UNIT-I

SYLLABUS:

Introduction to artificial intelligence: Introduction, history, intelligent systems, foundations of

AI, applications, tic-tac-toe game playing, development of AI languages, current trends in AI.
Problem solving: state-space search and control strategies: Introduction, general problem
solving, characteristics of problem.

INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of the field of computer and information science. It
focuses on developing hardware and software systems that solve problems and accomplish tasks
that—if accomplished by humans—would be considered a display of intelligence. The field of
AI includes studying and developing machines such as robots, automatic pilots for airplanes and
space ships, and “smart” military weapons. Europeans tend to use the term machine intelligence
(MI) instead of the term AI.

The theory and practice of AI is leading to the development of a wide range of artificially
intelligent tools. These tools, sometimes working under the guidance of a human and sometimes
without external guidance, are able to solve or help solve a steadily increasing range of
problems. Over the past 50 years, AI has produced a number of results that are important to
students, teachers, our overall foundational system, and to our society.

This short book provides an overview of AI from K-12 foundation and teacher foundation
points of view. It is designed specifically for preservice and inservice teachers and school
administrators. However, educational aides, parents, school site council members, school board
members, and others who are interested in education will find this booklet to be useful.

This book is designed for self-study, for use in workshops, for use in a short course, and for
use as a unit of study in a longer course on ICT in education. It contains a number of ideas for
immediate application of the content, and it contains a number of activities for use in workshops
and courses. An appendix contains suggestions for Project-Based Learning activities suitable for
educators and students.

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 HISTORY

The study and measurement of intelligence have long histories. For example, Alfred Benet
and Theodore Simon developed the first Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test in the early 1900s.
Chances are, you have taken several IQ tests, and perhaps you can name a number that was your
score on one of these tests. Likely, you feel it is very strange to think that a single number is a
useful measure of a person’s cognitive abilities. Many people argue that a person has multiple
intelligences, and that no single number is an adequate representation of a person’s intelligence.

IQ is a complex concept. There is no clear agreement among IQ experts as to what

constitutes IQ or how to measure it. (Most people are not satisfied by the statement “IQ is what
is measured by an IQ test.”)

Howard Gardner (1993), David Perkins (1995), and Robert Sternberg (1988) are researchers
who have written widely sold books about intelligence. Of these three, Howard Gardner is
probably best known by K-12 educators. His theory of Multiple Intelligences has proven quite
popular with such educators (Mckenzie, n.d.). However, there are many researchers who have
contributed to the extensive and continually growing collection of research papers on intelligence
(Yekovich 1994).

The following definition of intelligence is a composite from various authors, especially

Gardner, Perkins, and Sternberg.

Intelligence is a combination of the abilities to:

1. Learn. This includes all kinds of informal and formal learning via any combination of
experience, education, and training.

2. Pose problems. This includes recognizing problem situations and transforming them into
more clearly defined problems.

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 3. Solve problems. This includes solving problems, accomplishing tasks, and fashioning
products.

There is a near universal agreement among researchers that some aspects of our intellectual
abilities depend heavily on our experiential histories, and some aspects depend on our genetic
makeup. Thus, a person’s cognitive abilities are a combination of nature and nurture.

From a teacher’s point of view, it is important to understand that a person’s life experiences
—which include formal and informal education—contribute to the person’s intelligence.
Education is very important!

We know that we can improve a child’s developing intelligence by avoiding drug and alcohol
damage to the fetus, by providing appropriate vitamins, minerals, and nutrition to support growth
of a healthy mind and body, and by protecting the child from the lead that used to be a common
ingredient of paint and leaded gasoline.

A brief summary of the history of AI is given in Kurzweil (1991). He uses the term machine
intelligence to refer to the general field of AI. Kurzweil has made many important contributions
to the field. For example, many years ago he developed a text to speech machine for the blind.

INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

An intelligent system is a machine with an embedded, Internet-connected computer that has the
capacity to gather and analyze data and communicate with other systems. Other criteria for
intelligent systems include the capacity to learn from experience, security, connectivity, the
ability to adapt according to current data and the capacity for remote monitoring and

management.

Intelligent Problem Solving

This section contains a very brief introduction to intelligent problem solving. A more detailed
introduction is available in Moursund (2004).

The terms problem and intelligent problem solving are used throughout this document. We
use these terms in a very broad sense, so that they include:

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 • posing, clarifying, and answering questions

• posing, clarifying, and solving problems

• posing, clarifying, and accomplishing tasks

• posing, clarifying, and making decisions

• using higher-order, critical, and wise thinking to do all of the above

Intelligent problem solving consists of moving from a given initial situation to a desired goal
situation. That is, intelligent problem solving is the process of designing and carrying out a set of
steps to reach a goal. Figure 1.1 graphically represents the concept of intelligent problem
solving. Usually the term problem is used to refer to a situation where it is not immediately
obvious how to reach the goal. The exact same situation can be a problem for one person and not
a problem (perhaps just a simple activity or routine exercise) for another person.

A B
?
Given Desired
initial What can I do goal
situation. to move from situation.
A to B?

Intelligent problem solving—how to achieve the final goal?

There is a substantial amount of research literature as well as many practitioner books on

intelligent problem solving (Moursund, 2004). Here is a formal definition of the term problem.
You—personally—have a formal, well-defined (clearly defined) problem if the following four
conditions are satisfied:

1. You have a clearly defined given initial situation.

2. You have a clearly defined goal (a desired end situation). Some writers talk about
having multiple goals in a problem. However, such a multiple goal situation can be
broken down into a number of single goal problems.

3. You have a clearly defined set of resources—including your personal knowledge and
skills— that may be applicable in helping you move from the given initial situation to
the desired goal situation. There may be specified limitations on resources, such as

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 rules, regulations, and guidelines for what you are allowed to do in attempting to
solve a particular problem.

4. You have some ownership—you are committed to using some of your own resources,
such as your knowledge, skills, and energies, to achieve the desired final goal.

The resources (part 3 in the definition) available to a person certainly include their mind and
body. A carpenter typically has a wide range of hand and power tools, along with acquired
knowledge and skill in how to use the tools. In this book, we are particularly interested in ICT—
especially, AI—as one of the resources in intelligent problem solving. ICT systems can solve or
help solve a number of problems of interest to humans. From an educational point of view, this
raises two questions:

• If a computer can solve or substantially aid in solving a type of problem that students are
studying in school, what should students be learning about solving this type of problem?
(For example, should they be learning to compete with computers or work cooperatively
with computers?)

• Are there topics that should be eliminated from the curriculum or topics that should be
added to the curriculum because of the capabilities of computers to solve problems and/or
to assist in solving problems?

Think about these questions as you read this book. As a reader, one of your goals should be to
form well-reasoned answers for yourself. In addition, you should pose other, equally complex
questions that are of interest to you and others.

FOUNDATIONS OF AI

David Perkins' 1992 book contains an excellent overview of foundations and components of
AI. He analyzes these attempted improvements in terms of how well they have contributed to
accomplishing the following three major goals of education (Perkins, 1992, p5):

1. Acquisition and retention of knowledge and skills.

2. Understanding of one's acquired knowledge and skills.

3. Active use of one's acquired knowledge and skills. (Transfer of learning. Ability to
apply one's learning to new settings. Ability to analyze and solve novel problems.)

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 These three general goals—acquisition & retention, understanding, and use of knowledge &
skills—help guide formal foundational systems throughout the world. They are widely accepted
goals that have endured over the years. They provide a solid starting point for the analysis of any
existing or proposed foundational system. We want students to have a great deal of learning and
application experience—both in school and outside of school—in each of these three goal areas.

All three goals use the term knowledge and skills. Later in this chapter we will take a closer
look at the terms data, information, knowledge, and wisdom. For now, it suffices to think of the
term knowledge as encompassing the full range of data, information, knowledge, and wisdom.
The term skills is taken to mean both physical skills and mental skills. Thus, the term knowledge
and skills is intended to encompass the full range of physical and mental development.

You will notice that Perkins’ three goals do not speak to the specifics of curriculum content,
instructional processes, student assessment, teacher foundation, and other major—often
controversial—issues in foundation. The generality of the three goals makes them quite useful in
discussions about Information and Communication Technology and other potential change
agents in foundation. However, remember, “the devil is in the details.”

The next three sections expand on the three goals stated by Perkins. These sections capture
the essence of changes that Perkins, your author, and many others feel are needed in our
foundational system.

Foundation Goal # 1: Acquisition and Retention

Much of our current foundational system can be described as “memorize, regurgitate, and
forget.” Students learn to “study for the test.” Often the test is one in which memorization and
regurgitation works well. However, the human mind has a strong propensity to forget memorized
information that it does not understand and that it does not frequently use. Thus, most of what is
memorized for a test is quickly forgotten. The retention part of goal 1 is not well served by this
approach to learning.

There is another difficulty with a rote memorization approach to learning. The totality of
accumulated knowledge is increasing exponentially. Estimates of the doubling time vary, with
some people suggesting a doubling of every 5 or 10 years, and some suggesting an even shorter

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doubling time. The increase in the total accumulated knowledge of the human race in just one
week is far more than a person can memorize in a lifetime.

A somewhat similar analysis holds for skills that one might acquire. It takes a long period of
study and practice to become reasonably skilled at archery, art, basketball, bowling, crocheting,
cursive handwriting, dancing, drawing, fast keyboarding, guitar playing, piano playing, and so
on. That is, there are many different areas in which, through study and practice, a person can
gain a personally useful level of knowledge and skills. Nobody has the time to become highly
skilled in every skill area.

Computers are very good in storage, retention, and regurgitation. When it comes to rote
memory and retention, computers are far superior to humans. If one considers the types of skills
that can be automated by computerized tools, then computers have the capability to acquire a
great many different skills. Computer systems gain new skills through the development of new
hardware and software.

Foundation Goal # 2: Understanding

In talking about understanding, it is helpful to consider the “scale” pictured below.

Data Information Knowledge Wisdom

Moving toward
increased
"understanding."

Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom, and Understanding

The following quotation provides definitions of the terms data, information, knowledge, and
wisdom in the specific context of biology (Atlantic Canada Conservation Data Centre; n.d.). The
ideas from this specific discipline easily carry over to other fields.

Individual bits or "bytes" of "raw" biological data (e.g. the number of individual
plants of a given species at a given location) do not by themselves inform the
human mind. However, drawing various data together within an appropriate
context yields information that may be useful (e.g. the distribution and

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 abundance of the plant species at various points in space and time). In turn, this
information helps foster the quality of knowing (e.g. whether the plant species is
increasing or decreasing in distribution and abundance over space and time).
Knowledge and experience blend to become wisdom--the power of applying
these attributes critically or practically to make decisions.

A computer is a machine designed for the input, storage, manipulation, and output of data
and information. It is clear that a computer system can store and process data and information.
But, what about knowledge and wisdom? An electronic digital watch displays the time and date.
However, the watch has no understanding of the meaning of time and date. Knowledge and
wisdom require understanding, not just rote memory.

One approach to thinking about possible meanings of knowledge is to consider uses that can
be made of the knowledge. For example, suppose that a building contains a number of electronic
digital thermostats that are connected to a computer that can turn on/off the heating and cooling
units in individual parts of the building. The job of this computerized heating and cooling system
is to maintain the temperature at a comfortable level in all parts of the building. This is to be
done in a cost effective manner. The system might also contain sensing devices that can tell if
people occupy a part of the building, and maintain lower temperatures in rooms that are not
occupied.

This computerized heating and cooling system has the knowledge and skills that are needed
to solve a quite complex problem. In a large building, it can surely outperform a group of
humans attempting to accomplish the same task. That is, within its very narrow domain of
expertise, the heating and cooling system has the knowledge and skills to accomplish a complex
task—and can do it better than humans. You might want to refer back to the definitions of AI
given in chapter 1 to see that this system satisfies definitions of AI. At the same time, you might
think about whether the heating and cooling system has any “understanding” of what it is doing.

Understanding is a tricky issue. A young baby cries in response to some internal sensing of
hunger, cold, wet bedding, etc. The crying often produces a response from the caregiver, and the
problems are solved. Does the baby have an understanding of hunger, cold, wetness, and so on?

It is interesting to engage people in conversations about whether a computer can store and
make effective use of knowledge or wisdom. Perhaps knowledge and wisdom require a level of

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understanding that is only available to human minds. Perhaps the “intelligence” of machines is
limited to being able to process data and information somewhat in the same manner as students
do who pass tests using rote memorization without understanding.

A conversation about the potentials of computers storing and using knowledge becomes more
interesting as one introduces the idea that many businesses are now actively engaged in using
computers for “knowledge management.” Knowledge management is about the use of computers
to process data and information in order to produce knowledge (ACM SIGKDD, n.d.,
Godbout,1999).

The recent development and rapid growth of the field of knowledge management suggest that
many people feel computer systems can effectively deal with knowledge and make wise
decisions.

Foundation Goal # 3: Active Use

One of the major goals in foundation is transfer of learning from a specific classroom-
learning environment to other environments. We want students to be able to use their school-
acquired knowledge and skills at home, at work, at play, and at school—immediately, and far
into the future, and in varied settings.

In recent years the Science of Teaching and Learning has made significant progress
(Bransford et al, 1999). New and better learning theories and transfer of learning theories have
been developed. Computers are playing a significant role in both the development and
implementation of these theories.

Recent research in situated learning theory indicates that much of what we learn is intricately
intertwined with the environment or situation in which we learn it (Situated Learning Theory,
n.d.). Thus, the learning environment needs to be designed to be relatively similar to the
environments in which we want students to apply their learning.

A good example of situated learning is provided by the “Help” features that are part of many
computer applications. We want students to become more self reliant in finding answers to the
types of problems they encounter as they use sophisticated pieces of software such as a word
processor. Thus, we can teach them to use the built-in help features of the software, knowing that
such built-in help is available whenever and wherever they are making use of the software. You

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and your students should be aware that a well-designed help feature in software represents the
effective storage of knowledge in a form that it is easy to retrieve and use by a human. Such
systems make use of AI.

If you are a Star Trek fan, you know about the Holodeck, which is a very sophisticated
computerized virtual reality environment. More generally, computer simulations—including
virtual reality—are gradually becoming useful foundational and research tools. Such simulations
can engage a learner in actively using knowledge and skills that are being acquired. A virtual
reality can be thought of as computer storage of data, information, and knowledge in a form that
facilities a realistic, real-world-like interaction with a human. In this interaction, the human
makes active use of knowledge and skills, and the human may well gain increased knowledge
and skill. Because of the reality of the simulation, considerable transfer of learning occurs from
use of the simulation to applications in the real world.

The past two decades have seen substantial progress in understanding transfer of learning and
how to teach for transfer. A good example of this progress is provided by the high-road, low-
road transfer theory developed by Perkins and Salomon (2002). Low-road transfer involves
learning to a high level of automaticity, rather like the stimulus-response approach of behavioral
learning theory. High-road transfer requires understanding and mindfulness. Many schools and
school districts are placing increased emphasis on teaching for understanding. Computers are
now extensively used in helping students learn certain facts (number facts, for example) to a high
level of automaticity. A well designed “Intelligent” Computer-Assisted Learning (ICAL) system
engages the learner in interactions in which the learner is making immediate and active use of
what is being learned.

APPLICATIONS OF AI

The market for artificial intelligence technologies is flourishing. Artificial Intelligence involves a
variety of technologies and tools, some of the recent technologies are as follows:

Natural Language Generation: it’s a tool that produces text from the computer data. Currently
used in customer service, report generation, and summarizing business intelligence insights.

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Speech Recognition: Transcribes and transforms human speech into a format useful for
computer applications. Presently used in interactive voice response systems and mobile
applications.

Virtual Agent: A Virtual Agentis a computer generated, animated, artificial intelligence virtual
character (usually with anthropomorphic appearance) that serves as an online customer service
representative. It leads an intelligent conversation with users, responds to their questions and
performs adequate non-verbal behavior. An example of a typical Virtual Agent is Louise, the
Virtual Agent of eBay, created by a French/American developer VirtuOz.

Machine Learning: Provides algorithms, APIs (Application Program interface) development

and training toolkits, data, as well as computing power to design, train, and deploy models into
applications, processes, and other machines. Currently used in a wide range of enterprise
applications, mostly `involving prediction or classification.

Deep Learning Platforms: A special type of machine learning consisting of artificial neural
networks with multiple abstraction layers. Currently used in pattern recognition and
classification applications supported by very large data sets.

Biometrics: Biometrics uses methods for unique recognition of humans based upon one or more
intrinsic physical or behavioral traits. In computer science, particularly, biometrics is used as a
form of identity access management and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in
groups that are under surveillance. Currently used in market research.

Robotic Process Automation: using scripts and other methods to automate human action to
support efficient business processes. Currently used where it is inefficient for humans to execute
a task.

Text Analytics and NLP: Natural language processing (NLP) uses and supports text analytics
by facilitating the understanding of sentence structure and meaning, sentiment, and intent
through statistical and machine learning methods. Currently used in fraud detection and security,
a wide range of automated assistants, and applications for mining unstructured data.

Applications of Artificial Intelligence:

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Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Companies are applying machine learning to make better
and faster diagnoses than humans. One of the best-known technologies is IBM’s Watson. It
understands natural language and can respond to questions asked of it. The system mines patient
data and other available data sources to form a hypothesis, which it then presents with a
confidence scoring schema. AI is a study realized to emulate human intelligence into computer
technology that could assist both, the doctor and the patients in the following ways:

 By providing a laboratory for the examination, representation and cataloguing medical

information
 By devising novel tool to support decision making and research
 By integrating activities in medical, software and cognitive sciences
 By offering a content rich discipline for the future scientific medical communities.

Artificial Intelligence in business: Robotic process automation is being applied to highly

repetitive tasks normally performed by humans. Machine learning algorithms are being
integrated into analytics and CRM (Customer relationship management) platforms to uncover
information on how to better serve customers. Chatbots have already been incorporated into
websites and e companies to provide immediate service to customers. Automation of job
positions has also become a talking point among academics and IT consultancies.

AI in education: It automates grading, giving educators more time. It can also assess students
and adapt to their needs, helping them work at their own pace.

AI in Autonomous vehicles: Just like humans, self-driving cars need to have sensors to
understand the world around them and a brain to collect, processes and choose specific actions
based on information gathered. Autonomous vehicles are with advanced tool to gather
information, including long range radar, cameras, and LIDAR. Each of the technologies are used
in different capacities and each collects different information. This information is useless, unless
it is processed and some form of information is taken based on the gathered information. This is
where artificial intelligence comes into play and can be compared to human brain. AI has several
applications for these vehicles and among them the more immediate ones are as follows:

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  Directing the car to gas station or recharge station when it is running low on fuel.
 Adjust the trips directions based on known traffic conditions to find the quickest route.
 Incorporate speech recognition for advanced communication with passengers.
 Natural language interfaces and virtual assistance technologies.

AI for robotics will allow us to address the challenges in taking care of an aging population and
allow much longer independence. It will drastically reduce, may be even bring down traffic
accidents and deaths, as well as enable disaster response for dangerous situations for example the
nuclear meltdown at the fukushima power plant.

Cyborg Technology: One of the main limitations of being human is simply our own bodies and
brains. Researcher Shimon Whiteson thinksthat in the future, we will be able to augment
ourselves with computers and enhance many of our own natural abilities. Though many of these
possible cyborg enhancements would be added for convenience, others may serve a more
practical purpose. Yoky Matsuka of Nest believes that AI will become useful for people with
amputated limbs, as the brain will be able to communicate with a robotic limb to give the patient
more control. This kind of cyborg technology would significantly reduce the limitations that
amputees deal with daily.

In the future, predictive analytics and artificial intelligence could play an even more
fundamental role in content creation and also in the software fields. Open source information and
artificial intelligence collection will provide opportunities for global technological parity and the
technology of artificial can become the future in all the domains of health, environment, public
safety and security.

1. Knowledge reasoning.
2. Planning.
3. Machine learning.
4. Natural language processing.
5. Computer vision.
6. Robotics.
7. Artificial general intelligence.
8. The Latest Musical Hit

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 9. The Chef With The Most Recipes In The World
10. Self-Driving Cars
11. The Fortuneteller That Will Know It Before You
 
12. Photographs That Become Purchases
13.  The Smartest Investor
14.  A Better World
15. A Superhuman Doctor
16. Life on Other Planets?
17. The Marketing Guru
18. The Sales And Customer Service Genie
19. A Non-Human Language…
20. In Charge Of Your Accounting And Financing

TIC-TAC-TOE GAME PLAYING

Rules of the Game

 The game is to be played between two people (in this program between HUMAN and
COMPUTER).
 One of the player chooses ‘O’ and the other ‘X’ to mark their respective cells.
 The game starts with one of the players and the game ends when one of the players has
one whole row/ column/ diagonal filled with his/her respective character (‘O’ or ‘X’).
 If no one wins, then the game is said to be draw.

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Implementation
In our program the moves taken by the computer and the human are chosen randomly. We
use rand() function for this.
What more can be done in the program?
The program is in not played optimally by both sides because the moves are chosen
randomly. The program can be easily modified so that both players play optimally (which
will fall under the category of Artificial Intelligence). Also the program can be modified
such that the user himself gives the input (using scanf() or cin).

Winning Strategy – An Interesting Fact

If both the players play optimally then it is destined that you will never lose (“although the
match can still be drawn”). It doesn’t matter whether you play first or second.In another
ways – “ Two expert players will always draw ”.

DEVELOPMENT OF AI LANGUAGES

AIML (meaning "Artificial Intelligence Markup Language") is an XML dialect for use
with A.L.I.C.E.-type chatterbots.

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 IPLwas the first language developed for artificial intelligence. It includes features
intended to support programs that could perform general problem solving, such as lists,
associations, schemas (frames), dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion,
associative retrieval, functions as arguments, generators (streams), and cooperative
multitasking.

Lisp is a practical mathematical notation for computer programs based on lambda

calculus. Linked lists are one of the Lisp language's major data structures, and Lisp source
code is itself made up of lists. As a result, Lisp programs can manipulate source code as a
data structure, giving rise to the macro systems that allow programmers to create new
syntax or even new domain-specific programming languages embedded in Lisp. There are
many dialects of Lisp in use today, among which are Common Lisp, Scheme, and Clojure.

Smalltalk has been used extensively for simulations, neural networks, machine learning
and genetic algorithms. It implements the purest and most elegant form of object-oriented
programming using message passing.

Prolog is a declarative language where programs are expressed in terms of relations, and
execution occurs by running queries over these relations. Prolog is particularly useful for
symbolic reasoning, database and language parsing applications. Prolog is widely used in
AI today.

STRIPS is a language for expressing automated planning problem instances. It expresses

an initial state, the goal states, and a set of actions. For each action preconditions (what
must be established before the action is performed) and postconditions (what is established
after the action is performed) are specified.

Planner is a hybrid between procedural and logical languages. It gives a procedural

interpretation to logical sentences where implications are interpreted with pattern-directed
inference.

POP is a reflective, incrementally compiled programming language with many of the

features of an interpreted language. It is the core language of the Poplog programming
environment developed originally by the University of Sussex, and recently in the School

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 of Computer Science at the University of Birmingham which hosts the Poplog website, It is
often used to introduce symbolic programming techniques to programmers of more
conventional languages like Pascal, who find POP syntax more familiar than that of Lisp.
One of POP-11's features is that it supports first-class functions.

R is widely used in new-style artificial intelligence, involving statistical computations,

numerical analysis, the use of Bayesian inference, neural networks and in general Machine
Learning. In domains like finance, biology, sociology or medicine it is considered as one of
the main standard languages. It offers several paradigms of programming like vectorial
computation, functional programming and object-oriented programming. It supports deep
learning libraries like MXNet, Keras or TensorFlow.

Python is widely used for artificial intelligence, with packages for several applications
including General AI, Machine Learning, Natural Language Processing and Neural
Networks.

CURRENT TRENDS IN AI

Here are 5 major AI trends .

1) The rise of AI-enabled chips

Unlike other software, AI heavily relies on specialized processors that complement the CPU.
Even the fastest and most advanced CPU may not improve the speed of training an AI model.
While inferencing, the model needs additional hardware to perform complex mathematical
computations to speed up tasks such as object detection and facial recognition.

In 2019, chip manufacturers such as Intel, NVIDIA, AMD, ARM and Qualcomm will ship
specialized chips that speed up the execution of AI-enabled applications. These chips will be
optimized for specific use cases and scenarios related to computer vision, natural language
processing and speech recognition. Next generation applications from the healthcare and
automobile industries will rely on these chips for delivering intelligence to end-users.2019 will
also be the year where hyperscale infrastructure companies like Amazon, Microsoft, Google, and
Facebook will increase the investments in custom chips based on field programmable gate arrays

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(FPGA) and application specific integrated circuits (ASIC). These chips will be heavily
optimized for running modern workloads based on AI and high-performance computing (HPC).
Some of these chips will also assist next-generation databases to speed up query processing and
predictive analytics.

2) Convergence of IoT and AI at the edge

In 2019, AI meets IoT at the edge computing layer. Most of the models trained in the public
cloud will be deployed at the edge.

Industrial IoT is the top use case for artificial intelligence that can perform outlier detection, root
cause analysis and predictive maintenance of the equipment.

Advanced ML models based on deep neural networks will be optimized to run at the edge. They
will be capable of dealing with video frames, speech synthesis, time-series data and unstructured
data generated by devices such as cameras, microphones, and other sensors.

IoT is all set to become the biggest driver of artificial intelligence in the enterprise. Edge devices
will be equipped with the special AI chips based on FPGAs and ASICs.

3) Interoperability among neural networks becomes key

One of the critical challenges in developing neural network models lies in choosing the right
framework. Data scientists and developers have to pick the right tool from a plethora of choices
that include Caffe2, PyTorch, Apache MXNet, Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit, and TensorFlow.
Once a model is trained and evaluated in a specific framework, it is tough to port the trained
model to another framework.

The lack of interoperability among neural network toolkits is hampering the adoption of AI. To
address this challenge, AWS, Facebook and Microsoft have collaborated to build Open Neural
Network Exchange (ONNX), which makes it possible to reuse trained neural network models
across multiple frameworks.

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In 2019, ONNX will become an essential technology for the industry. From researchers to edge
device manufacturers, all the key players of the ecosystem will rely on ONNX as the standard
runtime for inferencing.

4) Automated machine learning will gain prominence

One trend that's going to change the face of ML-based solutions fundamentally is AutoML. It
will empower business analysts and developers to evolve machine learning models that can
address complex scenarios without going through the typical process of training ML models.

When dealing with an AutoML platform, business analysts stay focused on the business problem
instead of getting lost in the process and workflow.

AutoML perfectly fits in between cognitive APIs and custom ML platforms. It delivers the right
level of customization without forcing the developers to go through the elaborate workflow.
Unlike cognitive APIs that are often considered as black boxes, AutoML exposes the same
degree of flexibility but with custom data combined with portability.

5) AI will automate DevOps through AIOps

Modern applications and infrastructure are generating log data that is captured for indexing,
searching, and analytics. The massive data sets obtained from the hardware, operating systems,
server software and application software can be aggregated and correlated to find insights and
patterns. When machine learning models are applied to these data sets, IT operations transform
from being reactive to predictive.

AN INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM SOLVING

This section contains a very brief introduction to problem solving. A more detailed
introduction is available in Moursund (2004).

The terms problem and problem solving are used throughout this document. We use these
terms in a very broad sense, so that they include:

• posing, clarifying, and answering questions

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 • posing, clarifying, and solving problems

• posing, clarifying, and accomplishing tasks

• posing, clarifying, and making decisions

• using higher-order, critical, and wise thinking to do all of the above

Problem solving consists of moving from a given initial situation to a desired goal situation.
That is, problem solving is the process of designing and carrying out a set of steps to reach a
goal. Figure 1.1 graphically represents the concept of problem solving. Usually the term problem
is used to refer to a situation where it is not immediately obvious how to reach the goal. The
exact same situation can be a problem for one person and not a problem (perhaps just a simple
activity or routine exercise) for another person.

A B
?
Given Desired
initial What can I do goal
situation. to move from situation.
A to B?

Problem solving—how to achieve the final goal?

There is a substantial amount of research literature as well as many practitioner books on

problem solving (Moursund, 2004). Here is a formal definition of the term problem. You—
personally—have a formal, well-defined (clearly defined) problem if the following four
conditions are satisfied:

1. You have a clearly defined given initial situation.

2. You have a clearly defined goal (a desired end situation). Some writers talk about
having multiple goals in a problem. However, such a multiple goal situation can be
broken down into a number of single goal problems.

3. You have a clearly defined set of resources—including your personal knowledge and
skills— that may be applicable in helping you move from the given initial situation to
the desired goal situation. There may be specified limitations on resources, such as

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 rules, regulations, and guidelines for what you are allowed to do in attempting to
solve a particular problem.

4. You have some ownership—you are committed to using some of your own resources,
such as your knowledge, skills, and energies, to achieve the desired final goal.

The resources (part 3 in the definition) available to a person certainly include their mind and
body. A carpenter typically has a wide range of hand and power tools, along with acquired
knowledge and skill in how to use the tools. In this book, we are particularly interested in ICT—
especially, AI—as one of the resources in problem solving. ICT systems can solve or help solve
a number of problems of interest to humans. From an educational point of view, this raises two
questions:

• If a computer can solve or substantially aid in solving a type of problem that students are
studying in school, what should students be learning about solving this type of problem?
(For example, should they be learning to compete with computers or work cooperatively
with computers?)

• Are there topics that should be eliminated from the curriculum or topics that should be
added to the curriculum because of the capabilities of computers to solve problems and/or
to assist in solving problems?

Think about these questions as you read this book. As a reader, one of your goals should be to
form well-reasoned answers for yourself. In addition, you should pose other, equally complex
questions that are of interest to you and others.

Key Ideas
The following diagram helps to summarize some of the ideas of this chapter.

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 Tools to augment Tools to augment
or extend mental or extend physcal
capabilities. capabilities.

Problem-solving
Team

Formal and informal

education and training to
develop mental and
physical capabilities, and
to learn to use tools.

Problem-solving team.

At the center of the diagram is a team consisting of one or more people working to solve a
problem or accomplish a task. The team makes use of tools that extend their mental capabilities
(such as reading, writing, arithmetic, calculators, and computers) and tools that extend their
physical capabilities (such as a carpenter’s tools, cars, and airplanes). The team has had
education and training in using available resources to solve problems and accomplish tasks. The
overall capabilities of the team are improved by providing the team with better tools, better
education, better training, and additional experience.

Over the centuries, humans have made substantial progress in producing tools to supplement
their physical capabilities. People routinely use eyeglasses, binoculars, telescopes, and
microscopes to augment and extend their eyesight. People routinely use bulldozers and trucks to
augment and extend their muscle power. However, we do not use the terms artificial eye,
artificial body, or artificial muscle to describe the theory and practice of developing and using
such tools. For the most part, people do not debate whether artificial muscle is as good or better
than “real, human” muscle. They do not think that a school that teaches people to drive large
trucks or bulldozers is inherently suspect, and that it would be better if such schools taught the
basics of moving goods and dirt by hand.

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 In retrospect, John McCarthy’s 1956 choice of the term artificial intelligence may have done
a disservice to the field. For many people, the term AI tends to be an emotion-laden term that is
suggestive of developing Frankenstein-like monsters that will replace humans.

This book explores the capabilities and limitations of ICT systems to process and use data,
information, knowledge, and wisdom to help automate cognitive tasks. It also explores the use of
such ICT in machines such as robots. Throughout this book we will use the term AI, although
from time to time we will use the term machine intelligence to help stress that we are talking
about something that is quite different than human intelligence.

STATE SPACE SEARCH (Introduction, general problem solving)

State space search and problem solving can be explained with a water jug problem.

Suppose we have a water jug problem:

You are given two jugs , a 4- gallon one and a 3- gallon one .Neither has any measuring
markers on it . There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water how can you get
exact 2 gallons of water into the 4- gallon jug?

The state space for this problem can be described as of ordered pairs of integers (x, y) ,
such that x=0,1,2,3 or 4 and y=0,1,2 or 3 , represents the number of gallons of water in the 4-
gallon jug , and y represents the quantity of water in the 3- gallon jug . The start state is (0,0) .
The goal state is (2,n) for any value of n ( since the problem does not specify how many gallons
need to be in the 3- gallon jug).The operators to be used to solve the problem can be described as
shown in Fig bellow. They are represented as rules whose left side are matched against the
current state and whose right sides describe the new state that results from applying the rule.

1- (x,y) (4,y) fill the 4- gallon jug

If x<4

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2- (x,y) (x,3) fill the 3-gallon jug

If x<3

3- (x,y) (x-d,y) pour some water out of the 4- gallon jug

If x>0

4- (x,y) (x-d,y) pour some water out of the 3- gallon jug

If y>0

5-(x,y) (0,y) empty the 4- gallon jug on the ground

If x>0

6-(x,y) (x,0) empty the 3- gallon jug on the ground

If y>0

7- (x,y) (4,y-(4-x)) pour water from the 3- gallon jug into the 4-gallon

If x+y>=4 and y>0 jug until the 4-galoon jug is full

8- (x,y) (x-(3-y),3)) pour water from the 4- gallon jug into the 3-gallon

If x+y>=3 and x>0 jug until the 3-gallon jug is full

9- (x,y) (x+y,0) pour all the water from the 3 -gallon jug into

If x+y<=4 and y>0 the 3-gallon jug

10- (x,y) (0,x+y) pour all the water from the 4 -gallon jug into

If x+y<=3 and x>0 the 3-gallon jug

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11- (0,2) (2,0) pour the 2-gallon from the 3 -gallon jug into

the 4-gallon jug

12- (2,y) (0,x) empty the 2 gallon in the 4 gallon on the ground

Production for the water jug problem

Gallons in the Gallons in the Rule Applied

4- gallon Jug 3- gallon

0 0

0 3 2

3 0 9

3 3 2

4 2 7

0 2 5 or 12

2 0 9 or 11

One solution to the water Jug problem.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM

The characteristics are

1. Decomposable to smaller or easier problems

2. Solution steps can be ignored or undone

3. Predictable problem universe

4. Good solutions are obvious

5. Uses internally consistent knowledge base

6. Requires lots of knowledge or uses knowledge to constrain solutions

7. Requires periodic interaction between human and computer

1.Is the problem decomposable ?

A very large and composite problem can be easily solved if it can be broken into smaller
problems and recursion could be used. Suppose we want to solve.

Ex:- ∫ x2 + 3x+sin2x cos 2x dx

This can be done by breaking it into three smaller problems and solving each by applying
specific rules. Adding the results the complete solution is obtained.

2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?

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Problem fall under three classes ignorable , recoverable and irrecoverable. This classification is
with reference to the steps of the solution to a problem. Consider thermo proving. We may later
find that it is of no help. We can still proceed further, since nothing is lost by this redundant step.
This is an example of ignorable solutions steps.

Now consider the 8 puzzle problem tray and arranged in specified order. While moving from the
start state towards goal state, we may make some stupid move and consider theorem proving. We
may proceed by first proving lemma. But we may backtrack and undo the unwanted move. This
only involves additional steps and the solution steps are recoverable.

Lastly consider the game of chess. If a wrong move is made, it can neither be ignored nor be
recovered. The thing to do is to make the best use of current situation and proceed. This is an
example of an irrecoverable solution steps.

1. Ignorable problems Ex:- theorem proving

                                         · In which solution steps can be ignored.

2. Recoverable problems Ex:- 8 puzzle

                                         · In which solution steps can be undone

3. Irrecoverable problems Ex:- Chess

                                         · In which solution steps can’t be undone

A knowledge of these will help in determining the control structure.

3.. Is the Universal Predictable?

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Problems can be classified into those with certain outcome (eight puzzle and water jug problems)
and those with uncertain outcome ( playing cards) . in certain – outcome problems, planning
could be done to generate a sequence of operators that guarantees to a lead to a solution.
Planning helps to avoid unwanted solution steps. For uncertain out come problems, planning can
at best generate a sequence of operators that has a good probability of leading to a solution. The
uncertain outcome problems do not guarantee a solution and it is often very expensive since the
number of solution and it is often very expensive since the number of solution paths to be
explored increases exponentially with the number of points at which the outcome can not be
predicted. Thus one of the hardest types of problems to solve is the irrecoverable, uncertain –
outcome problems ( Ex:- Playing cards).

4. Is good solution absolute or relative ?                                         (Is the solution a state or a

path ?)

There are two categories of problems. In one, like the water jug and 8 puzzle problems, we are
satisfied with the solution, unmindful of the solution path taken, whereas in the other category
not just any solution is acceptable. We want the best, like that of traveling sales man problem,
where it is the shortest path. In any – path problems, by heuristic methods we obtain a solution
and we do not explore alternatives. For the best-path problems all possible paths are explored
using an exhaustive search until the best path is obtained.

5. The knowledge base consistent ?

In some problems the knowledge base is consistent and in some it is not. For example consider
the case when a Boolean expression is evaluated. The knowledge base now contains theorems
and laws of Boolean Algebra which are always true. On the contrary consider a knowledge base
that contains facts about production and cost. These keep varying with time. Hence many
reasoning schemes that work well in consistent domains are not appropriate in inconsistent
domains.

Ex.Boolean expression evaluation.

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6. What is the role of Knowledge?

Though one could have unlimited computing power, the size of the knowledge base available for
solving the problem does matter in arriving at a good solution. Take for example the game of
playing chess, just the rues for determining legal moves and some simple control mechanism is
sufficient to arrive at a solution. But additional knowledge about good strategy and tactics could
help to constrain the search and speed up the execution of the program. The solution would then
be realistic.

Consider the case of predicting the political trend. This would require an enormous amount of
knowledge even to be able to recognize a solution , leave alone the best.

Ex:- 1. Playing chess 2. News paper understanding

7. Does the task requires interaction with the person.

The problems can again be categorized under two heads.

1. Solitary in which the computer will be given a problem description and will produce an
answer, with no intermediate communication and with he demand for an explanation of the
reasoning process. Simple theorem proving falls under this category . given the basic rules and
laws, the theorem could be proved, if one exists.

Ex:- theorem proving (give basic rules & laws to computer)

2. Conversational, in which there will be intermediate communication between a person and the
computer, wither to provide additional assistance to the computer or to provide additional
informed information to the user, or both problems such as medical diagnosis fall under this
category, where people will be unwilling to accept the verdict of the program, if they can not
follow its reasoning.

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Ex:- Problems such as medical diagnosis.

8. Problem Classification

Actual problems are examined from the point of view , the task here is examine an input and
decide which of a set of known classes.

Ex:- Problems such as medical diagnosis , engineering design.

CONTROL STRATEGIES

We will now consider the problem of deciding which rule to apply next during the
process of searching for a solution for a solution. This question arises when more than one rule
will have its left side match the current state.

The first requirement of a control strategy is that it must cause motion. The second
requirement of a control strategy is that issue must be systematic. We will explain these two with
respect to water jug problem. If we have implemented choosing the first operator and then the
one which matches the first one, then we would not have solved the problem. If we follow any
strategy which can cause some motion then will lead to a solution. But if it is not followed
systematically , and then got the solution. One day to follow a systematic control strategy is to
construct a tree with the initial state as its root. By applying all possible combinations from the
first level leaf nodes. Continue the process until some rule produces a goal state. For the water
jug problem a tree can be constructed as given in following diagram.

The control strategy for the search process is called breadth first search. Other
systematical control strategies are also available . for example, we can select one single branch
of a tree until it yields a solution or until some pre specified depth has been reached. If not we go
back and explore to other branches . this is called depth – first – search. The water jug problems

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will lead to an answer by adoption any control strategy because the problem is simple. This is not
always the case.

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