AGRICULTURAL ARTS

PLANT BREEDING - THE ESSENTIAL PLATFORM FOR SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE
Plant breeding is the business and science of crop improvement. It is an innovation based sector,
focused on developing plants better adapted to human needs. The demand for new varieties of agricultural
and horticultural crops, adapted to our unique growing conditions, is never ending, driven by the challenges of
new pest and disease pressures, weather patterns and changing market requirements. As the world faces up
to the major challenges of population growth, climate change and pressure on natural resources, the
contribution of plant breeding is increasingly recognized as a key factor in addressing global concerns over
food security and sustainable development and in stimulating a vibrant economy.

Origins of plant breeding

The origins of plant breeding stretch back thousands of years to the first primitive farmers who selected the
best plants in one year to provide seed for their next crop. More recent scientific and technological
developments have allowed a much greater rate of improvement.
Until the early 1960s, plant breeding in Britain was largely confined to publicly funded research. This situation
changed dramatically in the mid-1960s, with the passing into law of the 1964 Plant Varieties & Seeds Act. This
legislation introduced a system of royalty payments on individual plant varieties, known as Plant Variety
Rights, and triggered a rapid expansion of plant breeding as a commercial enterprise in its own right.
Gregor Mendel first provided a scientific explanation of genetic inheritance in the mid19th century. In
his experiments with peas, Mendel crossed plants with different characteristics such as whether the seed is
round or wrinkled. He found that the offspring had either round or wrinkled seed, the same as the parents
with no intermediate types, and that when these offspring were crossed with each other, the round and
wrinkled seed types were inherited in a stable 3:1 ratio. Mendel’s work went largely unrecognized in his own
lifetime and it was not until the early 20th century that it was rediscovered to form the explanation of heredity
and pave the way for modern plant breeding.
Visit www.plantbreedingmatters.com/history.php to see a video clip on ‘Variation, inheritance and the work of
Mendel’

Norman Borlaugand his colleagues working in Mexico made a major breakthrough in scientific
plant breeding when they were able to introduce dwarfing genes into wheat to produce new varieties with
much higher yield potential and greater response to fertilizer than traditional varieties. This started the Green
Revolution, a step change in the development of higher yielding varieties for the developing world and the
foundation of much of today’s crop breeding. Norman Borlaug
To see a video clip on ‘Norman Borlaug and selective breeding of wheat’ visit
www.plantbreedingmatters.com/history.php
Plant breeding today Modern plant breeding is a sophisticated, high investment business. Much of the basic
underpinning crop genetic research is still conducted in the public sector, but commercial plant breeders
provide the only route to market for improved crop varieties. More than 60 plant breeding companies, based
in the UK, are active across the entire spectrum of plant species used for food, feed and energy. Plant breeding
makes a significant contribution to the nation’s gross domestic product and to the growth and
competitiveness of the UK’s food economy.

The basic aim of all plant breeding techniques is to generate new genetic diversity and then select plants with
the desired improved characteristics. The creation of each new variety is a complex, costly and skilled
operation. It is also time-consuming – early-stage varieties in today’s breeding programmed must anticipate
the needs of farmers, consumers and the environment in ten years’ time and beyond! Breeding techniques
vary between crop species, but the scientific principles of plant breeding remain true to Mendel’s first
discovery that selected parent plants can be cross-pollinated to combine desired characteristics in a single
variety. These characteristics are determined by genes – units of hereditary material that are transferred from
one generation to the next. Since each plant contains many thousands of genes, and the breeder is seeking to
combine a range of traits in one plant (such as high yield, quality and resistance to disease), developing a
successful variety has been compared to playing a fruit machine not with three reels but several hundred. The
skill of the plant breeder lies in improving the chances of hitting the jackpot by combining all the desired
characteristics in the same variety.
”Future food-production increases will have to come from higher yields. Unless progress with agricultural
yields remains very strong, the next century will experience sheer human misery that, on a numerical scale,
will exceed the worst of everything that has come before...” Norman E. Borlaug, 1970

Creating new varieties

The female parent is emasculated so that it cannot self pollinate and pollen is transferred from the male
parent with a paint brush to make the cross
Pollinated plants are bagged to ensure that the female parent receives pollen only from the chosen male
parent
Seed is collected from the pollinated plants and sown out to produce an F1 population in which all the plants
are uniform; this is oilseed rape
Seed from the F1 plants is collected and sown to produce an F2 population in which the plants, in this case
wheat, are genetically very diverse

Plant breeding in practice

The plant breeder starts to select the plants with the best characteristics from which seed will be saved for
sowing the next generation; these are field beans
The process of selection and resowing continues and moves from the glasshouse into small plots in the field
At each stage the breeder is measuring yield and quality characteristics and looking for disease resistance
The final stage of selection is from yield plots grown in the field at diverse locations around the country before
the variety is entered into registration trials. This is an oat trial being harvested
Hybrid breeding exploits the performance boost derived in a single season from the first cross
between two carefully selected parent lines. This breeding method is widely used to produce commercial
varieties of field vegetables, sugar beet, maize and oilseed rape. F1 hybrid varieties are unique in expressing
heterocyst, or ‘hybrid vigour’ in the growing crops for a single year. This may result in higher yields, greater
uniformity, or improvements in quality. While inbred lines breed true year after year, the performance gains
of F1 hybrids are not maintained as subsequent generations segregate to produce highly variable offspring.
Enhanced breeding with increased genetic knowledge and improved technology, plant breeders have
developed ways to enhance the speed, accuracy and scope of the breeding process. The lengthy interval from
initial cross to commercial variety can be reduced in a number of ways: maintaining parallel selection
programmesin northern and southern hemispheres allows two generations to be produced each year; single
seed descent enables large numbers of small plants to be cultivated in artificial growth rooms, with two or
more generations produced per year; doubled haploid breeding allows breeders to produce true
breeding seed of a variety within a single generation; mini-tuber breedinginpotatoes speeds up the
slow multiplication process by producing miniature plants under greenhouse conditions.
MINI-TUBER BREEDING
Potato plants are micro propagated in the laboratory from tested pathogen-free mother plants
The plantlets are grown on special media in aseptic conditions
Many micro plants can be produced very quickly from
Modern scientific techniques also enable plant breeders to introduce new sources of genetic diversity and to
establish whether desired characteristics are present at an early stage in the breeding programmed: embryo
rescue and assisted pollination allow breeders to expand the range of available characters by making crosses
between plants which would not normally produce viable offspring; advances in genomic science have
transformed breeders’ understanding of the function and location of individual genes or combinations of
genes, and the speed with which genetic variation can be analysed;
Plant breeding for better productivity
Plant breeding contributes to increased crop productivity in many different ways:
Physical yield Breeding improved crop varieties which convert more of their biomass into productive
yield is the single biggest contributor to improved crop output. The development of shorter-strawed cereal
varieties is a striking example of how this has been achieved. By transforming more of the crop’s productive
energy into valuable grain, the introduction of these ‘semi-dwarf’ varieties marked a 20% step change in UK
cereal yields.
Disease resistance Progress in plant breeding has significantly improved the genetic resistance of
modern crop varieties against the threat of viral and fungal infection, reducing harvest losses and enabling
crops to realize their yield potential. Key examples include resistance to rust and mildew in cereals, rhizomania
in sugar beet and late blight in potatoes.
Physical characteristics Changing a crop’s physical structure can also boost yields. The
development of semi-leafless field peas, for example, helped to boost intrinsic yield while improving the crop’s
standing ability and the efficiency of harvesting
Time of maturity Plant breeding technology has brought major improvements in the uniformity with which
crops ripen ready for harvest. This not only reduces potential crop losses at harvest (as in the case of pod
shatter in oilseed rape), but has also transformed growers’ ability to mechanise harvesting operations in the
field vegetable sector.
Other agronomic factors By improving crops’ ability to cope with a range of other agronomic pressures,
advances in plant breeding continue to underpin progress in agricultural productivity.
They include: genetic resistance to pests, such as nematode resistance in potatoes; shortening
the crop life cycle, to expand a crop’s geographical growing area, e.g. forage maize; stress
tolerance, such as frost resistance in field vegetables, to extend the seasonal availability of homegrown
produce.
Food safety and nutrition are key priorities for today’s health-conscious consumers. Progress in plant breeding
can deliver health-related benefits in a number of ways.
Expanding choice in fresh produce By providing continuous improvements in the quality, taste, convenience
and seasonality of our fresh fruit and vegetables, innovation in plant breeding is increasing choice, diversity
and excitement for consumers, contributing positively to the nation’s five-a-day healthy eating targets.
Improving food safety Progress in plant breeding is also addressing key food safety concerns.
Improvements in disease resistance, for example, can help reduce levels of harmful mycotoxins caused by
fungal infections, while quality improvements can help reduce or eliminate anti-nutritional factors such as
erucic acid in oilseed rape
Best Management Practices for Crop Pests
Crop pests, including insects, weeds, nematodes, and plant disease organisms cause millions of dollars in
damage to Colorado crops each year. Uncontrolled pests can outcompete crops for water, nutrients, and
sunlight, causing producers economic losses. Pesticides often are used as the primary control method in
agriculture because of their convenience and cost effectiveness. However, along with these benefits have
come some drawbacks. Concerns about potential environmental problems, such as groundwater
contamination and problems with pest resistance, have caused many agriculturalists to look for alternative
pest management methods.
Farmers and other land managers can protect Colorado’s water resources by implementing Best Management
Practices (BMPs) that reduce excessive chemical use while controlling pests. A number of new and traditional
management practices can help crops compete effectively against pests. Pest management is a complex
process because producers must contend with numerous pest species at any given time. The Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) approach combines chemical control when necessary, with cultural and biological
practices to form a comprehensive program for managing pests. IPM emphasizes maintaining pests below the
economic threshold while applying the minimum amount of chemical necessary for control.
Integrated Pest Management IPMoffers growers an array of tools to help manage pest problems.
At the foundation of this approach are good growing practices, preventive pest management measures, and a
regular pest monitoring program that enables producers to accurately determine if a pest control measure is
economically justified. IPM uses a common sense approach to find the weak link in a pest’s life cycle. Sound
pest programs do not attempt to eradicate pests, but rather to manage them so that economic crop losses are
minimized.
IPM is the primary BMP for pest management. It involves combining practices such as:
■ selecting crops and varieties which are resistant to pest pressures ■ timing planting and harvest dates to
minimize pest damage ■ rotating crops ■ monitoring pest and natural enemy populations ■ employing
beneficial insects and other biological controls.
The philosophy behind the IPM approach is to create unfavorable conditions for pest buildup by enhancing
crop vigor and by protecting natural enemies that aid in controlling pest populations.
Nonchemical Pest Control Practices IPMmay result in reduced pesticide use by employing
preventive pest management and nonchemical pest controls. Nonchemical pest management methods
include crop rotation, resistant varieties, cultural practices, and biological controls. These methods are basic to
effective IPM and should be the first line of defense. However, producers must plan for their use in advance of
pest outbreaks to successfully use nonchemical management tools.
Plants have many natural characteristics for keeping pests at bay: repellent or toxic chemicals, thorns, hairs,
and resistant tissues. The greatest plant breeding successes have been in the selection of disease resistant
varieties, but insect tolerant lines have also been developed. With some pests, such as plant viruses, the only
effective control is the use of resistant varieties and clean planting material. Resistant varieties will not
interfere with other pest control measures and may reduce the need for pesticide treatment. However,
resistance is not available for all problems. Potential drawbacks include decreased yields, increased
susceptibility to other pests, and shifts in predominant pest biotypes as a result of over-exposure to the
resistance genes. Examples of pest resistant Colorado crops include Russian wheat aphid tolerant winter
wheat, curly top virus resistant sugarbeets, European corn borer resistant corn hybrids, sorghum unpalatable
to birds, and dry beans with tolerance to white mold and halo blight. Check with your seed dealer to
determine what sources of resistance are available in the crops you grow.
Other Cultural Practices
Pests have a more difficult time getting established when crop plants are thriving. For example, many late
emerging annual weeds cannot compete successfully once the crop canopy shades the row. Insects such as
spider mites thrive on drought stressed plants, but are much less competitive on vigorous crops. Producers
should employ cultural practices to their advantage. Optimum plant population, row spacing, fertility, and
irrigation are practices that can improve crop vigor, thereby reducing pest competitiveness and impact.
Growers should evaluate their production practices for areas where they can enhance crop health and vigor.
Usually, these improvements will increase crop yield and economic return. Adjusting planting, tillage, and
harvest dates can sometimes help crops avoid pests. Early tillage destroys weeds where some insects lay their
eggs. Tillage also is very important for destroying volunteer crops where pests such as Russian wheat aphid or
wheat curl mite mayoverwinteror become established early.
Early plantingmay help the shorter season corn varieties escape economic damage from second
generation European corn borer. Planting too early in the spring or too late in the fall has some drawbacks
that producers should consider. Late frost and slowed emergence can make plants more susceptible to disease
and insect pressure. A good technique for many growers is to plant a range of maturity dates, beginning as
soon as the soil is at the proper temperature for germination. Producers may want to delay the planting of
fields with problem weeds to allow for weed emergence and cultivation prior to crop establishment. Winter
wheat growers can avoid wheat streak mosaic and Russian wheat aphid by delaying fall planting. In some
cases, crops can be harvested early instead of spraying. Harvesting alfalfa early may substitute for pesticide in
reducing alfalfa weevil populations. An early first cutting can decrease the weevil population by mechanically
damaging larvae and exposing them to predation and weather. Early harvesting is also a good way to manage
foliar diseases in alfalfa. Harvesting corn for silage or high moisture grain may prevent losses caused by lodging
due to stalk rot or corn borer.
Biological Pest Control
Beneficial organisms can help control weeds, diseases, and insects in crop fields when broad spectrum
pesticides are avoided. These organisms may occur naturally or may be purposely introduced. Beneficials
include predatory insects and mites, parasitic insects, and microbial organisms. Predators such as lady beetles
and green lacewings feed on plant-eating pests. Insect parasites, like the tiny braconid wasp, lay eggs on or
inside the developing pest. The single-celled protozoa, Nosema, is a microbial pathogen of grasshoppers.
Additionally, grazing animals such as sheep can help control difficult weed species such as leafy spurge. Given
favorable conditions, naturally occurring and introduced biological controls can do an excellent job of reducing
some pests below economic injury leDue to the cost of introducing biological controls, conserving the natural
enemies already in your field is a useful IPM technique. Unfortunately, beneficial insects are often killed when
broad spectrum pesticides are applied. To conserve beneficials in your fields:
■ preserve habitat and alternate food sources for beneficials■ learn to distinguish beneficial insects from pests
■ minimize broad spectrum pesticide applications ■ use selective pesticides that are less toxic to beneficials■
treat only those portions of the field where pests cause economic levels of damage.
These natural controls often work more slowly than pesticides, but they can be effective, environmentally
friendly, and economically sustainable levels.
Nonchemical Weed Control Measures
Tillage is the primary nonchemical weed management tool used by crop growers. Combining tillage with band
or spot herbicide treatment is often a viable approach. Crop production without the use of herbicides is
difficult because of the expense and lack of labor for hand weeding. Nonetheless, producers can reduce
reliance on herbicides by incorporating crop rotations with other cultural practices, such as delayed planting
dates, narrow row spacing, and good crop management to improve crop competitiveness against weeds.
Occasionally, the best weed control strategy is to rotate weedy fields to a crop especially competitive against
your major weed problem. For example, going from corn to a solid-seeded forage legume such as alfalfa can
effectively reduce wild proso millet. Rotating small grains to corn can help reduce wild oat problems.
Additionally, rotating vegetable crop fields to almost any agronomic crop can break the pest cycle and reduce
chemical impacts. There are currently no commercially feasible means of using insects or disease organisms to
control weeds in Colorado crop fields. However, the Colorado Department of Agriculture is working to initiate
biological control programs for some of the noxious weed problems in the state.
Insect ManagementThe IPM approach was originally conceived for insect control and offers growers
a number of potential tools to manage insects. Among other benefits, this approach increases consumer
confidence in the food supply, decreases possibility of occupational health risks, and reduces the possibility of
insect resistance to insecticides. A sound insect management program does not attempt to eradicate insects,
but to manage them to minimize economic crop losses. IPM techniques for insect control include: 1) selecting
crops and varieties which are resistant to insect pressures, 2) timing planting and harvest dates to minimize
insect damage, 3) monitoring pest and natural enemy populations, and 4) employing beneficial insects and
nontoxic biological pesticides. Well-timed insecticide application can also be an important component of an
IPM program.
Disease Management Plantpathogenssuch as fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasms, and
nematodes often can be managed by employing good sanitation and cultural practices with occasional
chemical controls. Using clean seed and propagation stock and planting disease resistant varieties can greatly
reduce disease incidence. Other IPM techniques for disease management include: 1) destroying alternate host
plants, 2) rotating crops, and 3) managing soil and water for optimum crop growth. Disease resistant crops
continue to be a cornerstone of plant breeding efforts. Resistance does not, however, mean immunity from
disease. Growers must still provide conditions that enable crops to thrive and ensure that they use clean
planting materials. Additionally, more virulent microbial pests can be selected by continuously using only one
disease management strategy, such as host plant resistance. Repeated planting of fields with crops susceptible
to soil-borne pathogens, such as Verticillium or Rhizoctonia, favors the buildup of these organisms. Selection
of fields with reduced disease risk should be made for planting these crops. Rotation of crops and crop
varieties and using clean seed stock are basic BMPs for disease management. Pathogens often overwinter in
crop residue or on alternate hosts near the field. Producers need to know and understand the life cycles of
their pest problems in order to manage them. Weeds that serve as reservoirs of disease inoculum should be
controlled
They must be applied to crops on a preventive basis to be effective. However, producers should base these
applications on forecasting tools such as temperature models or effective scouting. Fungicides have been
found in groundwater in agricultural regions, but usually at very low levels. Producers should follow all of the
appropriate BMPs for the proper use of these chemicals to protect water resources.
Summary Pest management decisions affect producer profitability, as well as the environment. Preventing
pest problems by a sound crop management program is often an economic alternative to pesticide use. The
IPM approach applies preventive measures first and then follows a decision-making process designed to help
producers arrive at the best answer to their individual pest problems. Producers are advised to consider the
following questionsbefore a pest management decision is reached.
1) Is control economically justified?
2) Are nonchemical control methods available and practical?
3) If pesticide application is the only method available, are there choices of products to consider?
4) Does the label of the product selected contain groundwater advisories or other environmental caution
statements? 5) Can the pesticide be applied in a way that reduces rate, maximizes effectiveness,

Cereals are belong to a group of cultivated plants from the colepoaceae(grass). Their grains contain the
high level of starch and we use it for consumer, industrial and fodder. Whole – grain is a base of a healthy diet.
It should provide about 40% of daily food, perfectly if cereals aregrown in organic environment and there are
not genetically modified.
Due to the cultivation method we can divided cereals into: Spring cereals-annual plants, which the entire life
cycle takes place in a period of growing, Winter crops- annual plants, which to start the cycle all
developmental need of the period of low temperatures occurring in winter.
Corn – annual plant which come from Mexico a height of 2.5m. Its part of utility is a flask with seeds.
Nowadays, we usually eat cornflakes, groats, flour, popcorn and very popular corn oil. Corn Corn
The Corn grains contain 60-70% of starch, quite a lot of roughage, proteins, vitamins from the group B and also
vitamins: D, E, K and provitamin A. The corn grains are a source of Omega -3 acids. The corn is a perfect source
of minerals, ex: Corn Corn
•potassium •sodium •calcium •magnesium •iron •copper •manganese •phosphorus •selenium •zinc and
iodine Corn Corn
Wheatis a cereal grain, 1,5m high which the biggest growing are in Europe, East Asia, India, both Americas
and in Australia. Wheat Wheat
It is mainly processed into flour and used in baking, confectionery, pasta production and culinary products.
People produce also semolina, cereal. It’s used in the manufacture of starch, malt brewing and dry gluten.
It contains a lot of starch and other carbohydrate, 11% of protein, 2% of fat, 13% of fibre, 1% of mineral (iron,
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, manganese) and also high amount of vitamins of B group
and vitamin PP. Wheat germs are rich in vitamin E and enzymes. Wheat Wheat
Barley -cereal with a height not exceeding 1m, producing four or sixears. It’s cultivated in Europe, Asia,
Africa, USA, Argentina. Barley is used to obtain malt in the production of beer, for making porridge, and from
the burnt grain is obtained surrogate of coffee.
It contains: 70% of carbohydrate, 11% protein, 10% fiber, 2% fats and minerals (sodium, potassium,
phosphorus), and vitamin B.
In young, delicate blades, use for the juice production, is 2 times more magnesium, 5 times more iron, 25
times more potassium and 37 times more calcium than wheat! Young shoots also contain a high content of
beta carotene, vitamins B1, B2, B3, B6, E and C. Barley Barley
Triticale - artificially bred hybrid of the two cereals -wheat and rye, which combines features of both
species. In its natural state does not occur. Is mainly used as feed for cattle, pigs, sheep and birds. Triticale
Triticale
It contains 12.2% protein, about 55% carbohydrate (eg starch), 1.4% fat. Triticale protein has a higher lysine
content than wheat. Triticale Triticale
Oats -annual crops, the blades do not exceed 1 m height. The oat grain is used for animals’ feed and for the
production of groats and flakes. Oats has a very high nutritional value because of the fact to hold up to twice
more fat than other cereals. Oats
These are mostly polyunsaturated fatty acids, which in addition to providing energy have a beneficial effect on
the body.
Oats is an important nutrient, protein-rich (high biological value, because it contains 41% of valuable amino
acids), calcium, magnesium, silicon, potassium, iron, zinc and vitamins B, PP, K, E. It is rich in low starch
polysaccharides, f orming the so-called. fiber, essential in the daily human diet. Oats Oats

Teff -a very old variety grain domesticated in the north-east. Africa, even before the birth of Christ. Teff’s
grain can have the colour; from milky white, the most prized, to almost black. TeffTeff
The darker the colour, the stronger the flavor. In Ethiopia, traditionally grown teff for flour to bake a local
"bread." It is also used to produce alcoholic beverages. TeffTeff
Teff has a very high nutritional value. It’s got a high content of calcium, iron, magnesium, grain is also
distinguished by a high content of folic acid, antioxidants and dietary fiber. It contains all the amino acids,
especially a lot of methionine, cysteine and lysine. TeffTeff
Millet-wheat originating in Asia, is one of the oldest cultivated plants, which produced millet and flour and
less gruel and small bread. Cereal can be also used for the production of starch and sugar must. Millet Millet
The main component of millet grain are approximately 59% carbohydrates, protein 10 to 18% and fat from 3.6
to 4.8%. They also contain vitamins B3, A, PP, as well as mineral salts: magnesium, potassium, phosphorus,
silicon, iron, copper and do not contain gluten. Millet Millet

Rice -one of the most widely cultivated cereal in the world, which is the basis for food 1/3 of the population
of the Earth. Its blades are thick and plurality, its grows to 1,5 m height of 1,5 m. Rice Rice
It is grown in hot climates are warm and the entire length of the globe. Dining area are grains that are eaten
cooked as a separate dish or used in the preparation of soups, main courses and desserts.
Rice With grains also produces rice flour and alcoholic beverages (beer, rice, sake, arak).To prepare the rice for
consumption it is subjected to a process of "grinding" in which the grain is separated from the shell. At this
stage, the resulting product is a brown rice, brown. In order to obtain white rice is subjected to polishing,
where the shell is removed. Rice Rice
Sorghum -grass growing up to 5 m in height, which grows on damp areas of the equatorial zone, tropics
and subtropics. Today outside Africa are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Central America. Sorghum
Sorghum
Fruit -cocci are not rich source of nutrients. Contain up to 70% of carbohydrates (mainly starch), and 18%
protein (with significant share of two amino acids: lysine and tryptophan), about 5% fat, vitamins (mainly
groups B), minerals, especially magnesium, calcium and iron
Rye -the species of grass coming from the Middle East or Central Asia. It is one of the most important
cereals (in economic aspect). It is grown as an annual plant in sandy or loam soil. Rye is mostly a cereal winter
crops, less spring grains. It is characterized by high resistance to frost and small requirements of soil and heat.
Rye is used as feed for farm animals and as the ingredient of bread. Rye Rye
Rye contains 9, 5% protein and 1, 6% fat and has a high content of carbohydrates, which represent 7278% of
the weight, occurring mostly in the form of starch.It also contains fiber, and compared with other cereals such
as wheat has a large amount of minerals potassium, calcium, zinc, copper, manganese, iron. It also contains
vitamins B1, B2,PP, E.

Nutrient Management
Nutrient levels should optimize crop yields while minimizing movement in surface water and groundwater
(NRCS Practice Code 590). A sound soil fertility program is the foundation upon which a profitable farming
business must be built. Agricultural fertilizers are a necessity for producing abundant, high-quality food, feed
and fiber crops. Using fertilizer nutrients in the proper amounts and applying them correctly are both
economically and environmentally important to the long-term profitability and sustainability of crop
production. The fertilizer nutrients that have potential to become groundwater or surface water pollutants are
nitrogen and phosphorus. In general, other commonly used fertilizer nutrients do not cause concern as
pollutants. Because erosion and runoff are the two major ways nonpoint-source pollutants move into surface
water resources, practices that reduce erosion or runoff are considered best management practices. Similarly,
practices that limit the buildup of nutrients in the soil, which can leach to groundwater or be picked up in
runoff, and practices that ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals also are considered BMPs. In general,
soil conservation and water quality protection are mutually beneficial. Therefore, the BMPs described here are
the best means of reducing agricultural nonpoint-source pollution resulting from fertilizer nutrients. The goal
of nutrient management is to apply nutrients in the correct amounts and forms at the correct time to produce
optimum crop yields while minimizing the movement of nutrients into surface and groundwater.
Nitrogenis a part of all plant and animal proteins. Therefore, human survival depends on an abundant
supply of nitrogen in nature. Approximately 80 percent of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas, but most plants
cannot use this form of gaseous nitrogen. Fertilizer nitrogen must be applied to the soils to make profitable
crop yields. To the degree possible, rely on nitrogen recommendations based on Louisiana research. Nitrogen
fertilizer rates for row crops vary, depending on the age of the crop and soil texture. Nitrogen should be
applied according to criteria established to prevent excess
runoff and leaching (losses). Research suggests the optimum time to apply nitrogen fertilizer is April. Nitrogen
applied at that time will be available during the peak vegetative growth period, when a plant’s root system is
extensive enough to use available nitrogen. Injecting nitrogen below the soil surface or incorporating
Nitrogen fertilizer with tillage will reduce the possibility of nitrogen runoff. The source of nitrogen is not
important if applied in accordance with good agronomic principles. If organic materials are used as nitrogen
sources, they should be tested for nitrogen content, the amount of soluble nitrogen and the amount of
nitrogen expected to be mineralized from the organic fraction during the growing season. This amount should
not exceed the chemical fertilizer nitrogen recommendation for the crop. High soil organic matter levels also
contribute to plant nitrogen. Decomposition of organic matter results in inorganic nitrogen forms such as
ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-). Ammonium also can be converted into nitrate by a process known as
nitrification. Both ammonium and nitrate forms are soluble and readily available for plant uptake. The
ammonium form is attracted to soil particles, however, so it does not readily leach through the soil with
rainfall or irrigation water. Nitrate, on the other hand, is repelled by soil particles and can leach into
groundwater. Both can be lost via surface runoff. Excessive nitrate concentrations in surface water can
accelerate aquatic plant growth, which can be detrimental to water quality.
Phosphorus Naturally occurring phosphorous exists in a phosphate form as soluble inorganic phosphate,
soluble phosphate, particulate phosphate or mineral phosphate. The mineral forms of phosphorus (calcium,
iron and aluminum phosphate) are low in solubility. Uptake of applied phosphorous fertilizer by the plant will
be closely related to soil pH. Soils with low pH will form insoluble iron and aluminum phosphate, and soils with
high pH will form insoluble calcium phosphate. Correcting soil pH is an important first step in the management
of phosphorous where an optimum range is 5.5-7.0.
PotassiumPotassium is needed to produce adequate row crop yields in Louisiana. Proper soil testing to
determine soil potassium levels is important for determining proper application rates. Research-based
recommended potash rates are available through the LSU AgCenter’s Cooperative Extension Service as are
testing for and recommendations on phosphorus and nitrogen.
Soil TestingSoil testing is the foundation of a sound nutrient management program. A soil test is a series
of chemical analyses on soil that estimate whether levels of essential plant nutrients are sufficient to produce
a desired crop and yield. When not taken up by a crop, some nutrients, particularly nitrogen, can be lost from
the soil by leaching, runoff or mineralization. Others, like phosphorus, react with soil minerals over time to
form compounds that are not available for uptake by plants. Soil testing can be used to estimate how much
loss has occurred and predict which nutrients and how much of those nutrients should be added to produce a
particular crop and yield. Take soil tests at least every three years or at the beginning of a different crop
rotation. Soil testing is particularly important if the field in question has undergone precision leveling.
Generally Recommended Practices
1. Soil test for nutrient status and pH to determine the amounts of additional nutrients needed to reach
designated yield goals and the amount of lime needed to correct soil acidity problems, determine the organic
matter concentration to decide how much of these nutrients the particular soil is capable of holding, optimize
farm income by avoiding excessive fertilization and reducing nutrient losses from leaching and runoff, and
identify other yield-limiting factors such as high levels of salts or sodium that may affect soil structure,
infiltration rates, surface runoff and, ultimately, groundwater quality.
2. Base fertilizer applications on soil test results, realistic yield goals, moisture prospects, crop nutrient
requirements, past fertilization practices and previous cropping history. 3. Manage low soil pH by applying
lime according to the soil test to reduce soil acidity and improve fertilizer efficiency, improve decomposition of
crop residues and enhance the effectiveness of certain soil-applied herbicides. 4. Time nitrogen applications to
correspond closely with crop uptake patterns that will increase nutrient use/efficiency and minimize leaching
and runoff losses from fields.
5. Inject fertilizers or incorporate surface applications in conventionally tilled systems when possible to
increase accessibility of fertilizer nutrients to plant roots, reduce volatilization losses of ammonia nitrogen
sources and reduce nutrient losses from erosion and runoff.
6. Use animal manures and organic materials when available and economically feasible to improve soil tilth,
water-holding capacity and soil structure and to recycle nutrients and reduce the need for commercial
inorganic fertilizers.
7. Rotate crops when feasible to improve total nutrient recovery with different crop rooting patterns, reduce
erosion and runoff and reduce diseases, insects and weeds.
8. Use legumes, where adapted, to replace part or all of crop needs for commercial nitrogen fertilizer, reduce
erosion and nutrient losses and maintain residue cover on the soil surface.
9. Control nutrient losses in erosion and runoff by using appropriate structural controls, adopting conservation
tillage practices (where appropriate), properly managing crop residues, leveling land, using filter strips (where
possible) and implementing other soil and water conservation practices.
10. Skillfully handle and apply fertilizer by properly calibrating and maintaining application equipment,
properly cleaning equipment and disposing of excess fertilizers containers and wash water, and storing
fertilizers in a safe place.
Plant Propagation – is the technique of making two or more plants where previously there was one.
By using various methods we can produce exact replicas that perpetuate much loved varieties or we can
create entire new plants that may become favorites of the future.

Types of Plant Propagation

 Sexual Propagation Recombination of genetic materials to form uniquely genetic individual through
the formation of seed 
Asexual Propagation Use of vegetative organs to create plantlets genetically identical to parent plant
(clone)
Reasons for Sexual Propagation
 Create new varieties
 Create resistance to insects and disease
 Create new flower and/or foliage color
 Breaking Dormancy
 Stratification – exposing the seed to cold
 Scarification – abrading the seed coat
 Soaking – use moderately warm, not boiling, water
 Acid Soak – tough seed coats require mild acid solution to soften the seed coat
Germination Requirements
 Optimum temperature range
 Light requirement
 Moisture requirement
 Information charts exist for most plants
To Cover or Not To Cover
 Seeds come in a wide range of sizes and shapes, which affects how they are sown
 Some seeds need light to germinate and must not be covered others need darkness and must be covered
 For those that need to be covered a good rule is to cover the seed to just it’s own depthCreate new form and
texture
What Happens Next?
 Seed imbibes water and swells
 Seed coat splits
 Radical appears
 Seed leaves appear
 First true leaves appear
 Monocot vs. Dicot
Germination Aftercare  If seed flats have been covered, uncover the seedlings by gradually raising the
cover and then finally removing it  Good ventilation combined with a mild fungicide should control most
dampening off diseases  A mild all purpose liquid fertilizer will keep them happy  Once seedlings have their
first true leaves it is time for transplanting
Reasons for Asexual Propagation
 Clone desirable specimens
 Propagate difficult to germinate plants
 Create larger plants
 Save desirable plants from disease
 Maintain genetic trait
medicinal plantsinclude a various types of plants used in herbalism and some of these plants have a
medicinal activities. These medicinal plants consider as a rich resources of ingredients which can be used in
drug development and synthesis. Besides that these plants play a critical role in the development of human
cultures around the whole world. Moreover, some plants consider as important source of nutrition and as a
result of that these plants recommended for their therapeutic values. These plants include ginger, green tea,
walnuts and some others plants. Other plants their derivatives consider as important source for active
ingredients which are used in aspirin and toothpaste. Alternative Medicine These days the term “Alternative
Medicine” became very common in western culture, it focus on the idea of using the plants for medicinal
purpose. But the current belief that medicines which come in capsules or pills are the only medicines that we
can trust and use. Even so most of these pills and capsules we take and use during our daily life came from
plants. Medicinal plants frequently used as raw materials for extraction of active ingredients which used in the
synthesis of different drugs. Like in case of laxatives, blood thinners, antibiotics and antimalaria medications,
contain ingredients from plants. Moreover the active ingredients of Taxol, vincristine, and morphine isolated
from foxglove, periwinkle, yew, and opium poppy, respectively.
Future of Medicinal PlantsMedicinal plants have a promising future because there are about half
million plants around the world, and most of them their medical activities have not investigate yet, and their
medical activities could be decisive in the treatment of present or future studies. Characteristics of Medicinal
Plants Medicinal plants have many characteristics when used as a treatment, as follow: • Synergic
medicine- The ingredients of plants all interact simultaneously, so their uses can complement or damage
others or neutralize their possible negative effects. •Support of official medicine- In the treatment of complex
cases like cancer diseases the components of the plants proved to be very effective. • Preventive
medicine- It has been proven that the component of the plants also characterize by their ability to
prevent the appearance of some diseases. This will help to reduce the use of the chemical remedies which will
be used when the disease is already present i.e., reduce the side effect of synthetic treatment.

What is Horticulture ?
 Horticulture consists of two parts, viz.
 Hortus meaning garden and
 Colere meaning to grow or to cultivate (Cultura meaning cultivation ).
The word horticulture - first conceived by Peter Laurenberg.
 In English language the word horticulture -used for the first time in 1678 in a book entitled “New World of
Words” by Phillips
 Garden -a broad term.
Garden - originated from the latin term Gyrdan meaning „to enclose‟.
When fruits are grown in a definite area then that part is called as an Orchard.
• Hence, horticulture is that branch of Agriculture which concerns with the garden crops.
• Horticulture can also be defined as the branch of agriculture concerned with intensively cultivated plants
directly used by man for food, for medicinal purposes or for aesthetic purposes.
Main distinguishing features of horticulture
• Horticulture crops are used in a living state while others like grains etc. are not used in a living state. •
Horticulture crops are comparatively more intensively cultivated than field crops. • Horticulture crops have
high water content and are highly perishable. • Cultural operations like propagation, training, pruning and
harvesting are skilled and specific to horticultural crops. • Horticultural produce are rich source of vitamins
and minerals and alkaloids.
DIVISIONS OF HORTICULTURE
• Production of edible fruit crops ---Pomology pomum = fruits, logy = science, • Production of vegetable
crops ---Olericultureoleris = pot herb • Production of ornamental crops ---Floriculture and Landscaping •
Preservation of horticulture produce for consumption ---Fruit Technology

Pomology
• Pomology: is a branch of horticulture which deals with various aspects of fruits starting from rising of
saplings, growing them properly and providing various intercultural operations, the term pomology is a
combination of two Latin words pome-fruits and logos-culture. “Poma” in Greek means fruits later
subsequently transfer in to „Pome” in Latin word means fruits, logos- study.

Olericulture
• Olericulture: refers to cultivation of vegetables.
Floriculture And Landscaping
• Floriculture: is a branch of Horticulture which deals with commercial growing, marketing and arranging
flowers and ornamental plants, which includes annuals, biennials and perennials viz., trees, shrubs, climbers
and herbaceous perennials. • Landscaping: is the design and alternation of a portion of land by use of planting
material and land reconstructions.
Post Harvest Technology
• It deals with post harvest handling, grading, packaging, storage, processing, value addition, marketing etc. of
horticulture crops.

HISTORY
• History of fruit cultivation is as old as civilization. • Fruits have their references in Vedas, Purans, Upnishads
etc. • Oldest fruit is said to be Date palm as its reference dates back to 7000 B.C., next is Pomegranate
(3500 B.C), Grapes (2440 B.C), Mangoes, Banana and Coconut (2000 B.C), Peach and Almond (1300 B.C),
Olive(100 B.C). • First book exclusively on litchi cultivation was published in China in 1056 A.D.
• In India, commercial horticulture -recent origin (100 years old). • Orchards in olden days - planted just for
hobby by the kings • Akbar planted >1 lakh plants of fruit trees -at Dharbanga (in Bihar) –named as Lakhbagh -
referred in a book called Ain –e –Akbari. Mughals -established Mughal gardens. • In H. P. Major Bannon and
Captain Lee - first to plant the apple orchard in Kullu valley. • Sir Alexander Coutts - an apple orchard at
Mashobra. • S.N.Stokes - apple growing in Kotgarh
Origins of Horticultural Science • The origin of horticultural science derives from a coming together of three
events: -the formation of scientific societies in the 17th century, - the creation of agricultural and horticultural
societies in the 18th century, and - the establishment of state-supported agricultural research in the 19th
century in different countries. • In England Two seminal horticultural societies involved: -The Horticultural
Society of London (later the Royal Horticulture Society) founded in 1804 and -The Society for Horticultural
Science (later the American Society for Horticultural Science) founded in 1903.
IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE
• Diet • Entertainment • Medicinal purposes • Environment • Aesthetic value • Economic value
Importance of fruits in human diet
• From human nutrition point of view, horticulture is most important to our daily living. Many of the
horticulture crops and their products find place in our meals and diet. • Human body requires vitamins,
minerals, proteins, energy etc. for its health. All these are supplied by horticultural crops. Fruits and
vegetables are the chief sources of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins etc. are recognized as
protective foods as they are necessary for the maintenance of human health. • A person should consume
atleast 120 g of fruits per day as per Indian Council of Medical Research, but the consumption of fruits per
capta in India is still low. However, the availability of fruit is 172 g per day in our country. In countries like Italy,
France and USA, the consumption is 308, 232 and 223 g / day respectively. • Deficiency of any minerals and
nutrients is depicted by the human body by giving typical symptoms. The great majority of people obtain most
of their carbohydrates and proteins from cereals and pulses but their diets must also contain significant
amount of fruits to ensure that they get the vitamins which are not provided by the staple cereal foods.
Vitamins • These are the important constituents of fruits and vegetables and are indispensable part of
human diet. • Although required in very minute quantities, they are absolutely essential for the maintenance
of health. • The deficiency of any vitamin from the diet for considerable period may lead to diseased state or
disorder conditions. • Fruits and vegetables supply several vitamins.

Vitamin-A • It is essential for normal growth, reproduction and maintenance of health and vigour. • It
affords protection against cold and influenza and prevents night blindness. • Its deficiency results in –
cessation of growth in young children, night blindness, drying up of tear glands in the eyes, eruption of skin
(Rashes on the skin) and brittleness of the teeth • Sources: Mango, Papaya, Dates, Jackfruit, Walnut etc.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
• Tones the nervous system and helps in proper functioning of the digestive tract. • Its deficiency in human
diet results in ― – Beri-beri, paralysis, loss of sensitivity of skin, enlargement of heart, loss of appetite ,loss of
weight and fall in body temperature. • Sources: Orange, pineapple, jack fruit, cashew nut, walnut, dry apricot,
almond, banana etc,.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):
• Required for body growth and health of the skin. • Its deficiency causes – sore throat, anorexia cataract, and
loss of appetite and body weight and also development of swollen nose. • Sources: Bael, papaya, litchi,
banana, apricot, pomegranate, pear etc.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxin)
• Its deficiency causes – dermatitis, anemia, ulceration in oral cavity etc. • Rich fruits are chestnut, walnut,
almond, apricot, apple, plum etc. Niacin • Its absence causes – sour tongue, Pellagra (a complex of diarrhea,
loss of mental aptitude, and dermatitis), discoloration of skin of hands, feet and legs and under severe
condition the mental balance may shift. • Rich fruits are chestnut, walnut, almond, apricot, apple, plum etc.
Vitamin -C (Ascorbic Acid):
• This vitamin promotes general health and healthy gums, • Prevents scurvy disease which is characterized by
pain in the joints and swelling of limbs (rheumatism), bleeding of gums, tooth decay and keeps the blood
vessels in good condition. • Sources: Amla, guava, ber, citrus, strawberry, pineapple etc.
SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE
• The importance of horticulture in improving the productivity of land, generating employment, improving
economic conditions of the farmers and entrepreneurs, enhancing exports and, above all, providing nutritional
security to the people, is now widely acknowledged.
• Presently, the horticulture sector contributes around 31 % of the GDP and 38% of the total exports of
agricultural commodities from around 14% of area.  India is the 2nd largest producer in the world, with 81.28
million tones of fruits occupying an area of 6.98 million hectare  Area under fruits in the state is 2,20706 ha
with production of 8,66,344 MT.  Himachal is predominately horticultural state which is bestowed with
unique potentialities of growing temperate and sub-tropical fruits.  Economy of the farmers depends upon
cultivation of fruits and vegetables.
In our country • Per capita per day consumption of fruits in our country is the lowest (120 g) in comparison to
developed countries (250 –400 g) and even the developing countries (100 –200 g) like Philippines, Pakistan
etc. • Requirement of fruit is sure to increase with the growing urbanization and awareness regarding the
need of fruits in the day to day diet. • Fruit cultivation is labor intensive industry and is well suited for over
populated nations like India and China. Fruit production involves specialized skills like production, harvesting,
marketing, canning, processing and many other connected trades; hence, it can accommodate a huge
manpower. • Horticulture has the highest potential of export. The International trading in fruits increased by
20% annually. With the production of quality fruits and implementation of improved technologies, the export
of fruits can be increased manifolds and many more countries will become the importers of Indian fruits.
LIMITATION / PROBLEMS OF FRUIT PRODUCTION
1. High initial investment :a) The initial investment on new orchard is very high e. g. cost of land, layout,
digging of pit, cost of plants and planting, cost of fertilizers, F.Y.M, insecticides, pesticides etc. b) In plants
requiring special system of pruning and training e. g. in Kiwi, Grapes etc. the initial cost further increases
because of investment on erecting special training structures. Therefore, every person cannot afford to take
up fruit production as an enterprise.
2. Non-availability of quality planting material :Adequate availability of quality plants is essential for orchard
establishment. Lack of knowledge in procuring quality plants can result in disastrous results. No proper
legislation is enforced to curb sale of inferior plants through footpath sellers or by private nurseries resulting
in the dissemination of the inferior plants to growers in most of the cases. Citrus plants are very often infected
with citrus canker, leaf minor, similarly mango plants with malformation, peach with leaf curl and nematodes
etc.
3. Long juvenile period :Most of the fruit crops have a long juvenile period and thus bear their first crop after a
good many years e.g. stone fruits take 4 to 5 years, pecan nuts 10 to 12 years etc. Orchardist, hence, has to
bear the cost of maintaining the plants through some other sources for such number of years. Though practice
of planting fillers is being adopted for substantiating the income till the main crop comes into bearing.
4. Perishable nature :Horticulture plants have high water content, hence, are of perishable nature. The
technologies for increasing the shelf life are lacking and more over the facilities for providing the cold store are
quite scarce in number. This causes the over flooding of the fruits in market during the peak-harvesting
season, resulting in the crash in the prices of the commodity.
5. Lack of processing unit:Very limited scale processing industries are availablein our country. The fruits
growing in abundance e.g. mango, banana, citrus, pineapple etc. could otherwise give higher returns if
processed in different products and exported. 6. Lack of proper storage and transportation facilities :This
results in the loss of 15% in most of the fruit crops. Our country still lacks the fleet of refrigerated railway
carriages, which is the most suitableand smooth way of transportationof fruits.
7. Faulty marketing system :Most of the profits (upto 65%) is taken away by middlemen the fruit mandis
where the grower is basically compelled to sell the fruit. From the grower the fruit passes through the hands
of big contractor to small contractor, commission agent, whole saler, retailer before reaching the consumer.
Thus the grower gets a margin of the profits only. 8. Low purchasing power :Irrespective of the low pricing of
the fruit during the glut, it still remains out of reach of the common man who constitute most of our country’s
population.
Why are agricultural chemicals used?
People have long endeavored to protect field crops from disease, pests and weeds. These
methods include breeding varieties resistant to pests and diseases, cultural control of
diseases and pests by plowing and removing crop debris after harvest, weed control using
vinyl sheeting and spreading straw, physical pest control such as soil disinfection using
solar heating, and biotic control using natural enemies such as spiders. In addition,
agricultural chemicals are used because they produce certain effects with less effort.
WHAT IS TILLING:
Tilling is actually a form of deep cultivation that is necessary when preparing a new garden
bed or when adding large amounts of organic material. Tilling will cultivate the soil 8-10 inches
deep, perhaps even more if you are creating a new garden bed in an area where the soil is very
poor. You can also till at a more shallow level of 4-8 inches when mixing soil amendments into
your bed(s). This is ideally done at the end of the growing season. Autumn or fall tilling also
provides the opportunity to supplement the soil with rough organic amendments that
decompose slowly prior over the winter.  This is a near-perfect feeding situation for plants
going into the next season. This is not recommended however unless your plan is to add
substantial amounts of organic amendments to improve the soil.. 

What is Irrigation?

Irrigation is the replacement or supplementation of rainwater with another source of water. The main idea behind
irrigation systems is that your lawns and plants are maintained with the minimum amount of water required.

Water is a fragile natural resource and we have to incorporate methods to conserve it

and not over-use it. The implementation of an irrigation system will help conserve
water, while saving you time, money, preventing weed growth and increasing the
growth rate of your lawns, plants, crops and flowers.     

TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Ditch Irrigation
 Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and seedlings
are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between
the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the
canals. This system of irrigation was once very popular in the USA, but most have been
replaced with modern systems.

Terraced Irrigation

This is a very labor-intensive method of irrigation where the land is cut into steps and
supported by retaining walls. The flat areas are used for planting and the idea is that the
water flows down each step, while watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used
for planting crops.   

Drip Irrigation

This is known as the most water efficient method of irrigation. Water drops right near
the root zone of a plant in a dripping motion. If the system is installed properly you can
steadily reduce the loss of water through evaporation and runoff.

Sprinkler System

This is an irrigation system based on overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns, installed on

permanent risers. You can also have the system buried underground and the
sprinklers rise up when water pressure rises, which is a popular irrigation system for
use on golf courses and parks.

Rotary Systems

This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas, for the sprinklers can reach distances of up to
100 feet. The word “Rotary” is indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers moving in a circular
motion, hence reaching greater distances. This system waters a larger area with small amounts of
water over a longer period of time.

Center Pivot Irrigation

This is a form of overhead irrigation. Steel or aluminum pipes are joined together,
supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers. The sprinklers are situated on the
length of the tower and they move in a circular motion.

PREPARED BY: MS.JAZTINE CINCO