Creep (deformation)

In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the

tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently
under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur
as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are
still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe
in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and
generally increases as they near their melting point.

The rate of deformation is a function of the material's properties,

exposure time, exposure temperature and the applied structural
The movement of ice in a glacier is an
load. Depending on the magnitude of the applied stress and its
example of creeping in solids.
duration, the deformation may become so large that a component
can no longer perform its function — for example creep of a
turbine blade could cause the blade to contact the casing, resulting
in the failure of the blade. Creep is usually of concern to engineers and metallurgists when evaluating
components that operate under high stresses or high temperatures. Creep is a deformation mechanism that
may or may not constitute a failure mode. For example, moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed
because it relieves tensile stresses that might otherwise lead to cracking.

Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application of stress. Instead,
strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress. Therefore, creep is a "time-dependent" deformation. It
works on the principle of Hooke's law (stress is directly proportional to strain).

Contents
Temperature dependence
Stages
Mechanisms of deformation
Deformation mechanism maps
General equation
Dislocation creep
Nabarro–Herring creep
Coble creep
Solute drag creep
Dislocation climb-glide creep
Harper–Dorn creep
Sintering
Examples
Polymers
Wood
Concrete
Applications
Prevention
Superalloys
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Temperature dependence
The temperature range in which creep deformation may occur differs in various materials. Lead can creep at
room temperature and tungsten requires a temperature in the thousands of degrees before creep deformation
can occur, while ice will creep at temperatures near 0 °C (32 °F).[1] As a general guideline, the effects of
creep deformation generally become noticeable at approximately 35% of the melting point for metals and at
45% of melting point for ceramics.[2] Virtually any material will creep upon approaching its melting
temperature. Since the creep minimum temperature is related to the melting point, creep can be seen at
relatively low temperatures for some materials. Plastics and low-melting-temperature metals, including
many solders, can begin to creep at room temperature, as can be seen markedly in old lead hot-water pipes.
Glacier flow is an example of creep processes in ice.[3]

Stages
In the initial stage, or primary creep, or transient creep, the strain
rate is relatively high, but decreases with increasing time and strain
due to a process analogous to work hardening at lower temperatures.
For instance, the dislocation density increases and, in many
materials, a dislocation subgrain structure is formed and the cell size
decreases with strain.[4] The strain rate diminishes to a minimum and
becomes near constant as the secondary stage begins. This is due to
the balance between work hardening and annealing (thermal Strain as a function of time due to
softening). The secondary stage referred to as "steady-state creep", is constant stress over an extended
the most understood. The microstructure is invariant during this period for a viscoelastic material.
stage, which means that recovery effects are concurrent with
deformation. No material strength is lost during these first two stages
of creep.

The characterized "creep strain rate" typically refers to the constant rate in this second stage. Stress
dependence of this rate depends on the creep mechanism. In tertiary creep, the strain rate exponentially
increases with stress because of necking phenomena or internal cracks or voids decrease the effective area of
the specimen. Strength is quickly lost in this stage while the material's shape is permanently changed. The
acceleration of creep deformation in the tertiary stage eventually leads to material fracture.[5]

Mechanisms of deformation
The mechanism of creep depends on temperature and stress. Under the conditions of different temperature
and applied stress, dislocation glide, dislocation climb, or diffusional-flow mechanisms may dominate creep
deformation. Some mechanisms of creep, especially those involving dislocations, have not been verified by
direct microstructural examination yet.[4] However, processes just like the mechanisms conjectured should
happen during creep deformation.
Various mechanisms are:

Bulk diffusion (Nabarro–Herring creep)

Climb — here the strain is actually accomplished by a climb
Climb-assisted glide — here the climb is an enabling mechanism, allowing dislocations to get
around obstacles
Grain boundary diffusion (Coble creep)
Thermally activated glide — e.g., via cross-slip

Deformation mechanism maps

These mechanisms can be sequential or independent. Of the mechanisms listed here and above, none of
them require another in order to occur with the exception of climb-assisted glide; therefore almost all of
them are independent. This leads to a simple relationship between all the mechanisms in which the total
strain rate from creep is simply the sum of all these mechanisms. For climb-assisted glide, the slower of
climb and glide will determine the strain rate. This is generally climb. Hence climb, climb-assisted glide,
and thermally activated glide above could be grouped together under dislocation creep and their creep rates
modeled by the slower of the climb or glide rate. Additionally, Nabarro-Herring and Coble creep can be
grouped together under diffusion creep (no dislocations required).

Since the creep rates for the independent mechanisms are a summation, one mechanism can dominate and
determine the overall creep rate. This is the basis of deformation mechanism maps. These allow the
determination of the dominant creep mechanism for a material at a given temperature, stress, and grain size.
The closer to the center of a region, the more that mechanism dominates and therefore is likely the only one
that needs to be considered. At the boundary of two regions, both creep mechanisms are significant and will
need to be considered. Similarly, a tertiary point at the intersection of three regions denotes an area where 3
creep mechanisms are significant: dislocation creep, Coble creep, and Nabarro-Herring creep. In the
“Deformation-Mechanism Maps” external link, this is where diffusional flow and power-law creep intersect
(power-law creep is dislocation creep, boundary diffusion is Coble creep, and lattice diffusion is Nabarro-
Herring creep). Note that the dislocation creeps are dominant at higher stresses while diffusional creeps
require both lower stresses and occur at temperatures generally above 50% of the melting temperature. This
is due to the exponential dependency on stress and temperature shown in the following section. The same
analysis can be done for grain size dependency.

General equation

where is the creep strain, C is a constant dependent on the material and the particular creep mechanism, m
and b are exponents dependent on the creep mechanism, Q is the activation energy of the creep mechanism,
σ is the applied stress, d is the grain size of the material, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the absolute
temperature.[6]

Dislocation creep

At high stresses (relative to the shear modulus), creep is controlled by the movement of dislocations. For
dislocation creep, Q = Q(self diffusion), m = 4–6, and b is less than 1. Therefore, dislocation creep has a
strong dependence on the applied stress and the intrinsic activation energy and a weaker dependence on
grain size. As grain size gets smaller, grain boundary area gets larger, so dislocation motion is impeded.
Some alloys exhibit a very large stress exponent (m > 10), and this has typically been explained by
introducing a "threshold stress," σth, below which creep can't be measured. The modified power law
equation then becomes:

where A, Q and m can all be explained by conventional mechanisms (so 3 ≤ m ≤ 10), R is the gas constant.
The creep increases with increasing applied stress, since the applied stress tends to drive the dislocation past
the barrier, and make the dislocation get into a lower energy state after bypassing the obstacle, which means
that the dislocation is inclined to pass the obstacle. In other words, part of the work required to overcome the
energy barrier of passing an obstacle is provided by the applied stress and the remainder by thermal energy.

Nabarro–Herring creep

Nabarro–Herring (NH) creep is a form of diffusion creep, while

dislocation glide creep does not involve atomic diffusion. Nabarro–
Herring creep dominates at high temperatures and low stresses. As
shown in the figure on the right, the lateral sides of the crystal are
subjected to tensile stress and the horizontal sides to compressive
stress. The atomic volume is altered by applied stress: it increases in
regions under tension and decreases in regions under compression.
So the activation energy for vacancy formation is changed by ± ,
where is the atomic volume, the " " sign is for compressive
regions and " " sign is for tensile regions. Since the fractional
A diagram showing the diffusion of
vacancy concentration is proportional to , where atoms and vacancies under
Nabarro–Herring Creep.
is the vacancy-formation energy, the vacancy concentration is higher
in tensile regions than in compressive regions, leading to a net flow
of vacancies from the regions under tension to the regions under
compression, and this is equivalent to a net atom diffusion in the opposite direction, which causes the creep
deformation: the grain elongates in the tensile stress axis and contracts in the compressive stress axis.

In Nabarro–Herring creep, k is related to the diffusion coefficient of atoms through the lattice, Q = Q (self
diffusion), m = 1, and b = 2. Therefore, Nabarro–Herring creep has a weak stress dependence and a
moderate grain size dependence, with the creep rate decreasing as the grain size is increased.

Nabarro–Herring creep is strongly temperature dependent. For lattice diffusion of atoms to occur in a
material, neighboring lattice sites or interstitial sites in the crystal structure must be free. A given atom must
also overcome the energy barrier to move from its current site (it lies in an energetically favorable potential
well) to the nearby vacant site (another potential well). The general form of the diffusion equation is
where D0 has a dependence on both the attempted jump frequency and the number of nearest
neighbor sites and the probability of the sites being vacant. Thus there is a double dependence upon
temperature. At higher temperatures the diffusivity increases due to the direct temperature dependence of the
equation, the increase in vacancies through Schottky defect formation, and an increase in the average energy
of atoms in the material. Nabarro–Herring creep dominates at very high temperatures relative to a material's
melting temperature.

Coble creep
Coble creep is the second form of diffusion controlled creep. In Coble creep the atoms diffuse along grain
boundaries to elongate the grains along the stress axis. This causes Coble creep to have a stronger grain size
dependence than Nabarro–Herring creep, thus, Coble creep will be more important in materials composed of
very fine grains. For Coble creep k is related to the diffusion coefficient of atoms along the grain boundary,
Q = Q(grain boundary diffusion), m = 1, and b = 3. Because Q(grain boundary diffusion) < Q(self diffusion),
Coble creep occurs at lower temperatures than Nabarro–Herring creep. Coble creep is still temperature
dependent, as the temperature increases so does the grain boundary diffusion. However, since the number of
nearest neighbors is effectively limited along the interface of the grains, and thermal generation of vacancies
along the boundaries is less prevalent, the temperature dependence is not as strong as in Nabarro–Herring
creep. It also exhibits the same linear dependence on stress as Nabarro–Herring creep. Generally, the
diffusional creep rate should be the sum of Nabarro–Herring creep rate and Coble creep rate. Diffusional
creep leads to grain-boundary separation, that is, voids or cracks form between the grains. To heal this,
grain-boundary sliding occurs. The diffusional creep rate and the grain boundary sliding rate must be
balanced if there are no voids or cracks remaining. When grain-boundary sliding can not accommodate the
incompatibility, grain-boundary voids are generated, which is related to the initiation of creep fracture.

Solute drag creep

Solute drag creep is one kind of mechanism for power law creep (PLC), involving both dislocation and
diffusional flow. Solute drag creep is observed in certain metallic alloys. Their creep rate increases during
the first stage of creep before a steady-state, which can be explained by a model associated with solid-
solution strengthening. The size misfit between solute atoms and edge dislocations could restrict dislocation
motion. The flow stress required for dislocations to move is increased at low temperatures due to immobility
of the solute atoms. But solute atoms are mobile at higher temperatures, so the solute atoms could move
along with edge dislocations as a "drag" on their motion, if the dislocation motion or the creep rate is not too
high. The solute drag creep rate is:

where C is a constant, Dsol is the solute diffusivity, is the solute concentration, and is the misfit
parameter, is the applied stress. So it could be seen from the equation above, m is 3 for solute drag creep.
Solute drag creep shows a special phenomenon, which is called the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect. When the
applied stress becomes sufficiently large, the dislocations will break away from the solute atoms since
dislocation velocity increases with the stress. After breakaway, the stress decreases and the dislocation
velocity also decreases, which allows the solute atoms to approach and reach the previously departed
dislocations again, leading to a stress increase. The process repeats itself when the next local stress
maximum is obtained. So repetitive local stress maxima and minima could be detected during solute drag
creep.

Dislocation climb-glide creep

Dislocation climb-glide creep is observed in materials at high temperature. The initial creep rate is larger
than the steady-state creep rate. Climb-glide creep could be illustrated as follows: when the applied stress is
not enough for a moving dislocation to overcome the obstacle on its way via dislocation glide alone, the
dislocation could climb to a parallel slip plane by diffusional processes, and the dislocation can glide on the
new plane. This process repeats itself each time when the dislocation encounters an obstacle. The creep rate
could be written as:
where ACG includes details of the dislocation loop geometry, DL is the lattice diffusivity, M is the number of
dislocation sources per unit volume, is the applied stress, and is the atomic volume. The exponent m for
dislocation climb-glide creep is 4.5 if M is independent of stress and this value of m is consistent with results
from considerable experimental studies.

Harper–Dorn creep

Harper–Dorn creep is a climb-controlled dislocation mechanism at low stresses that has been observed in
aluminum, lead, and tin systems, in addition to nonmetal systems such as ceramics and ice. It is
characterized by two principal phenomena: a linear relationship between the steady-state strain rate and
applied stress at a constant temperature, and an independent relationship between the steady-state strain rate
and grain size for a provided temperature and applied stress. The latter observation implies that Harper–
Dorn creep is controlled by dislocation movement; namely, since creep can occur by vacancy diffusion
(Nabarro–Herring creep, Coble creep), grain boundary sliding, and/or dislocation movement, and since the
first two mechanisms are grain-size dependent, Harper–Dorn creep must therefore be dislocation-motion
dependent.[7]

However, Harper–Dorn creep is typically overwhelmed by other creep mechanisms in most situations, and is
therefore not observed in most systems. The phenomenological equation which describes Harper–Dorn
creep is:

where: is dislocation density (constant for Harper–Dorn creep), is the diffusivity through the volume
of the material, is the shear modulus and is the Burger's vector, .

The volumetric activation energy indicates that the rate of Harper–Dorn creep is controlled by vacancy
diffusion to and from dislocations, resulting in climb-controlled dislocation motion.[8][9] Unlike in other
creep mechanisms, the dislocation density here is constant and independent of the applied stress.[7]
Moreover, the dislocation density must be low for Harper–Dorn creep to dominate. The density has been
proposed to increase as dislocations move via cross-slip from one slip-plane to another, thereby increasing
the dislocation length per unit volume. Cross-slip can also result in jogs along the length of the dislocation,
which, if large enough, can act as single-ended dislocation sources.[10]

Sintering

At high temperatures, it is energetically favorable for voids to shrink in a material. The application of tensile
stress opposes the reduction in energy gained by void shrinkage. Thus, a certain magnitude of applied tensile
stress is required to offset these shrinkage effects and cause void growth and creep fracture in materials at
high temperature. This stress occurs at the sintering limit of the system.[11]

The stress tending to shrink voids that must be overcome is related to the surface energy and surface area-
volume ratio of the voids. For a general void with surface energy γ and principle radii of curvature of r1 and
r2, the sintering limit stress is:[12]
Below this critical stress, voids will tend to shrink rather than grow. Additional void shrinkage effects will
also result from the application of a compressive stress. For typical descriptions of creep, it is assumed that
the applied tensile stress exceeds the sintering limit.

Creep also explains one of several contributions to densification during metal powder sintering by hot
pressing. A main aspect of densification is the shape change of the powder particles. Since this change
involves permanent deformation of crystalline solids, it can be considered a plastic deformation process and
thus sintering can be described as a high temperature creep process.[13] The applied compressive stress
during pressing accelerates void shrinkage rates and allows a relation between the steady-state creep power
law and densification rate of the material. This phenomenon is observed to be one of the main densification
mechanisms in the final stages of sintering, during which the densification rate (assuming gas-free pores)
can be explained by:[14][15]

In which is the densification rate, is the density, is the pressure applied, n describes the exponent of
strain rate behavior, and A is a mechanism-dependent constant. A and n are from the following form of the
general steady-state creep equation:

Where is the strain rate, and is the tensile stress. For the purposes of this mechanism, the constant A
comes from the following expression, where A' is a dimensionless, experimental constant, μ is the shear
modulus, b is the Burgers' Vector, k is Boltzmann's Constant, T is absolute temperature, is the diffusion
coefficient, and Q is the diffusion activation energy:[14]

Examples

Polymers

Creep can occur in polymers and metals which are considered viscoelastic materials. When a polymeric
material is subjected to an abrupt force, the response can be modeled using the Kelvin–Voigt model. In this
model, the material is represented by a [Hooke's law|Hookean] spring and a Newtonian dashpot in parallel.
The creep strain is given by the following convolution integral:

where:

σ = applied stress
C0 = instantaneous creep compliance
C = creep compliance coefficient
 = retardation time
= distribution of retardation times

When subjected to a step constant stress, viscoelastic materials

experience a time-dependent increase in strain. This phenomenon is
known as viscoelastic creep.

At a time t0, a viscoelastic material is loaded with a constant stress

that is maintained for a sufficiently long time period. The material
responds to the stress with a strain that increases until the material
ultimately fails. When the stress is maintained for a shorter time
period, the material undergoes an initial strain until a time t1 at
which the stress is relieved, at which time the strain immediately
decreases (discontinuity) then continues decreasing gradually to a
residual strain.

Viscoelastic creep data can be presented in one of two ways. Total

strain can be plotted as a function of time for a given temperature or a) Applied stress and b) induced
temperatures. Below a critical value of applied stress, a material may strain as functions of time over a
exhibit linear viscoelasticity. Above this critical stress, the creep rate short period for a viscoelastic
grows disproportionately faster. The second way of graphically material.
presenting viscoelastic creep in a material is by plotting the creep
modulus (constant applied stress divided by total strain at a
particular time) as a function of time.[16] Below its critical stress, the viscoelastic creep modulus is
independent of stress applied. A family of curves describing strain versus time response to various applied
stress may be represented by a single viscoelastic creep modulus versus time curve if the applied stresses are
below the material's critical stress value.

Additionally, the molecular weight of the polymer of interest is known to affect its creep behavior. The
effect of increasing molecular weight tends to promote secondary bonding between polymer chains and thus
make the polymer more creep resistant. Similarly, aromatic polymers are even more creep resistant due to
the added stiffness from the rings. Both molecular weight and aromatic rings add to polymers' thermal
stability, increasing the creep resistance of a polymer.[17]

Both polymers and metals can creep. Polymers experience significant creep at temperatures above ca. –
200 °C; however, there are three main differences between polymeric and metallic creep.[18]

Polymers show creep basically in two different ways. At typical work loads (5 up to 50%) ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene (Spectra, Dyneema) will show time-linear creep, whereas polyester or
aramids (Twaron, Kevlar) will show a time-logarithmic creep.

Wood

Wood is considered as an orthotropic material, exhibiting different mechanical properties in three mutually
perpendicular directions. Experiments show that the tangential direction in solid wood tend display a slightly
higher creep compliance than in the radial direction.[19][20] In the longitudinal direction, the creep
compliance is relatively low and usually do not show any time-dependency in comparison to the other
directions.

It has also been shown that there is a substantial difference in viscoelastic properties of wood depending on
loading modality (creep in compression or tension). Studies has shown that certain Poisson's ratios gradually
go from positive to negative values during the duration of the compression creep test, which does not occur
in tension.[19]

Concrete

The creep of concrete, which originates from the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in the hardened Portland
cement paste (which is the binder of mineral aggregates), is fundamentally different from the creep of metals
as well as polymers. Unlike the creep of metals, it occurs at all stress levels and, within the service stress
range, is linearly dependent on the stress if the pore water content is constant. Unlike the creep of polymers
and metals, it exhibits multi-months aging, caused by chemical hardening due to hydration which stiffens the
microstructure, and multi-year aging, caused by long-term relaxation of self-equilibrated micro-stresses in
the nano-porous microstructure of the C-S-H. If concrete is fully dried it does not creep, though it is difficult
to dry concrete fully without severe cracking.

Applications
Though mostly due to the reduced yield strength at higher
temperatures, the collapse of the World Trade Center was due in part
to creep from increased temperature.[21]

The creep rate of hot pressure-loaded components in a nuclear

reactor at power can be a significant design constraint, since the
creep rate is enhanced by the flux of energetic particles.

Creep in epoxy anchor adhesive was blamed for the Big Dig tunnel
ceiling collapse in Boston, Massachusetts that occurred in July Creep on the underside of a
2006.[22] cardboard box: a largely empty box
was placed on a smaller box, and
The design of tungsten light bulb filaments attempts to reduce creep more boxes were placed on top of it.
deformation. Sagging of the filament coil between its supports Due to the weight, the portions of the
increases with time due to the weight of the filament itself. If too empty box not upheld by the lower
much deformation occurs, the adjacent turns of the coil touch one support gradually deflected
another, causing an electrical short and local overheating, which downward.
quickly leads to failure of the filament. The coil geometry and
supports are therefore designed to limit the stresses caused by the
weight of the filament, and a special tungsten alloy with small amounts of oxygen trapped in the crystallite
grain boundaries is used to slow the rate of Coble creep.

Creep can cause gradual cut-through of wire insulation, especially when stress is concentrated by pressing
insulated wire against a sharp edge or corner. Special creep-resistant insulations such as Kynar
(polyvinylidene fluoride) are used in wirewrap applications to resist cut-through due to the sharp corners of
wire wrap terminals. Teflon insulation is resistant to elevated temperatures and has other desirable
properties, but is notoriously vulnerable to cold-flow cut-through failures caused by creep.

In steam turbine power plants, pipes carry steam at high temperatures (566 °C (1,051 °F)) and pressures
(above 24.1 MPa or 3500 psi). In jet engines, temperatures can reach up to 1,400 °C (2,550 °F) and initiate
creep deformation in even advanced-design coated turbine blades. Hence, it is crucial for correct
functionality to understand the creep deformation behavior of materials.

Creep deformation is important not only in systems where high temperatures are endured such as nuclear
power plants, jet engines and heat exchangers, but also in the design of many everyday objects. For example,
metal paper clips are stronger than plastic ones because plastics creep at room temperatures. Aging glass
windows are often erroneously used as an example of this phenomenon: measurable creep would only occur
at temperatures above the glass transition temperature around 500 °C (932 °F). While glass does exhibit
creep under the right conditions, apparent sagging in old windows may instead be a consequence of obsolete
manufacturing processes, such as that used to create crown glass, which resulted in inconsistent
thickness.[23][24]

Fractal geometry, using a deterministic Cantor structure, is used to model the surface topography, where
recent advancements in thermoviscoelastic creep contact of rough surfaces are introduced. Various
viscoelastic idealizations are used to model the surface materials, including the Maxwell, Kelvin–Voigt,
standard linear solid and Jeffrey models.[25]

Nimonic 75 has been certified by the European Union as a standard creep reference material.[26]

The practice of tinning stranded wires to facilitate the process of connecting the wire to a screw terminal,
though having been prevalent and considered standard practice for quite a while, has been discouraged by
professional electricians,[27] owing to the fact that the solder is likely to creep under the pressure exerted on
the tinned wire end by the screw of the terminal, causing the joint to lose tension and hence create a loose
contact over time. The accepted practice when connecting stranded wire to a screw terminal is to use a wire
ferrule on the end of the wire.

Prevention
Generally, materials have better creep resistance if they have higher melting temperatures, lower diffusivity,
and higher shear strength. Close-packed structures are usually more creep resistant as they tend to have
lower diffusivity than non-close-packed structures. Common methods to reduce creep include:

Solid solution strengthening: adding other elements in solid solution can slow diffusion, as well
as slow dislocation motion via the mechanism of solute drag.
Particle dispersion strengthening: adding particles, often incoherent oxide or carbide particles,
block dislocation motion.
Precipitation hardening: precipitating a second phase out of the primary lattice blocks
dislocation motion.
Grain size: increasing grain size decreases the amount of grain boundaries, which results in
slower creep due to the high diffusion rate along grain boundaries. This is opposite low-
temperature applications, where increasing grain size decreases strength by blocking
dislocation motion. In very high temperature applications such as jet engine turbines, single
crystals are often used.

Superalloys

Materials operating in high-performance systems, such as jet engines, often reach extreme temperatures
surpassing 1000 °C, necessitating specialized material design. Superalloys based on Co, Ni, and Fe have
been engineered to be highly resistant to creep. The term ‘superalloy’ generally refers to austenitic Ni, Fe, or
Co - based alloys that use either γ’ or γ” precipitation strengthening to maintain strength at high temperature.

The γ’ phase is a cubic L12-structure Ni3(Al, Ti, Ta, Nb) phase that produces cuboidal precipitates.
Superalloys often have a high (60-75%) volume fraction of γ’ precipitates. [28] γ’ precipitates are coherent
with the parent γ phase, and are resistant to shearing due to the development of an anti-phase boundary when
the precipitate is sheared. The γ” phase is a tetragonal Ni3Nb or Ni3V structure. The γ” phase, however, is
unstable above 650 °C, so γ” is less commonly used as a strengthening phase in high temperature
applications. Carbides are also used in polycrystalline superalloys to inhibit grain boundary sliding. [29]
Many other elements can be added to superalloys to tailor their
properties. They can be used for solid solution strengthening, to
reduce the formation of undesirable brittle precipitates, and to
increase oxidation or corrosion resistance. Ni-based superalloys have
found widespread use in high-temperature, low stress applications.
Fe-based superalloys are generally not used at high temperatures as
the γ’-phase is not stable in the Fe matrix, but are sometimes used at
moderately high temperatures, as iron is significantly cheaper than
nickel. Co-based γ’ structure was found in 2006, allowing the Materials operating at high
development of Co-based superalloys, which are superior to Ni- temperatures, such as this nickel
based superalloys in corrosion resistance. However, in the base (Co- superalloy jet engine (RB199) turbine
W-Al) system, γ’ is only stable below 900 °C, and Co-based blade, must be able to withstand
superalloys tend to be weaker than their Ni counterparts. [30] creep present at these temperatures.

See also
Biomaterial
Biomechanics
Ductile–brittle transition temperature in materials science
Deformation mechanism
Downhill creep
Hysteresis
Larson–Miller parameter
Stress relaxation
Viscoelasticity
Viscoplasticity

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Further reading
Ashby, Michael F.; Jones, David R. H. (1980). Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to their
Properties and Applications (https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h3q3). Pergamon
Press. ISBN 978-0-08-026138-6.
Frost, Harold J.; Ashby, Michael F. (1982). Deformation-Mechanism Maps: The Plasticity and
Creep of Metals and Ceramics. Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-029337-0.
Turner, S (2001). Creep of Polymeric Materials. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd. pp. 1813–1817.
ISBN 978-0-08-043152-9.

External links
Creep Analysis Research Group – Politecnico di Torino (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/2016051407
2816/http://www.polito.it/Creepanalysis)
Deformation-Mechanism Maps, The Plasticity and Creep of Metals and Ceramics (http://thayer.
dartmouth.edu/~defmech/)
The National Institute of Standards and Technology – WTC Briefing (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20050910220804/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/wtc_briefing_april0505.htm)
"Introduction to Creep" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080617053739/http://www.nuc.berkeley.
edu/thyd/ne161/jlrhoads/creep.html). Archived from the original (http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/th
yd/ne161/jlrhoads/creep.html) on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2008-10-16.

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