such as actual tensile loads on the
metal or expansion/contraction due to rapid temperature changes. It may
also result from residual stress imparted during the manufacturing process
such as from cold forming, welding, machining, grinding, etc. In stress
corrosion, the majority of the surface usually remains intact; however, fine
cracks appear in the microstructure, making the corrosion hard to detect.
The cracks typically have a brittle appearance and form and spread in a
direction perpendicular to the location of the stress. Selecting proper
materials for a given environment (including temperature and management
of external loads) can mitigate the potential for catastrophic failure due to
SCC.

Waterline Corrosion
Waterline corrosion is a case of differential aeration corrosion, more
prevalent in case such as ocean going ships, water storage steel tanks, etc.,
in which a portion of the metal is always under water. The waterline
corrosion takes place due to the formation of differential oxygen
concentration cells. The part of the metal below the water line is exposed
only to dissolved oxygen while the part above the water is exposed to
higher oxygen concentration of the atmosphere. Thus, part of the metal
below the water acts as anode and undergoes corrosion and part above the
waterline is free corrosion. A distinct brown line is formed.

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Uniform Attack
 Used more corrosion resistant alloy (example higher alloy content
or more inert alloy)
 Utilize coatings to act as a barrier between metal and environment.
 Modify the environment or add chemical inhibitors to reduce
corrosion rate.
 Replace with corrosion resistant non-metallic material.
Galvanic Corrosion
 One way is to electrically insulate the two metals.
  Keep the metals dry.
 Shielded from ionic compounds (salts, acids, bases)
 For example by painting or encasing the protected metal in plastic
or epoxy, and allowing them to dry.
Crevice Corrosion
 Use welded butt joint instead of riveted or bolted joint.
 Design vessels for complete drainage.
 Remove wet packing during long shutdown.
 Remove deposits frequently.
Pitting Corrosion
 Proper selection of the materials with known resistance to the
service environment.
 Control pH, chloride concentration and temperature.
 Cathodic protection or Anodic Protection.
 Use higher alloys for increased resistance to pitting corrosion.
Intergranular Corrosion
 Stainless steel may be protected by subjecting the sensitized
material to high-temperature heat treatment in which all the
chromium carbide particles are re-dissolved.
 Lowering carbon content, so carbide formation is minimum
 Alloying the stainless steel with other metal that have high
corrosion resistance.
Selective Leaching
 Reducing aggressiveness of the environment
 Less susceptible alloy can be used
Erosion Corrosion
 Change the design to eliminate fluid turbulence and impingement
effects.
 Remove particulates and bubbles from the solutions
Stress Corrosion
 Lowering the magnitude of the stress
 Appropriate heat treatment may be used to anneal out any residual
stress.
 Use of the materials known not to crack in the specified
environment.
 Introduce compressive stress by shot-peening for example.
Waterline Corrosion
 Coat the material being placed in the water
 The coating keeps oxygen exposure across the substrate to a
uniform amount and to a minimum.
 Use materials that are not as prone to oxidation as steel.

SUGGESTION TO IMPROVE
A variety of organic compounds were studied for investigating their
corrosion inhibition potential. Use of natural gums as green corrosion
inhibitors: an overview. The environmental toxicity of organic corrosion
inhibitors has prompted the search for green corrosion inhibitors as they are
biodegradable, do not contain heavy metals or other toxic compounds.
Corrosion of metals and its alloys employed in service is an inescapable but
a controllable process. One of the practical methods for controlling the
impact of corrosion of metals and alloys especially in aqueous
environments is by using corrosion inhibitors which are composed mainly
of organic or inorganic substances. The use of natural gums as
environmentally safe corrosion inhibitor for metal and alloys has in recent
times received tremendous attention by several researchers. Also
quantitative structure activity relationship approach has been used to
establish the correlations between a number of quantum chemical
parameters and the molecular structures of some gum extracts major
components. This approach has aided in understanding the component of
the gum extracts responsible for imparting the inhibition effect since there
are several components of the gum which could act in synergy to inhibit the
metal corrosion. This review paper presents an overview of works
published on natural gums as green corrosion.