Extension Methods

Rural Development
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
DRD-09
Communication and Extension in Rural Development
Block
2
Extension: Concepts, Philosophy and Approaches
Unit – I
Concepts, Philosophy and Principles of Extension
Unit – II
Historical Development and Rural Extension in India
Unit – III
Rural Extension through ICAR
Unit – IV
Extension Methods
Odisha State Open University 1

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EXPERT COMMITTEE
` Sri Jagadananda (Chairman)
Ex-State Information Commissioner, Odisha
Mentor and co – founder, CYSD, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. Sruti Mohapatra (Member)

Chief Executive,
State Disability Information and Resource Centre
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. Dharmabrata Mohapatra (Member)

Head, PG Dept. of Rural Development,
Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, Odisha
Dr. M.G.Bage (Member)

Associate Professor, Dept. of Rural Development,
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Ms. Dipti Ray (Member)

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Rural Management,
NISWASS, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. Rabindra Garada (Special Invitee)

Associate Professor, Dept. of Rural Development,
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Sri S T Rehman (Convenor)

Academic Consultant (Rural Development)
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur, Odisha
Course Writer: Course Editor:

Dr.Bhabesh Ch. Das Mr.S T Rehman
Sr. Assistant Professor Academic Consultant
Orissa Univ.of Agri & Tech (OUAT), Odisha State Open University,
Bhubaneswar Sambalpur
Material Production
Dr. Jayanta Kar Sharma
Registrar
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur
© OSOU, 2017. Communication and Extension in Rural Development
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike4.0http://creativecommons.org/
licences/by-sa/4.0
Printed by : Sri Mandir Publication, Sahid Nagar, Bhubaneswar
2 Odisha State Open University

Rural Development
UNIT -1
Concepts, Philosophy and Principles of Extension
Learning Objectives:
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the meaning and importance of extension education in rural
development
• Differentiate between formal education and extension education
• List the philosophy of Extension Education
• List the Principles of Extension Education
Structure :
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Extension Education
1.2.1Difference between Formal Education and Extension Education
1.3 Concept of Extension
1.3.1 Basic Elements of Behaviour
1.3.2 Need for Extension
1.3.3 Objectives of Extension
1.3.4 Functions of Extension
1.4 Basic Elements of Extension
1.5 Scope of Extension
1.6 Components of Extension
1.6.1 Extension Education
1.6.2 Extension Services
1.6.3 Extension Work
1.7 Philosophy of Extension Education
1.8 Principles of Extension of Education
1.9 Extension Educational Process
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Suggested Readings
1.13 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers

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1.1 Introduction
What is Extension?
The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning
‘stretching’. Literally it means ‘stretching out’. That is stretching out beyond the boundaries
of university and research stations to reach the rural people to educate them on various
issues.
The use of the term “extension” was first recorded in Britain in the 1840s. James Stuart,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who gave several lecturers to women’s associations
and working man’s clubs in the north of England during 1867-68, is considered as father of
extension. But, the term was formally used for the first time in 1873 by Cambridge University
to describe a particular ‘Extension’ of educational innovation. This was to take the educational
advantages of universities to the ordinary people where they lived and worked.
In India, the terms community development and extension became more popular with the
launching of Community Development Projects in 1952 and with the establishment of the
National Extension Service in 1953. Since then, Community development has been regarded
as a programme for an all-round development of the rural people, and extension as the
means to achieve this objective.
What is Education?
Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that they can respond
appropriately to the situations. Or in simple words, it is the process of production of desirable
changes in the human behaviour, i.e. bringing out the desired changes in knowledge (things
known), attitude (things felt) and skill (things done), either in all, or one or more of them.
Types of Education:Informal Education is the lifelong process by which every person

acquires and accumulates knowledge, skill, attitude and insights from daily experiences and
exposure to the environment at home , at work, at play, etc. Example: Reading books,
newspaper, etc.
Formal Education is the highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and hierarchically

structured education system spanning lower primary school and upper reaches of the
university. Example: School Education

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Non-formal Education is an organised , systematic, educational activity carried on outside

the frame work of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular sub-
groups in the population, adults and children according to their needs. Example: Extension
Education.
1.2 Extension Education
In continuation to what is being discussed earlier in ‘What is Extension’, Cumberlage (1956)

defined that Extension is education of the rural adults and children outside the school, in
matters of their own choice and interest; education for freedom which seeks to help persons
to use the liberty of action with which a democratic society is constructed. But, Kelsey and
Hearne (1963) explained that extension work is an out-of-school systems of education in
which adults and young people learn by doing.
It may be observed from these definitions that education is the integral part of extension and
the type of education imparted to the out of school children and adult is non-formal in nature.
However, these definitions do not cover the entire scope of Extension Education which has
now attended the stature of a distinct discipline with its own research, methodology, teaching
and field (practice) of activities.
Leagans (1961) defines Extension Education is an applied science consisting of content derived
from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the
behavioural sciences synthesized with useful technology in to a body of philosophy, principles,
contents and methods focused on the problems of out-of-school education for adults and
youth.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) explains extension education as an out-of-

school education and services for the members of the farm family and others directly or
indirectly engaged in farm production, to enable them to adopt improved practices on
production, management, conservation and marketing.
O P Dahama(1973) defines extension education as an educational process to provide

knowledge to the rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and help
them to take decision within their specific local conditions .
We may say that the extension education is a science which deals with the creation, transmission
and application of knowledge designed to bring about planned changes in the behaviour

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( knowledge, skill and attitude) of people, with a view to help them live better by learning the
ways of improving their vocations, enterprise and institutions.
By definition, extension and extension education are synonymous. They are used
interchangeable in the extension literatures.
1.2.1 Difference between Formal Education and Extension Education
Extension education and formal education differs in a number of ways, and some of them
are-
Sl.No Formal Education Extension Education
1. The teacher starts with theory of the Extension education starts with practical
subject and works up to practical problem of the learners and may take up
theory later on.
2. Teaching is largely confined to Extension teaching is mostly outside

the premises of the institutions. the four walls of the formal institution.
3. The learners are homogenous with The learners ( adults) are heterogeneous and
common goals. have diverse goals.
4. The learners adapt to the fixed Extension education has no fixed curriculum.
curriculum offered by the institutions. It has to be designed as per the requirements
of the farmers.
5. Strict adherence to institutional rules Freedom of attendance and choice of

subject and regulations matters are left to the learners.
6. Knowledge flows from the teacher Knowledge flows from both teacher to
to the learners. learners and from learners to teacher.
7.The teacher only instructs the students The extension agents/workers teach a great
deal through local leaders/progressive
farmers.
8. It is more theoretical It is more practical and problem solving

oriented
9.It is more rigid in nature It is flexible in nature

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1.3 Concept of Extension
The basic concept of Extension is Education, which is defined as the production of desirable
changes in human behaviour. The production of desirable changes in human being is possible
by changing his/her knowledge, understanding, skill and attitude about any activity. Through
extension education either all, or one or more than one of the above is attempted to achieve
so that so that a farmer may improve his/her standard of living. Extension is not only attempting
to change the behaviour and ensuring adoption of a particular practice but also aims at
changing the outlook of the farmer so that they will be receptive to the new ideas and
continuously seek means to improve his quality of life. Extension is essentially the means by
which new knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural areas in order to bring about
change and improve the lives of farmers and their families.
1.3.1 Basic Elements of Behaviour
1. Knowledge and Understanding
2.Skill
3. Attitude
The FAO survey report on Extension in Asia (1975) mentions three important concept of
extension, and they are-
(i) All inclusive concept- A number of countries still conceive that extension means the work
that is done by the Government departments at village level, including the supplies to the
rural farmers.
(ii) Service concept-To gain more confidence of the farmers, more work of service nature
was also added later.
(iii) Educational concept- The ultimate aim is to help people to help themselves through
education to bring a change in outlook. But effective education is possible only if there is a
separate agency to assume the responsibility for supplies and services enabling the extension
workers to devote themselves to the task of training the farmers.
The concept of extension is based on the certain basic premises and they are as follows as
mentioned by Hassanullah (1998).

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1. People have unlimited potential for personal growth and development.
2. The development may take place at any stage of their lives, if they are provided with
adequate and appropriate learning opportunities.
3. Adults are not interested in learning only for the sake of learning. They are motivated
when new learning provides opportunities for application, for increased productivity
and improved standards of living.
4. Such learning is a continuous need of rural populations and should be provided on a

continuing basis, because the problems as well as the technologies of production
and living are continuously changing.
5. Given the required knowledge and skills, people are capable of making optimal
choices for their individual and social benefits.
1.3.2 Need for Extension
The rural people are to be educated to adopt improved technologies which are being
developed in the research stations for their benefits. However, this education process is not
simple. The institutions, organisations and extension workers involved in this process should
understand the principle and philosophy of adult education. According to Supe( 1987), the
researchers neither have time nor they equipped for the job of persuading the villagers to
adopt scientific methods, and to ascertain from them the rural problems. Similarly, it is difficult
for the farmers to always visit the research stations and obtain firsthand information. Thus,
there is a need for an agency to interpret the findings of research to the farmers and to carry
the problems of the farmers to research stations for solution. This gap is filled by the extension
agency.
1.3.3 Objectives of Extension
The literal meaning of the term, objectives, is the expressions of the ends towards which our
efforts are directed. In other words, an objective means a direction of movement. The
fundamental objective of extension is the development of people by means of education.
More specifically stated, the following are general objectives of extension-
1. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems, identify the felt needs and
taking appropriate decision.

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2. Educating people to be able to make similar decisions in future under similar situation.
3. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve
their problems.
4. To disseminate information based on research work and /or practical experiences in

such a manner that the people would accept it and put it in to actual practices.
5. To facilitate the process of farmers’ institutions development in the rural areas.
6. To keep research stations informed about the problems of the farmers.
7. Stimulating desirable developments within the framework of the national, economic

and social policies involving all the sub sectors of development as a whole.
1.3.4 Functions of Extension
The main function of extension is to bring about desirable changes in the human behaviour.
Changes may be brought about in their knowledge, skill and attitude towards ideas,
innovations, practices, etc. The extension system includes all intuitions like public, private,
and non government development institutions that educate people for their betterment.
Extension performs set of functions that induce voluntary change among people for
development.
Aset of functions of extension includes:
1) transferring technology for sustainable development
2) transferring management capacity to mobilize and organize developmental activities

by all communities
3) capacity building of all stakeholders in the developmental process on various aspects

like planning, evaluation and implementation of programmes.
1.4 Basic Elements of Extension
According to J.P.Leagans (1961), there are three basic elements in extension for rural
development which the extension educator must deal with as they are key to his success.
These elements are :

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1. Main himself-physiological and psychological
2. Men’s environment-physical, economic and social
3. Man-created devices for improving her/his welfare
1. A View of Man Himself : An Extension educator should view a man as:
a) Individual human personality possessing many inherited traits, tendencies and

capacitiesthat create forces which shape what they think, what they do and how
they do it.
b) Possessing extensive mental power to analyze, learn, think, reason, understand,

remember, forget, reject, decide, judge, and to do other things.
c) Possessing emotional powers which includes 1) capacity to feel various emotions

like love, hate, confidence, fear, sadness, happiness, etc. 2) desire to resists many
acts and conditions like innovation, imposition, poverty, strangeness, etc. 3) desire
to improve many things like his knowledge and skills level, food, clothing, housing,
agriculture production, independence, leadership, etc.
d) Possessing great potential physical skill to improve his condition
2. Man’s Environment: Man is surrounded by other human beings, physical items, social
and cultural norms and economic conditions. Environmental forces exert continuous pressure
on him and shape his personality accordingly. Some of the major environmental/external
forces facing a typical farmer in an Indian village are:
Low agricultural production

Poor housing and other amenities
Low per capita income
Poor health
Under- employment
Poor educational opportunities
Poor credit system
Poor marketing infrastructure
Unproductive and uneconomical agricultural implements

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Adherence to outmoded customs and traditions, etc.
These are some of the problems, and most of them are men made. Interventions in these
areas require proper understanding of the men’s environment so that extension programmes
could be designed properly to deal these problems.
3. Man-created Devices to Serve Man: In human civilization, man has created various
institutions and forces, and developed certain mechanisms to promote his welfare. Man has
been always attempting through various institutions-educational, technological, physical,
economical, social, administrative, religious, etc- created by him to minimize the gap between
what ought to be and what is in human being. After independence, India has developed
various man-created devices to improve the socio-economic condition of the farmers, and
few of them are:
Trained personnel
Scientific knowledge
Improved production tools
Improved production materials and methods
Expanded communication media
Policy guidelines
Government aid in money and inputs
Provision of credits
Freedom and encouragement
Promotion of cooperatives, Self Help Groups, etc.
These three elements lie at the use of extension educator for rural development. The third
element, man-created devices are designed to help people to make desirable adjustment
between the elements of man and his environment. The methods by which the adjustment is
to be made in a free society are education. Only the human element is controlling the progress
today. Therefore the key to rural development lies in the Mind, Heart and Hands of the
people and those of their professional leaders (Mathialagan, 2007)

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1.5 Scope of Extension
The dictionary meaning of ‘scope’ is ‘space for action’. The scope is enormous in the present
context. The growth and development is required in all sphere of life, and for that, extension
plays a very important role. It teaches people how to something efficiently and work out
means and ways to meet the different needs of life. Now, extension is an integral part of
agriculture and rural development programmes in India. The development, India has made
in the fields agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery, forestry, horticulture, sericulture, etc. are
largely due to extension services in the particular discipline. Kelsey and Hearne (1967) gave
emphasis on nine areas, which indicate the scope of extension, these are;
(1) Efficiency in agricultural and allied production
(2) Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilisation
(3) Conservation, development and use of natural resources
(4) Management on the farm and in home.
(5) Family living
(6) Youth development
(7) Leadership development
(8) Community development and rural area development
(9) Public affairs
Extension is an integral part of technology transfer or teaching in agriculture, animal husbandry,

rural development, social works, etc. The principle, philosophy and methodologies of
extension are now being widely used in other fields like health, nutrition, family planning,
natural resource management, disaster preparedness, etc. Its application has gained relevance
also in the urban areas where teaching, training, motivation and creation of awareness of is
required for implementation of various programmes. In view of these, the scope of the
extension is very broad and covers many aspects of rural development.
Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with the possible answers provided at the end of this unit.
Q 1) What is Extension?
Ans :

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Q 2) What is Education?
Ans :
Q 3) What are the basic Elements of Behaviour?
Ans :
1.6 Components of Extension
In the context of rural development, extension has the following three broad components:
 Extension Education
 Extension Services
 Extension Work

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1.6.1 Extension Education
Extension education is basically a need based, people’s participation based, local resource
based and problem-solution based approach, and it is very much interrelated with teaching,
extension and research. Here, extension efforts are related to research both in terms of its
products, viz. new technologies and process. The extension education role is performed by
higher learning institutions, viz. research institutes, universities, and apex level training and
extension organisations.
1.6.2 Extension Services
Extension services are the mission and mandate of the various development departments
like agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, watershed, rural development, health, industry,
education, etc. in all the states of the country. It is a programme for development employing
the extension process as a means for implementation. Extension service is location specific,
input intensive service oriented, and field level professional activities with two objectives (i)
transferring new technologies or innovations, and advising the people on improved methods;
and (ii) communicating development constraints to research institutes / development
organization / policy makers, as feedback for development of solutions to the problems.
Thus, extension service serves as a link between researchers, development workers, and
people. Extension service also works hand-in-hand with other development departments,
credit institutions, NGOs, international agencies, civil society, etc. to multiply their efforts
and effects.
1.6.3 Extension Work
Extension work is to assist people to improve their socio-economic condition through

educational and service approach. It helps people to take decision in right direction. Through
extension work, people are stimulated to make changes that result in more efficient production
and marketing, conservation of natural resources, improved livelihood security, health, and
more satisfying family and community life. Extension work is location specific and usually
susceptible to outside criticism. Extension work is actually to help people to help themselves
by taking care of their wellbeing. It is not always doing for them. Extension work ensures the
participation of people in developmental works and there after owning the programmes.
This is not a work of only providing service rather a work of educating the people to take
control of their development. That is way it is an educational process giving more emphasis
on developing the capacity of the people rather than only providing services of various kind.

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1.7 Philosophy of Extension Education
The word “Philosophy” has a wide range of meanings. It is the pursuit of wisdom, a body of
general principles or laws of a field of knowledge. Essentially philosophy is a view of life,
wisdom or knowledge and its various components. It is a body of general principles of laws
of a field of knowledge, activities, etc., such as a philosophy of life or philosophy of extension
work. The practical implication is that the philosophy of a particular field would furnish the
principles or guidelines with which to shape or mould the programmes or activities relating to
that discipline. The philosophy of extension education is based on the hypothesis that the
rural people are capable, intelligent and willing to change their situation.
The philosophy of extension education has been interpreted in many ways by various authors
and some of them are as follows:
According to Ensminger (1962)
(1) Extension is educational for all village people.
(2) Extension is changing the knowledge, skill and attitude of the people.
(3) Extension is teaching people what to want, as well as how to work out ways of
satisfying these wants and inspiring them to achieve their desires
(4) Extension is “helping people to help themselves”.
(5) Extension is “learning by doing and seeing is believing”.
(6) Extension is development of individual and their society.
(7) Extension is living relationship, respect and trust for each other.
(8) Extension is working in harmony with culture of the people.
(9) Extension is working together to expand the welfare and happiness of people.
(10) Extension is a two-way channel
(11) Extension is a continuous process educational process in which both learner and
teacher contribute and receive

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According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967)
The basic philosophy of extension education is to teach people how to think, not what to
think. Extension’s specific job is furnishing the inspiration, supplying specific advice and
technical help, and counseling to see that the people as individuals, families, groups and
communities work together as a unit to solve their problems. Extension workers work with
people to help them develop themselves and achieve personal superior personal wellbeing.
According to Mildred Horton

1. The individual is supreme in a democracy
2. The home is the fundamental unit in a civilization
3. The family is the first training group of the human race
4. The foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the partnership of man and
land (nature).
According to Dahama (1965)

1. Self-help
2. People are the greatest resources
3. It is a cooperative effort
4. It has its foundation in democracy
5. It involves a two-way channel of knowledge and experience
6. It is based on creating interest by seeing and doing
7. Voluntary, co-operative participation in programmes
8. Persuasion and education of the people
9. The programme is based on the attitude and values of the people
10. It is a never ending process
1.7 Principles of Extension of Education

Principles of Extension Education
Principles are generalized guidelines which form the basis for decision and action in a consistent
way. These principles are found to be true in delivering results under varying conditions and

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circumstances. To work with the rural people, we must have knowledge of these principles.
Some of these principles related to extension education are mentioned below.
1. Principle of interests and needs - People’s interest and need should be kept in mind
while formulating the extension programme. These needs and interests differ from individual
to individual and village to village. So, therefore extension programme should be need specific.
The extension workers should not pass on their interests as those of the people.
2. Principle of existing environment- Extension programme should be designed as per

the resource availability in the community and capacity of the primary stakeholders. Every
social system has its own characteristics, advantages and limitations. Careful examination of
issues and problems related to a particular area are required before taking up extension
work.
3. Principle of Participation and co-operation- Participation of villagers in the programme

means involvement of people in identification of problems, planning, implementation and
evaluation of the programme. However, this process is hardly followed in any programme
execution. Therefore, large numbers of programmes have failed to produce desired outcomes.
It has been found that if the villagers take decisions concerning the implementation of the
programme, the success rate become very high. Extension workers should involve the
community in all aspects while implementing a programme otherwise it would be a viewed
by the villagers as a programme implemented by government.
4. Principle of learning by doing- The villagers should be actively involved in the programme
activities. This will help them to see the result by doing the things which will facilitate the
quick behavioural change and develop the confidence to use the practices/ideas in future.
The extension worker should keep in mind this important principle of extension that the
adults learn maximum by doing things and they should apply this principle liberally in their
extension works for better result.
5. Principle of satisfaction- The end product of extension work should produce satisfying
results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate to seek further
improvement.
6. Principle of leadership- People believes in local leaders, and work on their advice.
Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is essential for extension.
The local leaders are to be trained, and used extensively in the extension programme.

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7. Principle of grass roots approach- Extension programmes should start with local groups,
local situations and local problems. Extension work should start with where people are and
what they have. Change should start from the existing situation. The objective of starting the
extension programme with local people is to demonstrate the value of new practice or
programmes so that more and more people would participate.
8. Principle of democratic approach- The extension work is democratic both in philosophy

and practice. It believes in persuasion and discussion. The people are provided with number
of choices and they are free to adopt or not to adopt.
9. Principle of culture difference- There is cultural difference between the extension agents
and the farmers. Differences also exist between group of farmers in different parts of the
country in their customs, values, beliefs, attitude and way of life. Extension programme must
be carried out in harmony with the prevailing culture for better acceptance and results.
10. Principle of indigenous knowledge- People have been solving their problems by
application of indigenous knowledge since generations. These knowledge have been part of
their social system and people consider it essential for their survival. The extension agent,
instead of ignoring the importance of indigenous knowledge, should understand them and
their ramification in the life of the people and develop extension programme accordingly.
11. Principle of whole family approach- Household is considered as unit of intervention

for development. So, extension programme should be developed in such way that it
encourages the participation and involvement of entire family members. The goal of
development is difficult to achieve without educating the whole family- the male member, the
female member and children.
12. Principle of adaptability- Extension Programmes should be flexible in nature to

accommodate the local conditions. This is required because the people need, resource
availability and local situation vary from place to place and time to time.
13. Principle of using existing grass root institutions/organisation- At present, there

are number of formally established institutions like Gram Panchayat, co-operatives, schools,
youth clubs, farmers associations, Self Help Group (SHG) are working in the village for the
development of the villagers. These institutions or organisations know the problems of the
village very well than any external agency. The extension agents should utilize the services of
good local organisations for promoting the developmental activities.

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14. Principle of using trained specialists-Agriculture and allied fields are growing very
rapidly due to innovations and adoption of improved practices. Technologies of yester years
are becoming obsolete. It is not possible for the extension workers to be abreast of latest
developments in various aspects of a particular field. So, the extension worker should use
the experts or trained specialists in the programme to recommend the better and latest
practice to the farmers to get maximum benefit.
15. Principle of addressing problems of all class of society- Extension education

programmes is basically democratic in nature. It is expected that the programme benefits the
all segments of the society. If the programmefavours or ignores any segment or group, the
results will be affected.
16. Principle of continuous evaluation- Evaluation is a process by which one understands

the problems of programme implementation. Accordingly, suitable steps are taken to rectify
or speed up the process to reach the target as out lined in the project document. Extension
worker should make periodic evaluation of his/her programme to know the extent to which
the results obtained are in agreement with the objectives fixed earlier. If there is any deficiency,
she/he should take immediate corrective measures to bring the programme in to right track.
1.8 Extension Educational Process
Extension educational process involves five essential and integrated steps. The sequence
of these steps is discussed on the basis of concept developed by Leagans (1961).
TEACHING
(What to teach and how to teach)
1
EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES-goals 5 2 (What has been the result)
(What should be
4 3
S SITUATION RECONSIDERATION
(What it is now) (What next to do)

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The first step is the analysis of situation in which the facts about people, their interests, need,
social customs and habits and economic, social, cultural, physical, technological environment
in which they live and work are collected. The facts collected are analyzed to identify the
problems.
The second step is deciding on objectives or goals to be accomplished by the community. A

limited number of objectives should be selected by involving the local people. The objectives
should be specific, clearly stated and achievable and on completion should produce tangible
economic benefit to the people.
The third step is teaching which involves what should be taught (content) and how it should
be taught (methods). It requires the selection of appropriate methods and aids looking in to
the complexity of the contents and objectives of the programme. This phase is very important,
and the extension worker’s effectiveness is determined on the ability to use extension methods
to meet the extension education objectives.
The fourth step is evaluating the teaching, i.e. determining the extent to which the objects
have been fulfilled. This will also be a test of how accurately and clearly the objectives have
been stated and what methodology adopted to reach the goals. The process of evaluation
may be simple and informal or it may be formal and very complex. Evaluation not only
provides us the reasons of success but also indicate the deficiencies which help to formulate
better programmes in future.
The fifth step is the reconsideration of entire extension educational programme on the light of
results of evaluation. This step consists of a review of previous efforts and results which
reveal a new situation. If this new situation shows the need for further work, then the whole
process may begin again, with new or modified objectives.
Hence, the extension education is a continuous teaching- learning process and this process
goes on, resulting the progress of the people from a less desirable to more desirable situation.
Check Your Progress I I

Q 4) What are the objectives of Extension?
Ans :

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Q 5 )What are the important functions of Extension?
Ans :
Q 6) What are the three broad component of Extension?
Ans :

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1.10 Let Us Sum Up

The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning
‘stretching’. Literally it means ‘stretching out’. That is stretching out beyond the boundaries
of university and research stations to reach the rural people to educate them on various
issues. We may say that the extension education is a science which deals with the creation,
transmission and application of knowledge designed to bring about planned changes in the
behaviour( knowledge, skill and attitude) of people, with a view to help them live better by
learning the ways of improving their vocations, enterprise and institutions. In this Unit, we
discussed about the principles, philosophy, needs and importance of extension education
for rural development.
1.11 Key Words

Extension : The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’
and‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’. Literally it means ‘stretching out’.
Education : Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that

they can respond appropriately to the situations. Or in simple words, it is
the process of production of desirable changes in the human behaviour, i.e.
bringing out the desired changes in knowledge (things known), attitude (things
felt) and skill (things done), either in all, or one or more of them.
Philosophy : The word “Philosophy” has a wide range of meanings. It is the pursuit of
wisdom, a body of general principles or laws of a field of knowledge.
Essentially philosophy is a view of life, wisdom or knowledge and its various
components. It is a body of general principles of laws of a field of knowledge,
activities, etc., such as a philosophy of life or philosophy of extension work.
Principles : Principles are generalized guidelines which form the basis for decision and
action in a consistent way.

Dahama, O.P., Bhatanagar,O.P. 1985. Education and Communication for Development,
Oxford & IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi,
Ensminger, Douglas (1957), A guide to Community Development, Ministry of Community

Development, Government of India, Coronation Printing Works, Fatehpuri, Delhi-6.

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Mathialagan,P. 2007. Textbook of Animal Husbandry and Livestock Extension,

International Book Distributing Co. 7, Meerabai Marg, Lucknow, India.
Ray, G.L. 2006. Extension Communication and Management, New Delhi, Kalyani Publishers.
Sharma, K.R.G. 2008. Veterinary Extension Education, BSPBS Publications, Hyderabad,

Hyderabad,
Supe S.V. (1987), An Introduction to Extension Education, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.

Q 1) What is Extension?
Ans: The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’
meaning ‘stretching’. Literally it means ‘stretching out’. That is stretching out beyond the
boundaries of university and research stations to reach the rural people to educate them on
various issues.
Q2) What is Education?
Ans : Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that they can
respond appropriately to the situations. Or in simple words, it is the process of production
of desirable changes in the human behaviour, i.e. bringing out the desired changes in knowledge
(things known), attitude (things felt) and skill (things done), either in all, or one or more of
them.
Q3) What are the basic Elements of Behaviour ?
Ans : 1.Knowledge and Understanding

2. Skill
3. Attitude
Check Your Progress II

Q 4) What are the objectives of Extension ?

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Ans : To assist people to discover and analyze their problems, identify the felt needs and
taking appropriate decision.
1. Educating people to be able to make similar decisions in future under similar situation.
2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve
their problems.
3. To disseminate information based on research work and /or practical experiences in

such a manner that the people would accept it and put it in to actual practices.
4. To facilitate the process of farmers’ institutions development in the rural areas.
5. To keep research stations informed about the problems of the farmers.
6. Stimulating desirable developments within the framework of the national, economic

and social policies involving all the sub sectors of development as a whole.
Q 5 ) What are the important functions of Extension?
Ans :1) transferring technology for sustainable development
2) transferring management capacity to mobilize and organize developmental activities by

all communities
3) capacity building of all stakeholders in the developmental process on various aspects like
planning, evaluation and implementation of programmes.
Q 6) What are the three broad component of Extension?
Ans : Extension Education
Extension Services
Extension Work
Q7) What are the steps of Extension Educational Process ?
Ans : Teaching
Evaluation
Reconsideration
Situation
Objectives

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UNIT -2
Historical Development and Rural Extension in India
• List different rural development programmes of pre and post Independence

era
• Explain about the National Extension Services
• Explain about the Community Development Programme
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Rural Development during Pre and Post Independence India
2.3 Post-Independence
2.3.1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948)
2.3.2. Sarvodaya Scheme (1948)
2.3.3. Nilokheri Project (1948)
2.3.4. Paul Hoffman- 15 pilot projects (1951)
2.3.5. Chester Bowels (1951)
2.4 Planned Strategies for Rural Development in India
2.4.1 Community Development Programme (CDP)
2.4.2 National Extension Service (NES)
2.5 Important Rural Development Programmes and Schemes launched under different
Five Year Plans
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words

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2.1 Introduction
The term ‘rural development’ is used very frequently by planner, policy maker, academician,
researcher, social worker, common man, etc. across the globe in different ways, and vastly
in divergent contexts. It is very difficult to find out a universally acceptable definition. The
concept of rural development encompasses a wide spectrum of fields of development.
Rural Development:
As a Concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the
quality of life of rural people (Singh, 1999, p.18).
As a Phenomenon, it is the result of interaction between various physical, environmental,

technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors in the rural areas of a nation
(Mathur, 2008, p.2)
As a Strategy, it is the approach or operational design to bring about the desired positive
changes in the socio-economic and cultural life of the rural people (Mathur, 2008, p.2).
As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature, representing an intersection of agricultural,

social, behavioural, engineering and management sciences (Chamabers, 1983, p.147).
Thus rural development is planned, designed and deliberate interventions to influence the
socio-economic situations to achieve improved living standard of low-income population
residing in rural areas and making the process of their development sustainable and self
sustained. It is a process that enhances the capacity of the rural people to improve their lives
and environment, accomplished by wider distribution of benefits resulting from such
improvement. Rural development includes both agricultural and non-agricultural aspects of
life. It includes economic growth as well as development of various sections and sectors of
rural society.
Economists distinguish among the terms development, economic growth and economic
development. Sing (2008) explains the term development, “Generally speaking, the term
development implies a change that is desirable. Since what is desirable at a particular time,
place and in a particular culture may not be desirable at other places, or at other times at the
same place and in the same cultural milieu, it is impossible to think of a universally acceptable
definition of development At best, development in the context of society could be
conceptualized as a set of desirable societal objectives which society seeks to achieve. Thus
defined, development is cherished by all individuals, communities and nations, irrespective
of their culture, religion and spatial location”. Economic growth means sustained increase in

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per capita real income. But, economic development is a much wider term. It includes economic
growth and at the same time encompasses other issues like pattern of production, distribution
of national income, consumption behaviour of the people and concern for environment. The
concept of sustainable development advocates economic progress in an environmentally
responsible manner. To quote, “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs
(WCED 1987, p.43).” Sustainable development attempts to strike a balance between the
demands of the economic development and the need for protection of the environment. It
seeks to combine the elements of economic efficiency, intergenerational equity, social concerns
and environmental protection. Although, the term sustainable development has many
interpretations, it is generally refers to non-declining human well-being over time (Government
of India, Economic Survey, 1998-99, p. 156).
Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and
men, to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need. It involves
helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and
control more of the benefits of rural development. The group includes small farmers, tenants
and landless. Hence, rural development is defined as a process of sustainable improvement
in the quality of life of rural people, especially the poor (Singh, 2008, p. 21).
2.2 Rural Development during Pre and Post Independence India

Pre-Independence
Rural development traces back its history to the seventeenth century when voluntary efforts
to serve the mankind were initiated by a religious society of people known as ‘Friends’ or
‘Quakers’ in England, then the other parts of World including India. It aimed at providing
services to mankind transcending bonds of religion, territory and culture. During the British
period, the British government was never serious about the rural development. But, they
acted under compelling situation like famines and economic distress. During 1800 to 1825,
it was reported that there were five famines; during 1825 to 1850, two famines; during 1850
to 1875, six famines; and during 1875 to 1900, there were eighteen famines in different parts
of the country. Famines forced the British government in to action. The Famine Commission
of 1880, 1898, 1901, the Irrigation Committee of 1903, the Commission on Co-operation
of 1915 and the Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture were the efforts of the Government
to improve the economic condition of the common man, but seldom were the reports of the
commissions implemented in right spirit. However, during these periods, the most active role
in the field of rural development was played by the Christian missionaries who aimed at the

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all-round development of their Christian converts. In the year 1987, British Government
heeding to the representation made by Manchester Cotton Supply Association established
the Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce. But, this department did not do
much related to agriculture development except the collection of agricultural statistics.
Based on Famine Commission’s (1880) recommendations, Agriculture Department was

established in most of the States, and as per the Famine Commission (1901) report, the
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, livestock farms and experimental stations were stated.
The Government of India Act 1919 empowered the transfer of all the Development
Departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and there after
agricultural development become a state subject.
The Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928) suggested the government to establish a body
for agricultural research at the national level for promotion, guidance and co-ordination of
agricultural research. The commission observed that agricultural research can be of no help
to the cultivators until its results are given to them in a form in which they become a part of
their agricultural practice.
Prior to independence of the country, many reformers and philanthropists started various
innovative rural development programmes either alone or with association with other
organisations for the benefit of the poor people. Some of them are:
1. Rural Reconstruction Programme (1890) in Borada
The rural reconstruction programme was started in Borada province by Maharaja Sayaji
Rao. The programme emphasized on establishment of village Panchayats; education of
children; adult education; improving agriculture production through expansion of irrigation
facilities; production, distribution and use of better quality seeds, etc.
2. Scheme of Rural Reconstruction (1903)
Daniel Hamilton launched a scheme of creating model village in an area of ‘Sunderban’ near
West Bengal on co-operative principles. In 1934, a Rural Reconstruction Institute was also
established. It provided training facilities in cottage industries.
3. Servants of Indian Society (1905)
This was funded by Gopala Krishna Kokale as a political society at Poona. It laid strong
emphasis on socio-economic and educational activities. Later Kokale started training centres

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in Madras State(Chennai), United Province and Central Province (Madhya Pradesh)

and published booklets on the basic education and labour problems, etc.
4. Economic Conference of Mysore (1914-18)
This was launched by Dr. M.S. Visweswarya as the Divan of Mysore state. It was
planned to have an overall development of the locality. Agriculture was given priority in
the scheme. Various committees were formed with officials to survey the needs and
formulate plans for implementation. The scheme was wound up later due to immense
load of the programme.
5. The Gurgaon Experiment (1920)
The Village Development Programme was started by F.L. Brayne, a Britisher, in Gurgaon
district of Punjab and Haryana. The programme included establishment of school of
rural economy to train the village guides for rural uplift work; setting up of domestic
school of economics to train the village women; taking up rural sanitation works;
agricultural development programmes, etc. He especially visualized the role of village
school teacher as beyond teaching in the school and as a person who can solve the
simple problems of the villagers. After the transfer of Brayane, there was a lack of interest
and the scheme did not make much headway. Again this programme gathered momentum
after 1933 when Brayane was appointed as the Commissioner of Rural Reconstruction
in Punjab.
6. Marthandam Attempt ( 1921)
This programme was started by Dr. Spencer Hatch in 1921 at Marthandam ( place
nearer to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu) with the help of YMCA ( Young Man Christian
Association) . The main objectives of this project were five-fold, namely, mental, spiritual,
physical, economical and social development. Various clubs like egg selling club, honey
club, weaver’s club, etc. were organised under this programme in the villages. Dr. Hatch
had a very well planned approach to the village development. The programme covered
development of cottage industries like mats and basket making, poultry keeping, bee
keeping, etc.
7. Sriniketan Rural Reconstruction Programme (1921)

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The Poet Rabindranath Tagore set up an Ashram at Shantinikatan(West Bengal), a

peaceful place away from Calcutta. He started his rural development activities with
L.K. Elmhirst from his institute of reconstruction with objectives of to improve village
situations and developing interest among youth in rural development works. The institute
of rural reconstruction conducted several demonstration on farmers’ holding on improved
agricultural practices, established a dairy and poultry to supply milk, eggs, better animals
and birds to the farmers for breeding. The programme emphasized on helping villagers
to develop agriculture, livestock, formation of cooperatives and improving village
sanitation.
8. Sevagram Project ( 1923)
This project was started by the Father of Nation, Mahatma Gandhi in 1923 but it had
really started in 1920 as All India Spinners’Association. The project was based on the
principles of ‘Truth and Non-Violence’ and aimed at social and economic development.
The objectives of the project were to provide service to the underprivileged section of
the society for self dependency. The main activities of the project were organisation of
training centre for cottage industries, prohibition, removal of untouchability, stressing
women education and basic education and preaching and practicing of communal unity.
9. Rural Reconstruction Programme in India (1932)
The project was started by V.T. Krishnamachari in Boroda state in 1932. The programme
aimed at developing a will to live better and to develop capacity for self help and self
reliance. The programme included the activities like digging of water wells, distribution
of agriculture inputs and establishment cooperatives, panchayats, etc.
10. Rural Development Programme (1935)
This is a Government Programme initiated in 1935-36 with the announcement of a

grant of Rs. 1 crore by the Government of India for distribution to the provinces for the
economic development and improvement of rural areas. The programme aimed at
encouragement of village industries, improvement of village communication, rural
sanitation and recreation, medical aids , agricultural improvements, etc. Rural
reconstruction centres were organisedfor intensive work in the specially selected areas
and various non-official organisation and educational bodies also did lot of work in this
direction.

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11. Grow More Food Campaign (1943)
This was started in 1942 after the crisis of food grains in Bengal. This campaign was done in
an organised way to increase agricultural production. More emphasis was given on use of
improved agricultural techniques in farming. Trained field men were employed. Fertilizers
and improved seeds were distributed to raise food production. The Grow More Food
Campaign Enquiry Committee under the chairmanship of V.T. Krishnamachari observed that
the campaign failed to achieve the expected results due to various shortcomings in the basic
strategy like, very narrow and restricted scope of operation, lack of integrated approach and
the short-term objectives of increasing productivity, etc. It was also observed that the movement
only touched a fringe of the population, and did not arouse widespread enthusiasm, or became
in any sense a national programme.
12. IndianVillage Service (1945)
This was a mission project and was operated in U.P. districts in 1948 under the direction of
Dr.W.H. Wiser. The main objectives of the scheme was to motivate people regarding
cooperation for development work, give chance to rural people for their help in rural uplift
works and enable villagers to solve their own problems.
13. Firka (Village) Development Scheme (1946)
Firka Development scheme was first started in 34 firkas in the them Madras State by T.
Prakasam. The scheme was later extended to other firkas. Based on Gandhiji’s idea of
‘Village Swaraj’ , the programme emphasized on providing housing, education, water supply,
developments of roads, improvements of sanitation, etc. The programme was directed in
each firka by firka development committee consisting of officials and non-officials. At macro
level, the programme emphasized on improvements in agriculture, development of village
industries, formation of Panchayat, setting up cooperatives, encouraging social and cultural
activities, etc. The scheme was later merged in Community Development Programme in
1952.
2.3 Post-Independence
2.3.1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948) : This Project of rural development and welfare was
started in Etawah (U.P.) in September 1948 with active assistance of Lt. Col. Albert Mayer

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and Mr. Horace Holmes of USA. The main objectives of the project were to increase
agricultural production and social development. These objectives were sought to be achieved
through reclamation of waste land, ravine reclamation and building of upland, construction of
sanitary wells, agriculture demonstrations, construction of roads, supply of seeds and manures,
horticulture development, etc.
Initially, the project was started with 64 villages and later it was extended up to 122 villages.
In this project, the village level workers were trained and appointed, co-operation of other
department and agencies was enlisted and demonstrations were conducted. The Government
of India was very much impressed by the achievements of the project and considered it as a
shining example of rural development work. Finally, this project was merged with National
Extension Service (NES).
2.3.2. Sarvodaya Scheme (1948)
Sri VinobaBhave started this programme in 1948, and it was based on Gandhian principles.
This programme was worked for village upliftment and it aimed at Bhudan, Gramdan, etc.
The land and money collected were distributed amongst the landless labourers in the villages.
2.3.3. Nilokheri Project (1948)
This project was started by S.K.Dey to rehabilitate the displaced persons coming from
Pakistan ( due to partition of the country) by establishing a new township at Nilokheri in
Karnal district in Haryana. Dey engaged the refugees in construction work assuring them the
right to live, the right to work, and right to earn remuneration for the work they performed.
These three rights formed the basis of a scheme known as MazdoorManzil. The plan included
developing medical facilities, sanitation, middle and high school education, vocational farming
, horticulture, poultry, fishery, etc. The Nilokheri township developed through this project
served the villages around and in turn received the surplus of food and other commodities for
the urban population. There was establishment of good relationship between town and nearby
villages. The development phase was more or less completed by the end of 1951.
2.3.4. Paul Hoffman- 15 pilot projects (1951)
Ford Foundation of USA under the guidance of its president, Paul Hoffman started 15 pilot
projects in various states of the country around middle of 1951. Under this project, a centre
for training of extension personnel was also opened. The idea was to produce a multipurpose

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worker who would know how to offer first aid in the various facets of the programme of
agriculture. Five training centres attached to five agriculture colleges were started with financial
help from ford foundation.
2.3.5. Chester Bowels (1951)
Chester Bowles met with Nehru in 1951 and offered 54 million dollar U.S. aid to begin
expanding the Etawah work. He agreed to spend the money over three years on approximately
50 projects, each with 300 villages. The planning document specified that each village in the
program should be provided with drinking water facility, with agricultural extension and
veterinary services, with drainage facilities where needed. He has planned that each group of
25 villages was to be clustered in a market unit, and each five market units would be grouped
in a “block,” whose central settlement would have accommodations for a thousand families,
electricity and telephone services, an agricultural school, a plant nursery, a small hospital, and
small-scale industries. Under this programme, fifteen pilot projects were approved in 1951.
Each covered 100 villages, and each was under the control of an extension director with a
staff agricultural officer, three agricultural technicians, and about a dozen village level workers.
The above mentioned projects had one or more shortcomings which resulted in failure or
limited success in achieving the goals of community development. The shortcomings are
summed up as follows:
i. Most of the efforts were based on individual efforts and inspired by humanitarian
considerations.
ii. Government backing and financial assistance were lacking.
iii. Attempts were isolated, uneven and discontinuous.
iv. Staffs employed were inadequate, inexperienced and untrained.
v. Plans and programmes were ill-defined and unbalanced.
vi. Association and cooperation with other departments was very limited.
vii. Involvement of the people in planning and execution i.e. finding out the problems
and their solution was very limited.

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Q 1) What is the meaning of Rural Development?
Ans :
Q2) Name some of the important rural development programmes initiated by Indians?
Ans :
Q3) List some of the important rural development programmes initiated by individuals after
Independence?
Ans :

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2.4 Planned Strategies for Rural Development in India
Food and Agriculture Ministry appointed a Committee to examine the Grow More Food
activities of the Government which were in implementation and to suggest measures for
ensuring rapid expansion of agricultural production. The Grow More Food Campaign Inquiry
Committee pointed out that there was imperative “Need of an organisation for intensive
rural work which would reach every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of
rural life as a whole similar in conception to the “extension” or “advisory’” services in the
U.S.A., the U.K. and elsewhere.” One of the recommendations of the Committee was that
an extension agency should be set up for rural work, which would reach every farmer and
assist in the coordinated development of rural life. The Planning Commission set up the
Government of India in 1950 to formulate the First Five Year Plan summarized the reasons
for failure of the earlier efforts by the governmental and voluntary organisations as follows-
i. Most of the schemes are short duration
ii. The activities were not properly planned and coordinated
iii. Initiatives come from the Government side and not from the people
iv. Some basic problems like land tenure, rural credit, etc., remained untouched in the
programmes.
On the basis of experiences and reports of earlier rural development programmes, the Planning
Commission of India suggested a systematic, planned and country wide community
development programme in its First Five Year Plan report to address the issues of rural
community. It was out of this background that India’s Community Development Programme
(CDP) was born in 2nd October, 1952 with the aim to promote better living of the whole
community in rural areas.
Community Development
The term “Community Development” has been frequently used to indicate any efforts towards
the advancement of community interests. It is described as a :

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-process of change from the traditional way of living of rural communities to progressive
ways of living.
-method of helping local communities to become more aware of their needs, to assess their
resources more realistically, to organize themselves and their resources in such a way as to
satisfy some of their needs through action projects.
-programme for accomplishing certain activities concerning the welfare of the rural people.
-movement for progress with certain ideological contents.
Community
A community is a group of people, who live in a continuous geographical area and have
interests in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a part of a larger social system
which meet the basic social needs, through the function of which people have developed a
sense of belongingness and ability to work together as an entity.
Some of the important characteristics of the community are
1. Communities are close-knit entities
2. Their customs are interrelated
3. These communities are complexes of sub-group relationship and
4. There is a discernible leadership within the community.
Development and Community Development
The term development connotes growth or maturation. It implies gradual and sequential
phases of change.
Cambridge Conference in 1948 defined community development as a movement designed

to promote better living of the whole community with the active participation of the community
members. On the similar line, United Nations define community development as a process
designed to create conditions of economic and social progress of the whole community with
its active participation and fullest reliance upon the community initiation. Murkerji describes
Community development as a :
- Process of change from traditional way of leaving of rural communities to progressive

ways of living;

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- Method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on their own capacity
and resources;
- Programme for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the welfare of

the rural people, and
- Movement for progress with a certain emotional and ideological content.
It is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active
participation, and initiative of the community by organising them to work for their wellbeing.
Community development is used as a technique by many governments to reach the village
people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for increased production
and better living of the local people.
By understanding the above terms, we can say that community development programmes
means a programme for gradual change in a group of people living in a geographical area and
have interest in each other for the purpose of making a meaningful living. It is a process by
which the efforts of the people themselves are combined with those of governmental authorities
to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these
communities into the life of the nation, and enable them to contribute fully to national progress.
2.4.1 Community Development Programme (CDP)
One of the initial moving forces for launching the Community Development Programme in
India was First Prime Minister, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. He felt that the undeveloped human
resource of the country could be involved in building new India through community development
programme. The central objectives of India’s first planned programme of community
development were to secure the total development of the material and human resources of
rural areas and to develop local leadership and self-governing institutions.
The CDP was launched on 2nd October 1952 on the birth anniversary of Father of Nation,
Mahatma Gandhi in 55 community development projects in the country with active cooperation
of Ford Foundation, USA.
Each project of Community Development Programme consisted of about, 300 villages
covering over 400-500 square miles and having a population of around 2 lakhs. The project
area was divided into three development blocks, each comprising 100 villages and population
around 60 to 70 thousands. In areas where a full project was considered not feasible, one or
two developmental blocks were started to begin with. The blocks were further divided into

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groups of 5 to 10 villages, and a multi-purpose village level worker was given charge of the
villages. Intensive development work was taken up in all fields. The rural people showed
great interest in the programme and participated for their economic development. Knowing
the beneficial effect of the programme on community development, the Members of the
State Legislative Assembly and Parliament demanded the expansion of the programme to
their areas. Due to political pressure, the country was forced to implement a new programmei.e
National Extension Service (NES), a less extensive scheme, to cover the whole country in
eight years and the more extensive CDP in twelve years.
2.4.2 National Extension Service (NES)
Within a few months of the launching of community development programmes, the people of
the project areas responded enthusiastically and indeed much beyond the expectations of
the Government and the sponsors of the programme. This success put a pressure on the
Government to extend the programme to the other parts of the country. But the country’s
resources were not sufficient to sustain a comprehensive plan of the same magnitude as
contemplated in the community development projects. The Government therefore decided
to launch alongside the community development programme another programme which was
somewhat less intensive in nature, called the National Extension Service programme. The
programme was formulated in April 1953 and was inaugurated one year after the CDP that
is, on 2nd October, 1953. The CDP and NES had the same idea and two were integrated
under one agency at the Centre as well as in the states. Bothe the programmes were
complementary and interwoven and ran concurrently. The idea behind the National Extension
Service Programme was to cover the entire country within a period of about 10 years.The
National Extension Service was a permanent organization and covered the whole country.
It provided the basic organization, official, non-official and a minimum financial provision for
development. National Extension Service blocks in which successful results had been achieved
with the maximum popular co-operation were selected for intensive development for a period
of three years. The National Extension Service and the community development programmes
had uniform unit of operation which was called a development block. It represented on an
average 100 villages, with a population of 60,000 to 70,000 persons spread over an area of
150 to170 square miles. But the N.E.S. blocks were not developed with the same intensity
as areas under the community development blocks. Out of the areas developed as National
Extension Service Blocks, selection was made periodically for intensive development work
under the community development programme and the block which were selected were
called C.D. blocks. Only those blocks were selected for the second plan period for three
years which showed good results.

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2.5 Important Rural Development Programmes and Schemes

launched under different Five Year Plans
S.No Programme Year of Introduction
I First five year plan (1951-56)

Community Development Programme (CDP) 1952
National Extension Service (NES) 1953
Community Development Block(CDB) 1954
II Second Five Year (1956-61)

Khadi and Village Industries Programme (KVIP) 1957
Village Housing Scheme 1957
Multi –Purpose Tribal Development 1959
Package Programme 1960
Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP) 1960
III Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)

Applied Nutrition Programme (ANP) 1962
Rural Industries Projects 1962
Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) 1964
Intensive Cattle Development Programme (ICDP) 1964-65
High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) 1966
National Family Welfare Programme
Annual Plan (1966-67)

Farmer’s Training and Education Programme 1966
Well Construction Programme 1966

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Rural Works Programme (RWP) 1967

Tribal Development Block 1968
Rural Manpower Programme 1969
Composite Programme for Women and Pre-school Children 1969
IV Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) 1970
Crash Scheme for Rural Development (CSRD) 1971
Small Farmer’s Development Agency (SFDA) 1971
Marginal Farmers’ and Agricultural LabourersProgramme( MFAL) 1971
Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP) 1972
Pilot Project for Tribal Development 1972
Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme (PIREP) 1972
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) 1972
Command Area Development Programme 1974
Training and Visit Programme (T&V) 1974
V Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)
Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) 1975
Special Livestock Production Programme 1975
Food for Work Programme (FWP) 1977
Desert Development Programme (DDP) 1977
WholeVillage Development Programme 1979

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Training of Rural Youth for Self –Employment (TRYSEM) 1979
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) 1978-79
VI Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85)

National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) 1980
Prime Minister’s Twenty –Point Programme 1980
New Twenty –Point Programme 1982
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) 1983
Nutrition Noon Meal Scheme 1982
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) 1983
National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) 1984
VII Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90)
Indira AwasYojana (IAY) 1985

Reclamation and Development of Alkali and Acid Soils (RADAS) 1985-86
New Twenty –Point Economic Programme 1986
Technology Mission on oilseeds (TMO) 1986
JawaharRozgarYojana (JRY) 1989
Annual Plans 1990-91 and 1991-92
National Watershed Development
Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) 1990-91
VIII Eighth Five Year Plan(1992–1997)
Milk and Milk Products Order 1992

RashtriyaMahilaKosh 1992
MahilaSamridhiYojana 1993
Prime Minister’s RozgarYojana 1993

Integrated Dairy Development Sche 1993-94
Indian MahilaYojana 1995

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Mid-day Meal Scheme 1995
National Social Assistance Programme 1995
The Rural Group Life Insurance Scheme 1995
IX Ninth Five Year Plan(1997–2002)
Experimental Crop Insurance Scheme (ESIS) 1997-98
Jawahar Gram SamridhiYojana (JGSY) 1998
Rural Housing 1998
Swarnajayanthi Gram SwarozgarYojana (SGSY) 1999
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) 1999
National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) 1999-2000
Pilot Scheme on Seed Crop Insurance (PSSCI) 1999-2000
National Project on Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB) 2000
Pradhan Mantri Gram SadakYojana (PMGSY) 2000
GrameenBhandaranYojana 2001
X Tenth Five Year Plan (2002–2007)

Agriclinics and Agribusiness Centres (AABC) Scheme 2002
Farm Income Insurance Scheme (FIIS) 2003-04
Kissan Call Centre (KCC) Scheme 2004
Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure,
Grading & Standardization (AMIGS): 2004

Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) 2004
Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP) 2005

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Bharat Nirman 2005
National Rural Health Mission 2005

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) Scheme 2005-06
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) 2005-06
MGNREGS 2006
National Bamboo Mission 2006-07

XI Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012)
Pilot Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) 2007
National Food Security Mission 2007-08
RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana (RKVY) 2007-08
NationalLand Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP) 2008
Agricultural Debt Waiver & Debt Relief (ADWDR) Scheme 2008
Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP). 2009-10
National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) 2010
Dairy Entrepreneur Development Scheme (DEDS) 2010
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) 2011
Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP) 2011-12
Accelerated Fodder Development Programme (AFDP) 2011-12
National Mission for Protein Supplements 2011-12
National Dairy Plan 2012
XII Twelve Five Year Plan (2012–2017)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) 2014-15
National Livestock Mission(NLM) 2014-15
National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP) 2014-15
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) 2014-15

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Q 4) What do you mean by community development ?
Ans :
Q 5)What are the important programmes of launched under eleventh five year plan (207-
12)?
Ans :
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
The rural development is planned, designed and deliberate interventions to influence the
residing in rural areas and making the process of their development sustainable and self-
sustained. It is a process that enhances the capacity of the rural people to improve their lives
and environment, accomplished by wider distribution of benefits resulting from such
improvement. Rural development includes both agricultural and non-agricultural aspects of
life. It includes economic growth as well as development of various sections and sectors of
rural society. Various philanthropists have started rural development progammes in the pre
independence era for socio-economic development of the people. However, they are only in
a very limited scale. Similarly, in a smaller scale with a limited geographical area, some of the
social workers started some of the rural development programmes after independence.
However, planned rural development programmes were lunched in the country by Government
of India after introduction Five Year Plans in the country.

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2.7 Key Words
Development : The term development connotes growth or maturation. It implies gradual

and sequential phases of change.
Community : A community is a group of people, who live in a continuous geographical area
and have interests in each other for the purpose of making a living.
Gram Panchayat : Gram Panchayat is the lowest tier of Panchayat Raj System and the
basic institute constituted at the village level for local administration.
Panchayat Samiti : PanchaytSamitit is the middle tier of panchayat raj system at block level
which is above the gram panchayat and below the ZillaParisad.
ZillaParisad : The District Council or ZilaParishad or District Panchayat is the topmost tier
of the panchayat raj system at the district level. Zilaparisahad is an elected
body
Chambers, Robert, 1987, ‘Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A strategy for People, Environment
and Development’, Commissioned study No. 7, Institute of Development Studies at the
University of Sussex, Brigton, England.
Dey, S.K. ( 1964), Community Development: A Bird’s Eye View, Asia Publishing House,
New Delhi.
Ensminger, D. 1957. A Guide to Community Development, Ministry of Community

Development and Cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Government of India (1957), A Guide to Community Development, Ministry of Community

Development, Government of India.
Mukundan, N. ( 2009). Rural Development and Poverty Eradication in India, New Century
Publications, Ansari Ganbj, Daryaganj, New Delhi- 110 002.
Singh, Katar (2008), Rural Development: Principles, Policies and Management, New Delhi,
Sage Publications.

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Q 1) What is the meaning of Rural Development?
Ans: Rural Development is a planned, designed and deliberate interventions to influence the
residing in rural areas and making the process of their development sustainable and self
sustained
Q2) Name some of the important rural development programmes initiated by Indians?
Ans: 1. Rural Reconstruction Programme (1890) in Borada
2. Scheme of Rural Reconstruction (1903)
3. Servants of Indian Society (1905)
4. Economic Conference of Mysore (1914-18)
5. The Gurgaon Experiment (1920)
6. Marthandam Attempt ( 1921)
7. Sriniketan Rural Reconstruction Programme (1921)
8. Sevagram Project ( 1923)
9. Rural Reconstruction Programme in India (1932)
10.Rural Development Programme (1935)
11.Grow More Food Campaign (1943)
Q3) List some of the important rural development programmes initiated by individuals after
Independence?
Ans: 1. Etawah Pilot Project (1948)
2. Sarvodaya Scheme (1948)

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3. Nilokheri Project (1948)
4. Paul Hoffman- 15 pilot projects (1951)
5. Chester Bowels (1951)

Q 4) What do you mean by community development ?
Ans: Community development as a :
- Process of change from traditional way of leaving of rural communities to progressive

ways of living;
- Method by which people can be assisted to develop themselves on their own capacity
and resources;
- Programme for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the welfare of

the rural people, and
- Movement for progress with a certain emotional and ideological content.

Q 5) What is Gram Sabha ?
Ans: Gram Sabha is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls of a village
or a group of villages which elect a Panchayat. A vibrant and enlightened Gram Sabha is
central to the success of the Panchayati Raj system.
Q 6)What are the important programmes of launched under eleventh five year plan (207-
12)?
Ans:
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012)

Pilot Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) 2007
National Food Security Mission 2007-08
RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana (RKVY) 2007-08

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NationalLand Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP) 2008
Agricultural Debt Waiver & Debt Relief (ADWDR) Scheme 2008
Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP). 2009-10
National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) 2010
Dairy Entrepreneur Development Scheme (DEDS) 2010
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) 2011
Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP) 2011-12
Accelerated Fodder Development Programme (AFDP) 2011-12
National Mission for Protein Supplements 2011-12
National Dairy Plan 2012

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UNIT -3
Rural Extension through ICAR
• List the different institutional systems involved in rural development

• Explain the importance of KVKs in the country
• List the different ICAR programmes
Structure :
3.1 Introduction
3.2 ICAR Front Line Extension Programmes
3.2.1 All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstration Programme (NDP)
3.2.2 Operational Research Project
3.2.3 KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) ( Farm Science Centre)
3.2.4 Lab-to-Land Programme (LLP)
3.2.5 National Agriculture Research Project (NARP)
3.2.6 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)
3.2.7 Technology Assessment and Refinement–Institute Village Linkage
Programme (TAR-IVLP)
3.2.8 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATICS)
3.2.9 National Agricultural Innovation Project (2006)
3.2.10 National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)
3.3 Let Us Sum Up
3.4 Key Words

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3.1 Introduction
The main work of the agricultural development and extension work is done by the ministry
of Agriculture at the national level and the Department of Agriculture at the state level. The
Indian Council of Agriculture of Agriculture Research (ICAR) conducts the first –line extension
works through ICAR institutes and State level Agricultural Universities. They play a major
role through organizing demonstration, training , etc., on a limited scale. Similarly, the
developmental works are also being done by the voluntary organization, the Non-
Governmental organization, and they are mostly funded by ICAR, State Departments of
Agriculture and State Development Departments. They work on a very limited geographical
area and some of them are very effective for their dedication to serve the people.
There are four major organizational system involved in the country in doing extension work
in rural development and agriculture, and they are:
1.Ministry of Rural Development of Government of India and State Rural Development

Departments
2.Ministry of Agriculture of Government of India and State Agriculture Departments
3.Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) and State Agriculture Universities (SAUs)
4.Private bodies like voluntary Organizations, Corporate houses, International agencies etc.
Various rural and agriculture development programmes have been launched and implemented
in different five year plans for the socio-economic development of the rural poor. In this unit,
we will discuss only some of the important programmes launched by the ICAR.
3.2 ICAR Front Line Extension Programmes
It was recognized by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in the early sixties that
agriculture development requires interdisciplinary and multi institutional approach. The
integrated functioning of agricultural research, education and extension was for the first time
recognized as the cardinal principle of agricultural development system, and accordingly
agricultural research, education and extension function were integrated in the ICAR institutes
and State Agricultural Universities (SAU). ICAR established a Section of Extension Education
at its headquarter in 1971, which was later renamed as Division of Agricultural Extension to
promote the transfer the agricultural technologies through the ICAR-SAU system. The unit

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of extension education at the ICAR head quarters therefore was intended to enforce this
functional relationship down the line in the ICAR institutes , SAUs, and other institutions of
the country. In order to sanitize the process of integration, few frontline extension education
projects were launched by the ICAR in different years. For better understanding, brief
details of these projects are given below.
3.2.1 All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstration Programme (NDP)
On the recommendation of a panel of scientists constituted by the minister of food and

agriculture, a nationwide programme of demonstrations, known as National Demonstration
(ND) on major food crops was launched in the 1964.The rationale behind the scheme was
that unless the scientists could demonstrate what they advocated , their advice might not be
heeded by the farmers. The conceptual frame work of national demonstration was that it was
a nationwide project with a uniform design and pattern. It differed from other demonstrations
in the following four major respects.
i) There was a specific yield-target and there was no separate control plot near the
demonstration. The idea behind this principle was that the entire living memory of the farmers
about the yield potential of the crop as well as the entire block in which the demonstration
had been laid out would serve as the control.
ii) The area of the demonstration plot was about one hectare ( it could be one acre if bigger
plots were not available), so that the feasibility of raising a good crop could be strikingly and
unquestionable demonstrated.
iii) The farmers in whose plots the demonstrations were laid out were the actual cultivators
with small holdings, so that the high yields obtained were not attributed to the effects of
affluence.
iv) The agricultural scientists conducted these demonstrations in association with local extension
agencies and workers.
Initially, the national demonstration’s project was implemented in 100 selected districts of 23
states in the country. During 1966, 1000 national demonstrations in rice alone were conducted
as part of the celebration of ‘International Rice Year’. The demonstrated conducted during
1965-67 were single crop demonstrations. From 1967 onwards, the ICAR reoriented the
programme by introducing multiple cropping which aimed at maximizing production per unit

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area per unit time. In 1968, the demonstrations were also introduced in the non-irrigated
areas. In 1970, it was further emphasized that these demonstrations would be used as training
grounds. The concepts of entire farming demonstrations, introduced in 1980-81, was
conducted with a few selected farmers only.
Objectives of the National Demonstration:
The national demonstrations were intended to show the genetic production potentiality of
new technologies and to influence both farmers and the extension agencies. The specific
objectives of the project were as follows:
1. To demonstrate convincingly to farmers extension personnel the genetic production

potentialities of major crops per unit area of land per unit time and encourage them to adopt
and popularize these technologies for accelerating production.
2.To fully exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of training farmers and extension
workers in improved cultivation practices
3.To provide research workers an opportunity to get firsthand knowledge of the problems
being faced by farmers in adopting high yielding varieties and practising recommended package
of practices.
4.To determine the income and employment generation potentialities of the crops/subjects
under demonstration, and educate the farmers and extension agents about them.
5.To influence the extension systems ( the State Department of Agriculture, voluntary
organizations, etc.) in the country by demonstrating the yield-gaps and pointing out operational
constraints.
An analysis of the results of national demonstrations conducted during 1977-80 revealed

that the production of wheat could be raised 4 times, rice by 3 times, maize by 3 ½ times,
sorghum by 5 times, and pearl millet by 5 times.
3.2.2 Operational Research Project
The experience with the national demonstration project highlighted the issue that the
demonstration of a particular technology or a combinations of technologies in an area on
watershed basis would prove more effective in convincing farmers and providing them
greater scope for identifying constraints ,many of which are community based . The ICAR

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lunched a project during fifth five year plan (1975) known as Operational Research Project
(ORP) which aimed at disseminating the proven technology in a discipline/ area among
farmers on a watershed basis covering the whole village or cluster of villages and concurrently
studying constraints ( technological, extension or administrative) as barriers to the rapid
spread of improved technical know-how. The ORP considered two kinds of problems.
Firstly, the common agricultural problems affecting the farming community requiring group
or community action like vaccination, plant protection. Secondly, problems related to the
total resource development of the watershed area. Resource development like raising
production of agriculture as well as livestock production
The Specific Objective of the ORP:
i) To test , adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technology on farmers field in a
whole village or in a cluster of few contiguous villages/ watershed area.
ii) To determine the profitability of the new technologies and there pace of spread among the
farmers.
iii) To identify the constraints both technological as well as socio-economic which are
barriers to rapid change.
iv) To demonstrate group action as a method of popularizing the modern technologies at a

faster rate.
3.2.3 KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) ( Farm Science Centre)
The genesis of KVKs : The genesis of KVKs can be traced to the Second Education
Commission (1964-66), under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari, which inter alia
recommended the establishment of ‘agricultural polytechnics’ to provide vocational education
in agriculture to school drop-outs and other rural youths. After careful deliberation by the
Union Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and the Planning Commission and as a
follow-up of the Kothari Commission recommendations, the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta
of SevaMandir, Udaipur in 1973 for formulating an institutional design for KrishiVigyan
Kendra (KVK) to provide vocational training in agriculture. The committee submitted its
report in 1974.

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The Basic Concept of KVK
 The centre will impart learning through work-experience and hence will be concerned
with technical literacy, the acquisition of which does not necessarily require the ability
to read and write.
 The centre will impart training only to those extension workers who are employed
and to the practicing farmers and fishermen. In other words, the centre will cater to
the needs of those who are already employed or those who wish to be self-employed
 There will be no uniform syllabus for the KVKs. The syllabus and programme of
each KVK will be flexible in nature and tailored according to the felt needs, natural
resources and thepotential for agricultural growth in that particular area.
The three fundamental principles which form the backbone of the KVK programme are :
i) agricultural production as the prime goal, ii) work-experience as the main method of
imparting training, and iii) priority to the weaker section of the society.
As per the Dr. Meheta committee recommendation, the bulk of trainees may be either drop
out from schools or the illiterate rural people. To them, some general education may be
imparted to make them not only good rural people but also alert citizen as well. Need based
training courses are designed for different types of clientele especially for the deserving
weaker section of the society like the tribal farmers, small and marginal farmers, agricultural
labourers, drought and flodd affected farmers, etc. Training programmes are developed on
the basis of information received through family and village survey.
Mandate of KVKsIn the beginning, the mandate of KVK was confined only to provide
skill based training to the farmers, farm women and rural youth in crop production, horticulture,
livestock production, fisheries, home science, farm machinery and implements and other
allied vocations such as apiculture, mushroom cultivation etc. Besides, various extension
activities such as field demonstration, field days, farmers’ fairs, exhibitions, radio/TV talks,
film show, publication of farm leaflets, etc. were also carried out for creating awareness and
to disseminate the agricultural technology. With the consolidation of other front-line extension
projects of the ICAR during the Eighth Five Year Plan, such as National Demonstration
Project (NDP), Operational Research Project (ORP) and Lab to Land Programme (LLP),
the mandate was enlarged and revised (i) to take up on-farm testing for identification of
technologies in terms of location specific sustainable land use, (ii) to organize frontline

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demonstrations on various crops to generate production data and to organize training to

update the extension personnel with emerging advances in agricultural research on regular
basis, and (iii) to organize short and long term vocational training courses in agriculture and
allied vocations for the farmers and rural youth with emphasis on “learning by doing” for
higher production on farms and generating self employment.
Objectives of KVKs
The main objective of the KVK is to provide a strong training support for bringing about
production breakthrough in agriculture. The specific objectives are as follows:
i) To plan and conduct survey of the operational area through Participatory Rural
Appraisal(PRA) methods and characterize physical and human resources with special reference
to identifying the technological and training needs of the farming community.
ii) To compile all relevant recommendations/package of practices for the district to be

meaningfully utilized in the training programmes and the follow-up extension activities.
iii) To plan and conduct production-oriented and need-based short and long duration training
courses both on the campus as well as in the villages for various target groups with priority on
the weaker and resource poorer sections.
iv) To organize Farm Science Clubs in order to inculcate in the younger generations a scientific
temper and an interest on agriculture and allied sciences and for scientific farming through
supervised individual and group projects.
v) To develop and maintain the campus farms and demonstration units on scientific lines as
the facilities for providing work experience to the trainees, dissemination of the latest technical
know-how and also as a means to achieve financial sustainability in due course of time.
vi) To provide practical training facilities of the Kendra to the teachers and the students of
vocational agriculture of the higher secondary schools.
vii) To provide added training facilities in the area for home making and nutrition education
for rural communities and gradually enlarging the training facilities to encompass other important
areas such as home/rural crafts and cottage industries with the requirements of the integrated
rural development in collaboration with the concerned organizations.

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viii)To implement all such schemes of the ICAR and other related organizations which intend
to strengthen the training and technology dissemination programmes as well as follow-up
extension activities of the centre.
ix) To undertake on-farm testing of the technologies developed by the National Agricultural
Research System (NARS) in agriculture and allied fields for their suitability and identifying
the constraints.
x) To demonstrate the potentialities of various technologies and recommend for their adoption
in maximizing yield/income per unit of time and area under different resource conditions
Special Features of KVK

i) Technically competent and experienced trainers
ii) Need based courses
iii) Practical facilities for training
iv) Work experience as training device
v) Un-uniform syllabus
vi) Training without certificate and diplomas
vii) Limited areas of jurisdiction
viii) Flexibility in approach
ix) Strong forward and backward institutional linkage
x) Training of trainers
xi) Continued monitoring and evaluation of the activities
Training Programmes of KVK
The KVKs organize two types of training programmes i.e. On-campus and Off-campus
training. No certificate or diploma is awarded irrespective of the duration of the courses.
On-campus training programmes are organized on the campus of the KVK whereas off-
campus training are conducted out of campus of KVK, either at villages, block, district
training centre. Depending on the need, interest and categories of trainees, both short duration
and long duration trainings are conducted by KVK. Short duration training programme may

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be of one day to ten days where as long duration training may of two weeks to twelve weeks
or in some special cases it may be up to six months.
3.2.4 Lab-to-Land Programme (LLP)
The Lab-to-Land Programme(LLP) was launched in 1979 by the ICAR as a part of its
Golden Jubilee celebration. The overall objective of the progrmme was to improve the
economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and the landless labourers, particularly
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes by transfer of improved technology developed by the
agricultural universities, research institutes, etc.
Objectives of LLP
The specific objectives of the lab-to-land programme were as follows:
i) To study and understand the background and resources of the selected farmers and land
less agricultural laborers . to introduce low cost relevant agricultural and allied technologies
on the farmers houses for increasing their employment , production and income.
ii) To assist the farmers to develop feasible farm plan keeping in view the availability of
technologies , need and resources of the farmers and the resources which could be made
available in the future from external agencies.
iii) To guide and help the farmers in adopting improved technologies as per there farm plans
and demonstrate to them the economic viability of those technologies as well s methods of
cultivation and farm management.
iv) To organize training programmes and other extension activities in relation to their adopted
practices and prepare them for active participation in agricultural development programmes
of the state department of agriculture.
v) To make the farmers aware of the various opportunities and agencies which they could
utilize to their economic advantage.
vi) To develop functional relations and linkages with the scientists and the institutions for
future guidance , advisory services and help.
vii) To utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the agricultural scientists and extension
functionaries.

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The programme was initiated with 75,000 farm families over the whole country, and it was
implemented by agricultural universities, ICAR institutions, State departments of agriculture
and some selected voluntary organizations.Theprogramme operated in anumber of phases
and a phase ran for a period of two years with a particular set of farmers.
With effect from 1st April, 1992 all the first-line transfer of technology projects of the ICAR,
viz,ND, ORP and LLP have been integrated into KVKs.
3.2.5 National Agriculture Research Project (NARP)
NARP was launched in 1978 by ICAR with the assistance of world bank with the main
objective to provide solutions to the location specific problems faced by the State by
reorganizing the research in agriculture. Through this project, the regional research capacity
of the State Agriculture Universities was improved and strengthened. ICAR provided financial
support to SAUs to develop suitable infrastructure to carry out area specific research in
agriculture under different agro-climatic zone.
3.2.6 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)
National Agriculture Technology Project was launched by ICAR in 1998 with the assistance
of world bank. The main objective was to enhance the performance and effectiveness of
research system in responding to the location specific needs of the farmers. The basic premise
of the NATP is that research and extension programmes should be farmer-centered and
demand driven. The NATP had three major components i.e. Agriculture Research
Management, Research and Innovation in Technology Dissemination. The innovation in
technology dissemination component of NATP was with Division of Agriculture Extension .
This component has four sub-components:
i) Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)

ii) Remandating of Selected Zonal Agricultural Research Srtation (ZARS)
iii) Agricultural Technology Innovation Centre (ATIC)
iv) Strengthening of Directorate of Extension and Zonal Co-ordination Units.

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3.2.7 Technology Assessment and Refinement–Institute Village Linkage

Programme (TAR-IVLP)
In the earlier programmes, the strategy followed in designing and implementing transfer
technology projects has been based more on the supply of technological information than on
the consideration of limitations of the small farmers at the farm level. The usual approach has
been that any technology, which produces the best results at the experimental level, is superior,
and that is what should be offered to the farmers. Failure to consider the actual circumstances
under which small farms operate has seriously affected the appropriateness of these
technologies. What was felt a technology generation and transfer mechanism and a
methodology that would make it possible to recognize and classify the different types of small
farmers. Then, and only then, the organizational design can generate and make available to
farmers an appropriate technology, which they could adopt.A more holistic approach in
terms of diagnosis of problems, identification of technological interventions based on farmers
knowledge and technology identification for various production systems was needed to address
the special production issues of small farmers. It was in this concept, a programme captioned
TAR-IVLP was evolved to address the above elements to arrive at appropriate technologies.
The programmegot its fillip and momentum since 1999 when it was brought under the fold as
part of NATP.
Objectives of TAR - IVLP
i) To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability along

with productivity and profitability taking into account environmental issues in well endowed
and small production systems.
ii) To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to increase the productivity with
marketed surplus in commercial and off farm production systems.
iii) To monitor socio-economic impact of technological interventions for different production

systems.
iv) To identify extrapolation domain for new technology/technology modules based on

environmental characterization as at meso and mega levels.
The project was implemented by Central Agricultural Research Institutes/State Agricultural

Universities through a multidisciplinary core team of scientists numbering 4-5 from the
implementing institution led by a Team Leader (Principal Investigator). The TAR-IVLP also

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envisages an optional team of scientists drawn from other institutes to look into specific
issues.
3.2.8 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATICS)
Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) was conceived and put into practice
since 1998-99 under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) sponsored by World
Bank and implemented through 40 ICAR Institutes and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs)
located in various parts of the country.
Objectives of ATIC
ATIC is established with the objectives to provide all basic needs of the farmers through a
single window service. This unique system not only serves the farmers but also other
stakeholders of the farming practices to provide solution to their location specific problems
and make available all the required technological information together with technology inputs
and products for testing and use by them. The important objectives are:
1. To provide a single window delivery system for the products and species available from
an institution to the farmers and other interested groups as a process of innovativeness
intechnology dissemination at the institute level;
2. To facilitate direct access to the farmers to the institutional resources available in terms of
technology, advice, products, etc., for reducing dissemination losses; and
3. To provide mechanism for feedback from the users to the institute.
4.To sale and distribute improve products

5.To provide published literature
6.To overcome technology dissemination loss
7.Research generation to the institute/ SUs
Attributes of ATIC
1. Availability and accessibility of new technologies
2. Relevance of new technologies
3. Responsiveness of new technologies to the needs of different categories of farmers

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4. Varied requirements for different categories of farmers and
5. Sustainability of such unit within overall institutional framework.
3.2.9 National Agricultural Innovation Project (2006)
Agriculture growth was on the ascendancy till the mid nineties but after that the growth
slowed down. Since 1996-97, the growth rate of agricultural GDP was on an average, 1.75
% per year in contrast with the rate of 4% that was required. On the other hand, the farmer
has been facing rising input costs, declining returns from the inputs, uncertain market, increasing
role of market in agriculture and blurring of distinction between the domestic market and the
international market. To assist the farmer in these changing contexts, new strategies and
innovative solutions are urgently required which in turn will require technological support.
Hence, the agricultural research system which generates technologies has to conduct the
business of agricultural research in an innovative way. The World Bank aided National
Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) has been conceived by ICAR in 2006 to pilot this
innovation in conducting agricultural research.
The Basic Principles of NAIP
1. To give the agricultural research and technology development system an explicit

development and business perspective through innovative models. In other words, the
agricultural research system should be able to support agriculture as a business venture and
also as a means of security of livelihood of the rural Indian while maintaining excellence in
science.
2.To make the National Agricultural Research System a ‘pluralistic’ system where every
Organisation having stake in agricultural research: public, private or civil society, has to play
a role.
3.Working in well defined partnership groups with clear common goals and understanding
on sharing responsibilities and benefits.
4.Funding through competition so that a wide choice of excellent innovative ideas come in
from the stakeholders themselves.

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5. Work with focus, plan and time frames.
6. Develop well-tested models for application of agricultural research and technology

for profitability of farming, income generation and poverty alleviation.
The overall objective of the NAIP is to facilitate an accelerated and sustainable
transformation of the Indian agriculture so that it can support poverty alleviation and
income generation through collaborative development and application of agricultural
innovations by the public organizations in partnership with farmers’ groups, the private
sector and other stakeholders.
The specific objectives envisaged are:
a) To build the critical capacity of the ICAR as a catalyzing agent for management of
change in the Indian NARS
b) To promote ‘production to consumption systems research’ in priority areas / themes

to enhance productivity, nutrition, profitability, income and employment.
c) To improve livelihood security of rural people living in the selected disadvantaged

regions through technology-led innovation systems encompassing the wider process of
social and economic change covering all stakeholders.
d) To build capacity to undertake basic and strategic research in frontier areas of

agricultural sciences to meet challenges in technology development in the immediate
and predictable future.
The NAIP is planned for six years (2006-12) to allow time for piloting, learning and
scalingup, wherever possible.
3.2.10 National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)
Background
Climate change has become an important area of concern for India to ensure food and
nutritional security for growing population. The impacts of climate change are global,
but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the high population depending on
agriculture. In India, significant negative impacts have been implied with medium-term
(2010-2039) climate change, predicted to reduce yields by 4.5 to 9 percent, depending
on the magnitude and distribution of warming. Since agriculture makes up roughly 16

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percent of India’s GDP, a 4.5 to 9% negative impact on production implies a cost of climate
change to be roughly up to 1.5 percent of GDP per year. The Government of India has
accorded high priority on research and development to cope with climate change in agriculture
sector. The Prime Minister’s National Action Plan on climate change has identified Agriculture
as one of the eight national missions. With this background, the ICAR has launched a major
Project entitled, National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during
2010-11 with an outlay of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
Objectives of the Project:
 To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries
to climatic variability and climate change through development and application of
improved production and risk management technologies
 To demonstrate site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting

to current climate risks

Q 1) What are the Special features of KVK ?
Ans:
Q 2)What are the objectives of National Initiatives on Climate Resilient Agriculture project?
Ans:

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Q 3) What were the specific Objective of the Operational Research Project(OPRP) ?
Ans:
To enhance the capacity building of scientists and other stakeholders in climate resilient
agricultural research and its application.
3.3 Let Us Sum Up
In this Unit, we have presented an overview of the organisational systems involved in rural
extension and developmental works in the country. The important extension and developmental
programmes launched by the two systems of country-ICAR system and Department of
Agriculture- have been discussed.
3.4 Key Words
NDP : On the recommendation of a panel of scientists constituted by the minister of food

and agriculture, a nationwide programme of demonstrations, known as National Demonstration
(ND) on major food crops was launched in the 1964.
ORP : The ICAR lunched a project during fifth five year plan (1975) known as Operational
Research Project (ORP) which aimed at disseminating the proven technology in a discipline/
area among farmers on a watershed basis covering the whole village or cluster of villages

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and concurrently studying constraints (technological, extension or administrative) as barriers

to the rapid spread of improved technical know-how.
KVK :Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) appointed a committee under the
Chairmanship of Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta of SevaMandir, Udaipur in 1973 for formulating
an institutional design for KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) to provide vocational training in
agriculture.



Reddy,A.A. 1993. Extension Education,Sreelakshmi Press, Bapatla.

Hyderabad,

Q 1) What are the Special features of KVK ?
Ans: Special Features of KVK

xii) Technically competent and experienced trainers
xiii) Need based courses
xiv) Practical facilities for training

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xv) Work experience as training device

xvi) Un-uniform syllabus
xvii) Training without certificate and diplomas
xviii) Limited areas of jurisdiction
xix) Flexibility in approach
xx) Strong forward and backward institutional linkage
xxi) Training of trainers
xxii) Continued monitoring and evaluation of the activities
2) What are the objectives of National Initiatives on Climate Resilient Agriculture project ?
Ans: Objectives of the Project:
To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries to
climatic variability and climate change through development and application of improved
production and risk management technologies
To demonstrate site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting to
current climate risks
To enhance the capacity building of scientists and other stakeholders in climate resilient
agricultural research and its application.
Q 3) What were the specific Objective of the Operational Research Project(OPRP) ?
Ans: The Specific Objective of the ORP:
v) To test, adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technology on farmer’s field in a
whole village or in a cluster of few contiguous villages/ watershed area.
vi) To determine the profitability of the new technologies and there pace of spread among
the farmers.
vii) To identify the constraints both technological as well as socio-economic which are barriers
to rapid change.
viii) To demonstrate group action as a method of popularizing the modern technologies at a

faster rate.

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UNIT - 4
Extension Methods
Learning Objectives :
• Explain the meaning of Extension Methods

• Differentiate between Method demonstration and Result demonstration
• List different mass media method
• Explain the importance of selection, use and combination of extension methods
in effective communication
Structure :
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Extension Method
4.2.1 Function of Extension Methods:
4.2.2 Classification of Extension Methods:
4.3 Individual Methods
4.4 Group Methods
4.4.1 Method Demonstration
4.4.2 Result Demonstration
4.5 Mass Media Method
4.6 Selection, Use and Combination of Extension Methods
4.6.1 Methods useful in different steps of Extension Teaching Process
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Key Words

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4.1 Introduction
The function of extension education is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of a
human being. The changes in human being are produced by increasing his/her knowledge
level, improving skill and changing attitude. For all these to happen, an individual has to be
taught, trained and communicated. So, the extension education emphasizes the process of
communication, and if you examine, you will find that the extension education is broadly a
teaching- learning process in which a learning situation is created by an extension worker/
teacher by which an individual attempts to change his/her behaviour. The learning situation
created in extension education process is a condition or environment in which the elements
like teacher, learner, subject matter, physical facilities and teaching methods and aids for
promoting learning are present in a dynamic relationship with one another. The quality of
learning depends upon the conditions created by the teacher for learners to learn. However,
the learner is the key element in the teaching and learning process. His willingness and
desire for change are very important. The third element; subject matter is the content of the
message that the extension worker wants to transfer to the client. Transfer of the subject
matter will be easy and effective if it is valid, correct, based on facts, applicable to practical
life situation and need based. Effective teaching-learning process is also affected if physical
facilities like place, light, ventilation, seating arrangements, etc., are not properly provided
to both teachers as well as to the learners. Besides all these, the transfer of subject matters
to the learners requires the help of suitable teaching methods, aids and media. Proper
selection and handling of methods and aids facilitate in creating the desirable learning situation.
The teaching methods and aids should be simple, easy to handle, suitable to subject matter,
readily available, suited to the environment and needs of the learners.
4.2 Extension Method

Effective learning depends upon the effective teaching. Effective teaching and creation of
learning environment largely depend upon the teaching methods/extension methods /extension
teaching methods used by teacher. Proper selection and skillful handling of extension methods
bring out expected changes in adult. (the words like ‘extension method’, ‘teaching method’
and ‘extension teaching method’ carry the same meaning, and in this book they are used
interchangeable.) Then, what is the meaning of extension method? We may understand the
meaning of extension method in this way that the extension methods are the techniques and
tools used to create a learning situation in which effective communication can take place
between the learners (may be an adult or rural farmer) and the teacher.

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Function of Extension Methods:
i. To create an environment in which communication takes place so that the learner

may see, hear and do things to be learnt.
ii. To provide stimulation that causes the desired mental and/ or physical action on the
part of the learner.
iii. To take the learner through one or more steps of the teaching-learning process, viz.,
attention, interest, desire, conviction, action and satisfaction.
iv. To provide an atmosphere to teacher to establish rapport with learner so that

communication process becomes easier.
4.2.2 Classification of Extension Methods:
The extension methods are broadly classified on the basis of their a) use b) form and
c) function.
1. Classification according to use
(a) Individual method

 Farm and home visit
 Office calls/ Farmer’s call
 Personal letters
 Telephone calls
 SMS
 E-mail
(b) Group method
 Method demonstration
 Result demonstration
 All types of Meetings
 Group discussion

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 Tours
 Field trips
(c) Mass media method
 Farm Publications (Leaflets, Folders, Pamphlets, Bulletin, Newsletters, etc.)
 Circular letters
 Campaign
 Exhibition
 Television
 Radio ‘
II. Classification According to Form
(a) Written
 Personal letters
 Circular letters
 Leaflets
 Bulletins
(b) Visual
 Result Demonstration
 Posters
 Exhibits
 Slides
 Charts
(c) Spoken

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 Farm and Home visit
 Office calls
 Telephone calls
 General meetings
 Radio
(d) Spoken and Visual
 Method Demonstration
 Television
III. Classification According to Function

(a) Telling
 Lecture
 Meetings
 Audio lessons
 Farm & home visit
 Radio talk
 Extension talk
(b) Showing
 Exhibition
 Tours
 Motion picture
 Video text
 Internet
(c) Doing
 Practical
 Workshop
 Method Demonstration
 Result demonstration
 Do it yourself
(The methods mentioned under each category is not exhaustive)

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4.3 Individual Methods

This method is followed when the number of people to be contacted is few and they are
located nearer to the extension agent or office of the extension agent. In this method the
extension agent communicates with the people individually.
Advantages
i. It provides opportunities to extension agent in building rapport with clients.
ii. Facilitates gaining firsthand knowledge of farm and home.
iii. Helps in selecting demonstrators and local leaders.
iv. Helps in teaching complex practices
v. Helps in changing attitude of the people.
vi. Facilitates transfer of technology.
vii. Facilitates getting feedback information.
Limitations
i. This method is time consuming and relatively expensive.

ii. Coverage of client is very limited.
iii. There is possibility that the extension agent may develop favoritism or bias towards
some persons due to his/her frequent interactions.
In individual method, an extension worker contacts directly an individual through various

means. The benefits of this method are: (a) closer supervision of clients, with a capability for
spotting problems, and doing so quickly; (b) quicker intervention to deal with the problems
spotted; and (c) closer interaction with clients, presumably leading to better rapport and to
feelings of support. The individual contact may be established through the farm and home
visits, office calls, informal contacts, telephone calls, personal letters, etc.
1. Farm and Home Visits
What is it? - It is a face-to-face type of individual contact by the extension worker with the
farmer and /or the members of his family on the latter’s farm or at his home for one or more
specific purpose connected with extension.

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Objectives or Purposes
i. Obtain and/ or give first hand information on matters relating to farm and home
conditions.
ii. Give advice or otherwise assist to solve a specific problem; or to teach skills etc.,
iii. Arouse the interest of those not reached by other methods.
iv. Promote good public relations.
v. To sustain interest in adoption of new technology
Technique
Planning and preparation
Decide on the client and the objective-whom to meet and what for?
Get adequate information about the matter you are going to discuss
Collect relevant publications and materials to be handed over.
Make a schedule of visits to save time and energy.
If possible, send advance information.
Implementation
Visit on the scheduled date and time or according to convenience of the farmer and
when the person is likely to listen.
Create interest of the farmer and allow the individual to talk first.
Present the message or points of view and explain up to the satisfaction of the farmer.
Answer to questions raised and clarify doubts. Hand over publications.
Try to get some assurance for action.
Follow-up
Keep appropriate record of visit.

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Send committed information or material.
Make subsequent visits as and when necessary.
Advantages
i. The extension worker gets first-hand information on rural problems.
ii. Helps in rapport building with farmer.
iii. He develops confidence when his ideas are accepted by the farmers.
iv. Helps in locating local leaders and co-operation.
v. Those farmers who could not be contacted by other methods can be contacted by this
method.
vi. Percentage of adoption is high.
Limitations
Only limited number of contacts may be made.
Requires relatively large amount of time of extension worker
Comparatively costly method than other methods.
Attention may be concentrated on a few big and progressive persons; neglecting the
large number of small, marginal, tribal farmers, landless labour and backward people;
which may prejudice them.
2. Office Calls
What is it? – It is a call made by a farmer or a group to the extension worker at his office for
obtaining information and for inputs or other farm-helps needed or for making acquaintance
with him.
i. To get quick solution of problems relating to the problems.
ii. To enable the farmer and homemaker to bring specimens for proper identification of the
problem.

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iii. To ensure timely supply of inputs and services.
iv. To act as a reminder to the extension agent.
v. To promote close contact between farmers and extension worker.
Technique
Keep the office neat, orderly and attractive.
Remain present in the office on the days which have been communicated to the farmers
in advance.
Organize an information centre in the office or at least put up a few boards in the office
room and display current leaflets, folders, photographs, charts etc. relating to important
to important projects and extension activities in the area.
Implementation
Allow the visitor to talk first and make the point.
Discuss about his/ her problems and suggest solutions.
If necessary, take the person to the subject matter specialist.
Put maximum effort to make visitor satisfied.
Follow-up
Make a note of the call, if necessary.
If required, refer the problem to research for solution.
Supply further information and materials if such commitment has been made.
Advantages
i. Economic use of the extension workers’ time and energy.
ii. Farmers likely to be highly receptive to learning.

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iii. It develops goodwill and confidence.

iv. It reinforces other methods.
v. It is the sign of confidence that the farmer has in the extension worker and respect for his
ability.
Limitations
i. It is not possible to get detailed first-hand knowledge of the farmer’s problems and activities.
ii. Limited contact with the farmer.
iii. Waiting for visitors who are not turning up is waste of time.
3.Personal Letters
What is it? – It is a personal and individual letter written by the extension worker to a farmer
in connection with extension work.
i. To answer to queries relating to problems of farm and home.
ii. To send information or seek cooperation on important extension activities.
Technique
Send the letter in time, or if a letter has already been received, send a prompt reply.
The content should be clear, complete, to the point and applicable to farmer’s own
situation.
Use simple and courteous language.

Advantages
i. To reach more number of farmers at a time
ii. Less costly method.
iii. Easier to seek farmer co-operation for extension work
iv. Useful to educate farmers.
v. The best method to reach farmers who could not be reached by the farm and home visit
office call methods.

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Limitations
i. It is a time consuming method.
ii. Since majority of the farmers are ‘illiterates’ this method has limited usage.
iii. It is difficult for the extension worker to answer ‘each and every’ individual problem.
iv. Only few persons can be contacted.
v. Difficult to teach skill
4. Telephone Calls
What is it? It is the communications between the extension worker and farmers over the
telephone on certain matters connected with extension works.
1. To inform farmers regarding farm problems, supplies, services, etc, in a very short time.
2. To clarify farmers doubt and provide information which are very urgent in nature.
Advantages
1. The communication may be initiated by either farmers or the extension worker.
2. Very useful for giving specific and brief information about various issues of farm practices.
3. Useful means to follow-up extension events and get feed-back of the programme.
4. It is comparatively cheaper than other methods.
Limitations
1. Use of telephone by farmers is very limited in our country.
2. Complex issues and practices cannot be communicated through telephone.
5. Short Message Services (SMS)
What is it? It is an electronic communication service allowing the interchange of short text
messages between the users of digital mobile telephone. Both extension worker and farmers
should have mobile connections for communication of short text messages.

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1. To communicate with farmers regarding the problems farm, availability or non-availability

of supplies, other extension services in a real time.
Advantages
1. The sending of SMS may be initiated by either farmers or the extension worker.
2. Useful for giving specific and brief information about various issues of farm practices.
3. Useful means to follow-up extension events and get feed-back of the programme.
4. It is very cheap method of extension education
Limitations
1. Mobile telephone use by the farming community in India is very limited.
2. Complex issues and practices cannot be communicated through SMS
6. Electronic Mail :
What is it? It is commonly called email or e-mail. It is the equivalent of a normal physical
letter, but it is written on a computer and delivered via the internet. Both the extension
worker and farmers should have computer and internet connection to communicate through
e-mail.
1. To communicate with farmers through text, messages, pictures and sound regarding various
issues of farm and related practices in a very real time.
Advantages
1. Both farmers and extension worker can communicate with each other.

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2. Useful for giving detail information about various issues of farm practices.
3. Useful means to communicate a large number of farmers in a very short time.
4. Information can be stored in the e-mail and may be reused when it is required.
5. It is less expensive method.
Limitation
1. Use of computer by the farmers is minimal in our country.

Q 1) What are the important functions of Extension Methods ?
Ans:
Q2) What are the advantages of Individual methods ?
Ans:

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Q3) What is the meaning of Office Call ?
Ans:
4.4 Group Methods
In this method, an extension worker communicates with a small number of people in a

group. The size of a small group may be from 15 to 25, a medium group from 35 to 50 and
a large group from 50 to 100 persons. Examples of group method are result demonstration,
method demonstration, group meeting, small group training, field day or farmers’ day, study
tour, etc.
Advantages
i.Enables the extension agent to have face-to-face contact with a number of people at a time.
ii. Can reach a select part of the target group.
iii. Facilitates sharing of knowledge and experience and thereby strengthen learning of the
group members.
iv. Reach fewer people, but offer more opportunities for interaction and feedback.
v. Satisfies the basic urge of people for social contacts.
vi. Motivate people to accept change due to group influence.
vii. More effective than mass method in stimulating action.
viii. Less expensive than individual method due to more coverage.
Limitations

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i. Wide diversity in the interest of group members may create a difficult learning situation.
ii. Vested interests, caste groups and village factions may hinder free interaction and decision
making by the group members.
iii. Difficult to give attention to all members
4.4.1 Method Demonstration
What is it?- It is an extension teaching method conducted by an extension worker, or a

trained leader or specialist, for a group of persons, to show how to carry out a new skill or
to improve an old skill not being properly executed.
In method demonstration, an extension worker shows how to do job step by step such as
clean milking procedures. The method demonstration is not concerned with the worth of the
practice but with “how-to-do” something. It is not an experiment, but it is a teaching effort.
The farmers watch the process and listen to the oral explanation to clear up points. To
increase the farmers’ confidence in their ability, as many farmers as possible are asked to
repeat the demonstration in the presence of the extension worker,
i. To teach skills and stimulate people to action.

ii. To enable people to improve upon their old skills.
iii. To improve upon the result by doing a job in a better way.
iv. To build up learners’ confidence and satisfaction on the practice.
v. To demonstrate a practice to a group of people in short time.

Technique
Select appropriate topic which is important for the client for demonstration
Select and finalize the target audience and venue of demonstrations.
Contact subject matter specialists and make necessary arrangements for their participation.
Collect relevant information and arrange materials and equipments beforehand.

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Identify and list the steps of demonstrations, and practice for its correct presentation.
Decide on the date and time in consultation with the local leaders and give timely
intimation to others.
Implementation
Reach the demonstration site on the scheduled date and time.
Explain about the demonstration to the participants
Conduct operation of the activity step-by step and explaining in each step why it is
important. Repeat difficult steps.
Ask the participants one by one or in small batches to practice the skill. Clarify doubts
and answer to their questions.
When everybody has practiced the skill and has expressed confidence, emphasize on
the key points again.
Follow-up
Keep a record of the participants and maintain contact with them.
Assist the participants in getting the required materials and equipments.
Advantages
i. It is very effective in teaching new skill.
ii. It stimulates action and builds confidence among the participants
iii. Serves publicity purpose.
iv. It introduces a change of practice at low cost.
Limitations
i. Suited only to the ‘skill involving technologies’.
ii. Transporting the materials and equipments to the demonstration plot is difficult.
iii. It require lot of planning

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iv. It causes a setback if whole programme is not properly coordinated.
4.4.2 Result Demonstration
What is it? Result Demonstration method is one which is conducted by a participating

farmer on his/her farm, under the guidance of an extension worker, to prove by evidence that
the practice being demonstrated is superior to the one in existence. It is a way of showing the
farmer the value or worth of a practice whose success has already been proved or established
in research stations. In this method the new practice is compared with the old one in farmer’s
land, and the villagers are asked to see the result on their own eyes and judge the result.
Result demonstrations establish proof that the improved practice advocated is applicable
locally. It may be conducted for single recommended practice or a series of practices that
come in sequence with respect to a problem.
i. To show the feasibility and applicability of a newly recommended practice in farmer’s own
situation.
ii. To motivate groups of people in a community to adopt a new practice by seeing its result.
iii. To build up confidence of the farmers and extension agents.
Technique
Analyze farmer’s situations and select relevant profitable practices in consultation with
research workers and farmers.
Consult with local leaders and select a demonstrator who is interested in improving his
practices and make him ready to do demonstration in his field.
Select the site of demonstrations where it will be easily visible to a large number of
people in the community.
Prepare a calendar of operations.
Make wide publicity
Implementations

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Arrange all necessary materials required for demonstration
Organize materials and equipments necessary for conducting the demonstrations
Start demonstration in front of the group of villagers.
Explain the objectives and steps to the demonstrating farmers.
Arrange method demonstration where a new skill is involved.
Put up suitable signboards in prominent places.
Personally supervise all critical operations.
Conduct field day or farmers’ day to successful demonstration events.
Help the demonstrating farmers to maintain records.
Motivate as many farmers as possible to remain present at the time of assessment of the
result.
Let the demonstrating farmers explain to the visitors as far as possible.
Analyze and interpret the results, and compare them with the farmers’ existing practice.
Emphasize applicability of the new practice in the farmers’ own situations.
Follow-up
Give wide publicity to the results of demonstration
Use the result of the demonstrations in future extension works
Utilize demonstrating farmers in farmers’ meetings and training programmes.
 Prepare visual aids, particularly photographs, coloured slides, charts etc. on the
demonstrations for future extension programmes.
Advantages
Useful in introducing new practices
Enhance the confidence of extension workers regarding the suitability of recommended

practices in village conditions.

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Successful demonstrator becomes the resource person for the extension worker
Limitations
Require lot of time and preparation on the part of the extension worker.
It is a costly teaching method
Difficult to find a good demonstrator who will keep record.
Results may be vitiated by uncontrollable factors like weather.
It is not suitable for all advocated practices.
Unsuccessful demonstrations may cause some setback to extension work.
Meetings
Meetings are one of the oldest and the most important group methods of extension teaching.
If properly conducted, the benefits are higher compared to other methods in relation to the
cost of using methods. The term meeting includes all kinds of meetings held by extension
worker. In size, the meeting varies from small committee meeting to large special occasion
meetings like melas and festival meeting attended by thousands.
Types of meetings
Kelsey and Hearne (1963) identify five general types of meetings involved in extension work:
1. Organization meetings (board of directors’ meet, youth clubs),
2. Planning meetings (village planning meeting),
3. Training meetings (rural leaders’ training),
4. Special interest meetings (special meeting about dairying), and
5. Community meetings (community meet for general problems).
General meeting

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What is it? It is broadly a meeting of heterogeneous participants wherein certain information

is passed on for consideration and future action.
The term ‘General Meeting’ includes all kind of meetings conducted by extension workers.
There is a large variety of such meeting in terms of size and form. They may be small committee
meetings to those held in special occasions like melas or festivals attended by thousands of
people. The meetings may be held periodically or sporadically.
i. To effectively reach and serve large numbers of people.
ii. To prepare the people for the other methods of extension work
Technique
Planning and Preparation
Decide the topic, venue and participants
Collect relevant information and teaching materials for the meeting
Inform the resource persons and subject matter specialist
Arrange social and recreational features
Advertise meeting in advance
Implementation
Hold the meeting preferably in a central place having all physical facilities
Start the meeting on schedule date and time
State the purpose and objective of the meeting
Make introduction brief
Prompt in starting and closing the meeting
Use appropriate audio-visual materials
Encourage audience participation when required

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Take advantage of group psychology and employ appeals that arouse interest, create
desire and stimulate action.
Give recognition to all sections and groups participated in the meeting.
Associate local leaders for welcoming the gathering or thanking the participants if possible.
Acknowledge the services briefly and then indicate the follow up work, if any.
Distribute relevant folders and pamphlets at the time of break.
Follow-up
Remind the members about the decision taken in the meeting and encourage them to
take action.
Facilitate the supply of inputs.
Sustain interest through personal contact.
Advantages
i. Large number of people can be reached.
ii. Serves as a preparatory stage for other methods.
iii. Group psychology can be used in promoting the programme.
iv. Reactions of the people to a programme can be assessed.
v. Adoption of practices can be accomplished at low cost.
Limitations
i. Meeting place and facilities are not always adequate.
ii. Scope for discussion is limited except possibly for few questions and answers.
iii. Handling the topic become difficult because of mixed composition of audience.
iv. Circumstances beyond control like factions and weather might reduce the attendance.
v. Requires understanding of group dynamics to handle the group by extension worker

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4.5 Mass Media Methods
Mass media methods
The mass media method is followed where a large and widely dispersed audience is to be
communicated within a short time. There may be a few communicators such as the extension
agent and some subject matter specialists. The size of the audience may be a few hundred in
mass meeting, few thousands in campaign and exhibition, and millions in newspaper, radio
and television.
Advantages
i. Suitable for creating general awareness amongst the people.
ii. Helps in transferring knowledge and, forming and changing opinions.
iii. Large number of people may be communicated within a short time.
iv. Facilitates quick communication in times of emergency.
v. Reinforces previous learning.
vi. Less expensive due to more coverage.
Limitations
i. Less intensive method.
ii. Little scope for personal contact with the audience.
iii. Little opportunity for interaction with and amongst the audience.
iv. Generalized recommendations hinder application by individuals.
v. Little control over the responses of the audience.
vi. Difficulty in getting feedback information and evaluation of results.
Mass media like farm publications, newspaper articles, circular letters, radio, television,
posters, exhibits, etc. disseminate information to a much larger audience at faster rate than
the individual or group contact but their impact is less than the other two methods.
1. Farm publications
Extension worker uses various types of farm publications to communicate messages to farmers
and some of them are discussed here.

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Leaflet: It is a single printed sheet of paper of small size, containing preliminary information
relating to a topic. It is made as and when needed and normally distributed free-of-cost.
Folder: It is a single printed sheet of paper of big size, folded once or twice, and gives
essential information relating to a particular topic. It is printed as and when required and
normally free-of cost.
Bulletin:It is a printed, bound booklet with a number of pages, containing comprehensive

information about a topic. It is made as and when necessary. A small price may be fixed on
some important bulletins.
Newsletter:It is a miniature newspaper in good quality paper, containing information relating

to the activities and achievements of the organization. It has fixed periodicity of publication
and normally distributed free-of-cost.
Farm publications are extremely useful to the literate farmers, and even illiterate farmers can
make use of them with the help of literate members in their family. Farm publications are used
by all types of extension functionaries, input dealers, bank personnel and media-persons.
Objectives or purposes
i. To provide precise and reliable scientific information in simple language

ii. To serve the immediate needs of the farmer in any important issue
iii. To reach a large number of people quickly and simultaneously at a low cost.
iv. To provide accurate, motivating, creditable and distortion-free information.
v. To provide support to other extension methods.
vi. To facilitate use at convenience and to serve as future reference.
Technique
Select a topic of economic and practical importance, for which information is needed by
the audience.
Estimate the time required to prepare the manuscript, print and dispatch, and plan
publication in such a way that it reaches the audience in time.

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Check up availability of funds and decide on the number of copies to be printed. It may
be useful to have more copies at less cost than a few copies at high cost.
Implementation
Collect relevant information on the topic from all available sources.

Contact specialists relating to relevant disciplines.
Prepare the draft in clear, simple, short and direct sentences, keeping the target audience
in view.
Arrange write-up in short paragraphs, in a logical sequence.
Give suitable title to the publication and sub-heads to the paragraphs.
Devote the first paragraph to highlight the economic and other benefits. This may be
printed in bold letter.
Present all weights and measures clearly and directly.
Put suitable diagrams, photographs and sketch for better understanding
Go for pre-testing before mass publication.
Below the press line put the name of the department and the organization under whose
authority it is being published.
Follow-up
Arrange timely dispatch of the publication to the target audience and for the extension
programmes.
Dispatch publications to the media persons and others according to mailing list.
Attend to requests for publications promptly.
Try to get feedback information from the users.
Maintain appropriate records for free distribution and sale of publications.
Advantages
Can reach a large section of literate people quickly and simultaneously
Can be read at leisure and preserved for future use.
Supplement to other teaching methods

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Influence adoption of practices at relatively lower cost.

Can be used to continue contact with extension agency
Limitations
Not suitable for illiterate audience.
May lose its significance if not carefully prepared and used.
Periodical version is necessary to keep the publications up-to-date.
Cannot be used in exclusion to other methods
2. Circular letter
What is it?
It is a letter reproduced and sent to many people by the extension worker to publicize an
extension activity or to give timely information on farm activities.
i. To maintain regular contact with farmers.
ii. To communicate some general information which could best be put in the form of a letter?
iii. To stimulate interest in the subject
Technique
i. Determine the place of the circular letter in teaching plan

ii. Determine the specific purpose and the segments of clients to be reached
iii. Plan letter to serve the definite purpose
iv. Have a single purpose and write in simple language.
v. Give complete information.
vi. Be clear in statements which should lead to action.
vii. The letters should be a part of a programme or campaign.

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Implementation
i. Write circular letters and get them duplicated
ii. Write appealing immediate personal interest of the clients
iii.Give a cartoon or illustration containing the central idea
iv.State the facts concerning the nature of seriousness of the problem
Follow-up
 Timely dispatch of the circular letters to the target audience
 Attending the quarries of the clients related to letter promptly.
 Try to get feedback information from the users.
 Maintain appropriate dispatch register
Advantages
i. Information can reach large number of people in short time.
ii. Preserved and used for future reference.
iii.Comparatively cheap.
iv.Provide accurate information.
v. Easy to make.
Limitations
i. Less useful in low literacy area.
ii. Cannot be use in exclusion of other methods
3. Extension News Articles (or News Stories)
What is it? This is a piece of write-up on important information about the rural farming and
other related issues that interests mostly the farming community.

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1. To develop interest on the subject
2. To inform important developments to farming community
3. To crate favourable attitude towards a product/ practice/use.
4. To reinforce other extension method like meeting and demonstrations.
Technique
1. Write something that has actually happened (e.g. agricultural credit mela or inauguration
of chilling plant)
2. Write something that is very important for farming community (e.g. declaration of minimum
support price by government for cereals).
3. Write something that makes the farmers interested like catastrophe, fight, conflict,
competition, new knowledge, etc.
4. News should be recent in nature, timely, accurate, fair and brief

5. Write in simple language and avoid using personal opinion.
6. Use accepted principles of good writing of news items for a newspaper.
Advantages
1. Large coverage in short time.
2. Credibility of news is high due to appearance in print media
3. Reinforces the effect of other methods
4. It is less expensive in comparison to other methods.
Limitations
1. It is of limited use for illiterate farmers
2. Difficult to assess the effects of extension new articles
3. Message may not always reach the intended readers
4. Expertise is required on the part of the extension worker to write good articles.

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4. Campaign
What is it? It is an intensive educational activity undertaken at an opportune time for a brief
period focusing attention in concerted manner on a particular problem, with a view to stimulate
the widest possible interest in a community, block or other geographical area.
The duration of a campaign may be for single day on a theme like ‘application of bio-
fertilizer’, for a few weeks as in family planning, for a few months as in Vanamahostava (tree
planting) and for a few years as in ‘Grow More Food’ campaign. A campaign may be held
by involving a small number of people in a few villages, or by involving an entire community
or the entire nation over the whole country as in ’Pulse Polio’ campaign. Campaign on
certain themes (say, environment, disease control etc.) may be organized over the whole
world.
i. To draw attention of the large number of people to an important issue
ii. To create mass awareness about an important problem or felt need of the community and
encourage them to solve it.
iii. To induce emotional participation of the community at the local level and create a favourable
psychological climate for adoption of new practices.
Technique
Identify with the local leaders an important problem or need of the community for
campaign.
List out specialists, local leaders and other persons who could be involved in solving it.
Train the required personnel.
Decide with the local leaders about the time of holding the campaign and its duration.
Arrange necessary inputs, services and transport.
Prepare a written programme of the campaign.
Give wide publicity in advance

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Implementation
Carry out the campaign as per plan.
Hold group meeting with the people and discuss about the origin and nature of the
problem. Suggest practical and effective solution.
Arrange method demonstration and training programme for the participants.
Maintain supply of critical inputs and services.
Keep close watch on the campaign and take corrective steps, if necessary.
Arrange mass media coverage.
Conclude the campaign in time.
Follow-up
Make individual and groups to find out their reaction.
Assess the extent of adoption of the practice.
Publicize the events in newspaper, radio and television.
Analyze deficiencies and failures.
Give due recognition to the local leaders.
Advantages
Especially suited for mass scale adoption of an improved practices
Successful campaign creates conducive atmosphere for popularizing other methods
Limitations
Applicable only for topics of community interest but not suitable to individual problems
Success depends on cooperation of the community and their leaders.
Not useful when advocated practice involves complicated technicalities
Expensive method
Requires adequate preparation, concerted efforts and propaganda techniques, and

uninterrupted of critical inputs.

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5. Exhibition
What is it? An exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, information,

posters, photographs etc. in a sequence so as to be significant in teaching or creating interest
in the participating members. An exhibition covers three stages of extension education, viz,
arousing interest, creating desire to learn and providing a chance to take a decision (Leagan,
1961).
Farmers’ fairs and krishimelas held by the agricultural universities, institutes and various
other organizations in which field visit, training programmes etc. are combined with exhibition
are effective and popular. Exhibitions may also be organized by taking advantage of local
fairs and festivals.
Objectives and purposes
i. To prepare visual literacy.
ii. To acquaint people with better standards.
iii. To create interest in a wide range of people.
iv. To motivate people to adopt better practices.
v. To promote understanding and create goodwill towards extension.
Technique
Form an exhibition committee with competent people
Decide on the theme and distribute the responsibility to the committee members
Decide on the venue, time and duration.
Prepare a written programme and communicate to all concerned members of the team
in time.
Get the site ready within the selected date. Make provision for essentials facilities.
Earmark a stall for display of exhibits to be bought by the farmers.
Arrange a pandal for holding meeting, training and entertainment programmes.
Display posters at important places. Publicize about the exhibition through mass media.

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Decorate the stalls simply and tastefully and make adequate arrangements for lighting.
Prepare good quality and colourful exhibits which shall convey the desired message to
the visitors. Use local materials as far as possible. Label the exhibits in local language with
bold letters.
Display exhibits about 50 to 60 cm. above the floor of the stall, up to a height of about
two meters. Maintain proper sequence. Avoid overcrowding of exhibits.
Implementation
Organize formal opening of the exhibition by a local leader or a prominent person.
Arrange smooth flow of visitors.
Interpreters may briefly explain the exhibits to the visitors so that the intended message
is clearly communicated.
Distribute publications materials to visitors.
Organize a panel of experts to be present nearby, so that the visitors who would like to
know more or discuss some problems could get the desired information.
Conduct meetings, training programmes etc. as per schedule during the day time.
Arrange judging of exhibits brought by the farmers and give away prizes and certificates.
If desired, judge the stalls on the basis of their quality of display, ability to draw visitors
and effectiveness in communicating message, and award certificates.
Keep the exhibits and the premises clean
Conclude the exhibitions as scheduled by thinking the participants and those who have
helped.
Follow-up
Meet some visitors personally and maintain a visitors’ book for comments during the
exhibition to get feedback information.
Talk to the local leaders and assess success of the exhibition.
Ensure availability of critical inputs and facilities emphasized during the exhibition.

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Look for changes in practice in the community in the coming years.

Advantages
i. Best method to teach illiterates
ii. Create awareness among the visitors about the products
iii. Most fit for festive occasion
iv. Can create market for certain products
Limitations
Difficult to represent entire process of a practice
Requires lot of funds and preparation.
Cannot be organised frequently.
6. Radio
Radio is an electronic audio-medium for broadcasting programmes to the audience. It is a

medium of mass communication and an efficient tool for giving information and entertainment.
This medium is cosmopolite in approach and is suitable for communication to millions of

people widely dispersed and situated in remote areas. It is suitable for creating general
awareness amongst the people. People with no education or very little education and those
who are not in a position to attend extension programmes personally, can take advantage of
this medium and build up adequate knowledge about a practice. It reaches large number of
people with no time and the programmes can be listened by the people while doing work in
the field or at home.
i. To reach large number of people quickly and inexpensively
ii. To build enthusiasm and maintain interest
iii. To motivate farmers by highlighting the achievement of other farmers.
iv. To provide information on extension activities to farmers
Procedure or Technique
i. Determine radio programme utility in teaching plan

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ii. Be clear about the purpose of broadcast and design the programme keeping the interest of
the audience.
iii. Decide what treatment to give to your message.
iv. Seek assistance of experts to write message
v. Time the broadcast to synchronize the farmers’ leisure hours.
vi. Encourage listener to listen radio programmes and write their views to broadcasting station.
vii. Reply to the queries of farmers

Advantages
i. Can reach more people quickly than any other means of communication
ii. Especially suited to give emergency and timely information (e.g. weather, disease out-
break, etc.)
iii. Suitable to communicate with illiterate people.
iv. Relatively cheap
v. Builds interest on other extension media.
Limitation
i. Limited number of broadcasting stations
ii. Not within reach of all farmers
iii. Generalized recommendations in the programme limit individual application.
iv. No turning back if not understood
v. Difficult to check on results
4.6 Selection, Use and Combination of Extension Methods

Selection and use of extension methods
The selection and use of teaching method depends upon proper understanding of the factors
influencing their effectiveness, their nature and characteristics and possibility of their use in

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combination with others or in media-mix, and the objective to be achieved including the time
and the cost involved. The selection of appropriate method is not an easy task. There is no
single thumb-rule for its selection. In order to get more effective results, the extension worker
should-
i. Select the appropriate methods;
ii. Have a suitable combination of selected methods; and
iii. Use them in proper sequence so as to have repetition in a variety of ways.
The following considerations should be taken into account in the selection of extension teaching
methods:
i. Education level of audience
ii. Size of audience
iii. The teaching objective
iv. The subject matter
v. The state of development of extension organization
vi. Size of the extension staff
vii. Availability of media
viii. Relative cost
ix. Extension worker’s familiarity
x. Problems and technological needs of the people
xi. The length of time
xii. The significance of the programme
xiii. General local conditions
xiv. Emergency situation
Ray (2008) has made some suggestions which is presented under table 4, may serve as
guideline for the extension agent for selection of extension methods under different situations.

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Use of Extension Methods
Characteristics/ Situations Extension Methods
A. Nature of the Audience
1. Socio-economic status Low Individual Group
High Mass
2.Size
Small Individual Group
Large Mass
3. Location Near Individual Group
Far Mass
B. Ecosystem Friendly Individual Group Mass
Inhospitable Individual Group
Hostile Individual Group
C. Teaching objective Create Mass
general awareness
IncreaseKnowledge Individual Group Mass
Increase skill Individual Group Mass
Change attitude Individual Group Mass
Achieve technology Individual Group
transfer
D. Extension Programme National Importance Individual Group Mass
Local Importance Individual Group

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E. Extension Organisation
1. Manpower Limited Mass
Sufficient Individual Group
2. Funds Limited Mass
F. Availability time Limited Mass
G. Situation Normal Individual Group Mass
Emergent Mass
From the broad categories suggested, the extension agent has to choose a particular method
or combination of methods according to specific requirements of the situation. For instance,
people with little or no education and low income may respond to personal visits and result
demonstrations. The more educated and progressive section of the population may respond
well to mass media like farm publications, exhibition, radio and television.
Combination of Extension Teaching Methods
Extension field studies conducted over long period of years show that people are influenced
by extension education to make change in behaviour in proportion to the number of different
teaching methods with which they come in contact. As the number of methods of exposure
to extension increases, the number of farm families changing behaviour increases. For wide
spread response, the people may be exposed to teaching methods in several different ways.
It is also proved that the combined use of several methods is of utmost important in extension
teaching. The percentage of adoption rate is high when more methods are used than single
or two methods. The extension worker should know the proper sequence of use of extension
methods to get desired result.
4.6.1 Methods useful in different steps of Extension Teaching Process

1. Attention: Pictures, Posters, awareness campaign, news stories, displays, exhibits, radio
announcement, Television advertisement, banner, leaflet, cartoons, wall painting, hoardings,
demonstration, etc.

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2. Interest: Meetings of various types, film strip and slide show, news articles, radio talks,
bulletins and pamphlets, tours, result demonstration, personal contact, etc.
3. Desire: Real object, demonstration, circular letters, pictures, models, samples and exhibits,
success stories, charts, folders, field trips, etc.
4. Conviction: Demonstration, field trips, discussion with scientist, success stories, etc.
5. Action: Reminding circular letters, news stories, radio talks, personal contact, campaign,
leader contact, etc.
6. Satisfaction : Personal contact, news stories, success stories, personal letters, etc.
Methods useful in different stages of Adoption Process
1. Awareness : All printed materials, film show, radio, television, local leaders, campaign,
banner, leaflets, posters, personal contact, etc.
2. Interest : Personal contact, meeting, radio talk, TV/ VCR, meetings, slide, film strips,
farm journal, folder, bulletin, etc.
3. Evaluation: Demonstration followed by discussion, cassettes, field trips, farmer’s

experience in any printed form, field day, etc.
4. Trail: Personal contact, method demonstration, result demonstration, leaflet, folder, farm
journals, field trips, field days, TV/VCR, etc.
5. Adoption :Group Discussion, method demonstration, result demonstration, field trips,

slide, self-experiences, leaflets, folder, farm journals, training, campaign, etc.
Check Your Progress I I
Q 4) What do you mean by method demonstration ?
Ans:

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Q 5 )What do you mean by result demonstration ?
Ans:
Q 6) What are the advantages of mass media method?
Ans:
Q7) What is an Exhibition ?
Ans:

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4.7 Let Us Sum Up

The learning situation created in extension education process is a condition or environment in
which the elements like teacher, learner, subject matter, physical facilities and teaching methods
and aids for promoting learning are present in a dynamic relationship with one another. Proper
selection and handling of methods and aids facilitate in creating the desirable learning situation.
The teaching methods and aids should be simple, easy to handle, suitable to subject matter,
readily available, suited to the environment and needs of the learners.
4.8 Key Words

Extension Methods: Extension methods are the techniques and tools used to create a
learning situation in which effective communication can take place between the learners (may
be an adult or rural farmer) and the teacher.
Short Message Services (SMS): It is an electronic communication service allowing the

interchange of short text messages between the users of digital mobile telephone. Both
extension worker and farmers should have mobile connections for communication of short
text messages.
Method Demonstration: It is an extension teaching method conducted by an extension

worker, or a trained leader or specialist, for a group of persons, to show how to carry out a
new skill or to improve an old skill not being properly executed.
Result Demonstration: This method is one which is conducted by a participating farmer on

his/her farm, under the guidance of an extension worker, to prove by evidence that the
practice being demonstrated is superior to the one in existence. It is a way of showing the
in research stations.
Leaflet: It is a single printed sheet of paper of small size, containing preliminary information
relating to a topic. It is made as and when needed and normally distributed free-of-cost.

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Folder: It is a single printed sheet of paper of big size, folded once or twice, and gives
essential information relating to a particular topic. It is printed as and when required and
normally free-of cost.
Bulletin: It is a printed, bound booklet with a number of pages, containing comprehensive

information about a topic. It is made as and when necessary. A small price may be fixed on
some important bulletins.
Newsletter: It is a miniature newspaper in good quality paper, containing information relating

to the activities and achievements of the organization. It has fixed periodicity of publication
and normally distributed free-of-cost.
Campaign: It is an intensive educational activity undertaken at an opportune time for a brief

period focusing attention in concerted manner on a particular problem, with a view to stimulate
the widest possible interest in a community , block or other geographical area.
Exhibition: An exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, information,

posters, photographs etc. in a sequence so as to be significant in teaching or creating interest
in the participating members.



Reddy,A.A. 1993. Extension Education,Sreelakshmi Press, Bapatla.

Hyderabad,

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Q 1) What are the important functions of Extension Methods ?
Ans:
v. To create an environment in which communication takes place so that the learner may see,
hear and do things to be learnt.
vi. To provide stimulation that causes the desired mental and/ or physical action on the part of
the learner.
vii. To take the learner through one or more steps of the teaching-learning process, viz.,
attention, interest, desire, conviction, action and satisfaction.
viii. To provide an atmosphere to teacher to establish rapport with learner so that

communication process becomes easier.
Q2) What are the advantages of Individual methods ?
Ans:
i. It provides opportunities to extension agent in building rapport with clients.
ii. Facilitates gaining firsthand knowledge of farm and home.
iii. Helps in selecting demonstrators and local leaders.
iv. Helps in teaching complex practices
v. Helps in changing attitude of the people.
vi. Facilitates transfer of technology.
vii. Facilitates getting feedback information.
Q3) What is the meaning of Office call ?
Ans: It is a call made by a farmer or a group to the extension worker at his office for obtaining
information and for inputs or other farm-helps needed or for making acquaintance with him

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Q 4) What do you mean by method demonstration ?
Ans: It is an extension teaching method conducted by an extension worker, or a trained

leader or specialist, for a group of persons, to show how to carry out a new skill or to
improve an old skill not being properly executed.
Q 5 ) What do you mean by result demonstration ?
Ans: Result Demonstration method is one which is conducted by a participating farmer on

his/her farm, under the guidance of an extension worker, to prove by evidence that the
practice being demonstrated is superior to the one in existence. It is a way of showing the
in research stations.
Q 6) What are the advantages of mass media method?
Ans:
vii. Suitable for creating general awareness amongst the people.
viii. Helps in transferring knowledge and, forming and changing opinions.
ix. Large number of people may be communicated within a short time.
x. Facilitates quick communication in times of emergency.
xi. Reinforces previous learning.
xii. Less expensive due to more coverage.
Q7) What is an Exhibition ?
Ans: An exhibition is a systematic display of models, specimens, charts, information, posters,

photographs etc. in a sequence so as to be significant in teaching or creating interest in the
participating members. An exhibition covers three stages of extension education, viz, arousing
interest, creating desire to learn and providing a chance to take a decision (Leagan, 1961).
Farmers’ fairs and krishimelas held by the agricultural universities, institutes and various
other organizations in which field visit, training programmes etc. are combined with exhibition
are effective and popular. Exhibitions may also be organized by taking advantage of local
fairs and festivals.
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Rural Development

Odisha State Open University 1

Dr. Sruti Mohapatra (Member)

Dr. Dharmabrata Mohapatra (Member)

Dr. M.G.Bage (Member)

Ms. Dipti Ray (Member)

Dr. Rabindra Garada (Special Invitee)

Sri S T Rehman (Convenor)

Course Writer: Course Editor:

2 Odisha State Open University

Odisha State Open University 3

Types of Education:Informal Education is the lifelong process by which every person

Formal Education is the highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and hierarchically

4 Odisha State Open University

Non-formal Education is an organised , systematic, educational activity carried on outside

1.2 Extension Education

In continuation to what is being discussed earlier in ‘What is Extension’, Cumberlage (1956)

The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) explains extension education as an out-of-

O P Dahama(1973) defines extension education as an educational process to provide

Odisha State Open University 5

1.2.1 Difference between Formal Education and Extension Education

Sl.No Formal Education Extension Education

2. Teaching is largely confined to Extension teaching is mostly outside

5. Strict adherence to institutional rules Freedom of attendance and choice of

8. It is more theoretical It is more practical and problem solving

9.It is more rigid in nature It is flexible in nature

6 Odisha State Open University

1.3 Concept of Extension

1.3.1 Basic Elements of Behaviour

1. Knowledge and Understanding

Odisha State Open University 7

1. People have unlimited potential for personal growth and development.

4. Such learning is a continuous need of rural populations and should be provided on a

1.3.2 Need for Extension

1.3.3 Objectives of Extension

8 Odisha State Open University

4. To disseminate information based on research work and /or practical experiences in

5. To facilitate the process of farmers’ institutions development in the rural areas.

6. To keep research stations informed about the problems of the farmers.

7. Stimulating desirable developments within the framework of the national, economic

1.3.4 Functions of Extension

Aset of functions of extension includes:

1) transferring technology for sustainable development

2) transferring management capacity to mobilize and organize developmental activities

3) capacity building of all stakeholders in the developmental process on various aspects

1.4 Basic Elements of Extension

Odisha State Open University 9

1. Main himself-physiological and psychological

2. Men’s environment-physical, economic and social

3. Man-created devices for improving her/his welfare

1. A View of Man Himself : An Extension educator should view a man as:

a) Individual human personality possessing many inherited traits, tendencies and

b) Possessing extensive mental power to analyze, learn, think, reason, understand,

c) Possessing emotional powers which includes 1) capacity to feel various emotions

d) Possessing great potential physical skill to improve his condition

Low agricultural production

10 Odisha State Open University

Adherence to outmoded customs and traditions, etc.

Odisha State Open University 11