SPECIES AT A GLANCE Caulerpa

Caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia) seaweed is a unicellular,

marine, green alga found in tropical to subtropical
regions, in both shallow lagoons and deeper coastal
waters at depths of up to 46 meters.
As a result of commercial breeding in an aquarium
setting, an invasive aquarium strain of Caulerpa now
exists. Although the aquarium strain is morphologically
identical to native strains, it is genetically distinct and
has invasive properties that distinguish it from native
Linda Walters

populations. This strain is considered one of the world’s

100-worst invasive species. In native populations,
Caulerpa occurs in small patches and is not known to
REPORT THIS SPECIES! Oregon: 1-866-INVADER or Oregon exhibit invasive properties.
InvasivesHotline.org; Washington: 1-888-WDFW-AIS; California: 1-916-
651-8797 or email invasives@dfg.ca.gov; Other states: 1-877-STOP-ANS.

Species in the news Learning extensions Resources

“Caulerpa Laws Difficult to Enforce; How DO we manage killer algae? Don’t release a pest. Freezing is best!
Illegal Sales Continue” www.csgc.ucsd. And Caulerpa hunt! (www.usc.edu/org/seagrant/caulerpa)
edu/NEWSROOM/NEWSRELEASES/ Southern California Caulerpa Action
CaulerpaLaws_SGNewsList.html Team (www.sccat.net)

Why you should care

Caulerpa competes with other species for space and
light, grows rapidly, and emits toxins into the water
column. Caulerpa displaces native plants and creates
dense, uniform mats that persist throughout the year.
These mats present a major threat to marine biodiver-
sity and have a negative impact on commercial and
recreational fishing, tourism, and scuba diving.

How they got here and spread Map created 3/08

Releases of Caulerpa from personal aquaria are
Data on map represents established population and species occurrence data
the likely source for the introduction of the aquarium
strain of the plant.
Caulerpa often spreads when fragments of the COOL FACTS
plant break off due to currents, as well as boating,
Caulerpa has earned the nickname “killer algae” due to its
fishing, swimming, and other human activities. rapid invasion of the Mediterranean and displacement of
native species. An entire plant can grow from a 2 cm fragment.
What you can do
Extensive breeding in Stuttgart, Germany, in an aquarium
Don’t release aquarium plants and pets. Instead: setting, under artificially extreme conditions, is attributed
• Give them to a responsible aquarium or pet store to alterations in some of Caulerpa’s genetic characteris-
tics. The breeding process exposed Caulerpa to significant
• Give them to a responsible hobbyist
chemical stressors and ultraviolet lighting, ultimately
• Freeze Caulerpa for a minimum of 24 hours and producing the popular and resilient aquarium strain (or
then place it in the trash Mediterranean strain) that was globally distributed in the
• Contact an aquarium or pet store for guidance on aquarium industry and has since escaped to form some
humane animal disposal of the invasive populations in the wild.

Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE 

 SPECIES IN DEPTH Caulerpa
Caulerpa

Native and Invasive Range

Caulerpa taxifolia is native to northern Australia, the
Indian Ocean, the east African coast, the western Pa-
cific, Indonesia and the southwest Pacific, Hawaii, and
the Caribbean. The potential for Caulerpa to invade the
Gulf, southern Atlantic, and California coasts is high,
due to its ability to tolerate a wide range of conditions
and effective methods of dispersing into new areas.
In 1984 the aquarium strain of Caulerpa taxifolia
was accidentally released from the Oceanographic
Museum in Monaco. Its subsequent invasion of the
Mediterranean Sea has gained significant attention
Rachel Woodfield

over the past decade. By 2001 the aquarium strain of

Caulerpa covered over 30,000 acres of Mediterranean
seafloor off the coasts of France, Spain, Italy, Croatia,
and Tunisia.
Several outbreaks of the aquarium strain have oc-
Caulerpa curred in southeastern Australia. Eradication efforts
Caulerpa taxifolia have failed, and Caulerpa is spreading through coastal
areas in a pattern similar to that of the Mediterranean
Caulerpa taxifolia is an invasive marine alga that is
invasion. In some areas off Australia, hybridization
widely used as a decorative plant in aquaria. Although
unicellular, Caulerpa develops pseudo organs similar with native populations is possible.
to roots, shoots, and leaves of more complex plants.
The plant consists of a horizontal, stem-like rhizome West coast distribution
that produces a series of colorless, root-like rhizoids In 2000 the aquarium strain of Caulerpa was first
that extend downward, anchoring the plant to the identified in Agua Hedionda Lagoon and Huntington
sea floor and absorbing food, water, and nutrients. Harbor in southern California. These colonies were
Branch-like structures that shoot upward from the rhi-
genetically identified as the aquarium strain.
zome compose the recognizable feather-like fronds,
Aggressive eradication efforts were undertaken.
which are the photosynthetic component of the plant.
Typically 5 to 25 centimeters long in shallow water,
Patches of Caulerpa were covered with tarps, and chlo-
fronds lenthen with depth and low light conditions, rine was pumped underneath. It is believed that eradica-
averaging 60 to 80 centimeters in very deep water. In tion was successful, and extensive monitoring continues
Caulerpa patches, frond density ranges from 5,100/m2 to ensure the absence of Caulerpa from both systems.
to 14,000/m2, with the highest densities occurring in
the summer. Ecology
Life cycles and migration patterns
In native populations, reproduction is primarily
sexual, although reproduction can also occur through
asexual fragmentation when small sections of Caul-
erpa break off and float to a new location, where they
develop into a viable clone of their parent plant. The

Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE 

 Caulerpa

aquarium strain reproduces by fragmentation only; wide range of depths, including sheltered bays, soft or
invasive populations are clones of this distinct strain. sandy bottoms, polluted muddy harbors, rocky reefs,
and high-current capes. Perhaps most importantly, the
Habitat and food webs aquarium strain grows astoundingly fast and as dense
Caulerpa defends against herbivory and epiphytism by monoculture beds.
using toxic secondary metabolites that prevent predation. Caulerpa invasions have caused major ecological
When Caulerpa comes into contact with certain species, damage in the Mediterranean ecosystem, through
it releases toxins into the water column, which can have competition and habitat modification. Caulerpa com-
a negative effect on adjacent floral communities. petes with other species for space and light, grows
rapidly, and emits toxins into the water column. These
How Caulerpa got to the United States characteristics result in the displacement of native
Releases of Caulerpa from personal aquaria are communities and the creation of dense, uniform mats
the likely source for the introduction of the aquarium that persist throughout the year.
strain of the plant to marine environments. Considered a major threat to marine biodiversity,
dense mats of Caulerpa alter the physical structure of
How Caulerpa spreads the environment (i.e., habitat for other animals), affect-
Caulerpa often spreads locally by vegetative asexual ing benthic communities and eliminating important
fragmentation, a process accelerated by water cur- fish habitat for spawning and feeding (Williams and
rents and disturbance from boat anchors, fishing gear, Schroeder 2004). Major reductions in fish population
and other human activities. These factors have aided and distribution have been associated with the dis-
Caulerpa’s spread across the Mediterranean. placement and/or removal of native communities and
habitat. When Caulerpa takes over their habitat, fish
Ecological impacts cannot find shelter, space to reproduce, or food.
The aquarium strain exhibits several characteristics
that are different from native strains. In addition to its Economic impacts
reproduction by vegetative fragmentation, the aquari- Economic damages from Caulerpa are difficult to
um strain has the ability to adapt to a wide variety of estimate, but negative impacts on commercial and rec-
environmental conditions. This strain is more resistant reational fishing, as well as tourism and scuba diving,
to cold temperatures, and it can survive multiple days have been substantial. As Caulerpa spreads, economic
out of water. It grows on a variety of substrates at a damages will continue to increase.
Dana Burfeind

The plant consists of a horizontal, stem-like rhizome that produces a series of root-like rhizoids that extend downward. Branch-like
structures that shoot upward compose the recognizable, feather-like fronds.

 Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE

 Caulerpa

In Caulerpa patches, frond density ranges

from 5,100/m2 to 14,000/m2.

• Unsuccessful attempts were made

to eradicate Caulerpa taxifolia from
certain portions of the Mediter-
ranean infestation, but biomass was
too extensive throughout the invaded
areas. The new goal is to maintain
“Caulerpa-free sanctuaries.”
• In the United States, the Aquatic
Nuisance Species Task Force has
developed a prevention and eradi-
cation program for Caulerpa taxi-
folia. Any new discoveries will be
Linda Walters

aggressively and quickly treated

with bleach to ensure eradication.
Prevention in the United States
Prevention and eradication measures have been ex- has focused on vector control by prohibiting inter-
pensive in Australia and the United States; costing the national trade of the aquarium strain of Caulerpa.
U.S. alone $ 7 million as of June 2006. Public education about proper disposal of aquarium
species aims to prevent the risk of introduction.
Cultural significance Other potential vectors of introduction must also be
Loss of recreational opportunities and biodiversity addressed.
are a culturally damaging and disturbing phenomenon
in affected areas. However, Caulerpa is a popular com- What you can do
mercial and domestic aquarium plant, due to its attrac-
Alternatives to releasing aquarium plants and pets:
tive appearance and rapid growth.
• Give them to a responsible aquarium or pet store
Laws currently in place • Give them to a responsible hobbyist
United States law: It is illegal to import or trans- • Freeze Caulerpa for a minimum of 24 hours and
port Caulerpa taxifolia aquarium strain across state then place it in the trash
lines, including via Internet sales. • Contact an aquarium or pet store for guidance on
California State law: It is illegal to possess, trans- humane animal disposal
port, transfer, release alive, import, or sell Caulerpa
taxifolia, Caulerpa sertularioides, Caulerpa mexicana, Information gaps
Caulerpa ashmeadii, Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Caulerpa
racemosa (and all varieties of C. racemosa), Caulerpa cu- • Biocontrol research has focused on a variety of mus-
pressoides, Caulerpa verticillata, and Caulerpa floridana. sels and sea slugs. Few organisms eat Caulerpa, due
City of San Diego law: It is illegal to possess, sell, to its toxicity, and no effective biocontrols have yet
and transport any Caulerpa species within city limits. been discovered and approved for widespread imple-
mentation.
Management strategies • Further experimentation with alternative herbicides
is needed to identify a substance less toxic than
• Scientists once believed that since Caulerpa taxifo-
chlorine to eradicate Caulerpa.
lia was a tropical alga, it would die during the cold
winter months in the Mediterranean.

Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE 

Caulerpa

Worldwide distribution of Caulerpa taxifolia. Yellow squares = native range. Orange circles = invasive populations of Caulerpa
taxifolia. Dashed line = 15°C average winter sea-surface temperature. Modeled after Verlaque et al. 2000.

References Additional resouces

Anderson, Lars WJ. 2007. “Control of Invasive Sea- Facts:
weeds.” Botanica Marina 50:418–437. http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/caulerpa/factsheet203.htm
NOAA. 2003. “Facts about Caulerpa taxifolia.” www.caulerpa.cjb.net/
National Marine Fisheries Service. Southwest Literature Review:
Regional Office. http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/ www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/ct/caulerpa.htm
caulerpa/factsheet203.htm Invasive aquatic plants in the United States:
Keppner, Sandra M. and Russel T. Caplen. 1999. “A http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/seagrant/cautax2.html
Prevention Program for the Mediterranean Strain Prevention Program for United States:
of Caulerpa taxifolia.” US Fish and Wildlife Service. www.anstaskforce.gov/Caulerpa.htm
Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force. Australia: “Eradicating and preventing the spread of
ISSG Global Invasive Species Database. 2006. Caul- the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW.” Gives
erpa taxifolia. www.issg.org/database/species/ecology. a long discussion of different control methods.
asp?si=115&fr=1&sts=sss www.deh.gov.au/coasts/imps/caulerpa-taxifolia/
Pierre, M. and Y. Maricela. 2005. “Literature Review index.html
of Caulerpa taxifolia.” BUFUS Newsletter. No. 31. Video on Caulerpa taxifolia:
www.sbg.ac.at/ipk/avstudio/pierofun/ct/ct-1 Deep Sea Invasion. NOVA/PBS, 1 hr, grade level 4+.
Wiedenmann, J, A. Baumstark, T. L. Pillen, A. Mei- ISBN 1-57807-980-2. Available online from NOVA
nesz, and W. Vogel. “DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa for $19.95 plus s/h. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/
taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an http://shop.wgbh.org/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/
aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and ProductDisplay?productId=13334&storeId=11051&
its close relationship to an Australian population.” catalogId=10051&langId=-1
SOURCE? Southern California Caulerpa Action Team
Williams, Susan L. and Stephanie L Schroeder. 2004. www.sccat.net/
“Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by Killer Algae, The True Tale of Biological Invasion By Alex-
chlorine bleach.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 272:69–76. andre Meinesz. 1999. Translated by Daniel Simberl-
off. The University of Chicago Press, 360 pages.

 Aquatic Invasions! A Menace to the West • SPECIES GUIDE