CROSS-CULTURAL SENSITIVITY IN

THE PROCESS OF TEACHING

GRADUL I

NIŢU SORINA-CRISTIANA

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 INTRODUCTION

This paper has been thought as an introduction to the phenomenon of

multiculturalism. The last generations are dealing with a new challenge, the
globalization, the transformation of the world into a real “Babel Tower”. People
are tending to erase their boundaries and to become one culture and one language.
Culture which comes from the Latin word cultura is translated into
"foster" / "to honor" and generally refers to human activity. UNESCO defines
culture as "a series of distinct features of a society or social group in terms of
spiritual, material, intellectual or emotional."
It is a heritage that is transmitted by specific codes of communication such
as gestures or words, writing and arts, mass media (press, radio, television),
interactive media (phone). Similarly it transmits gestures, rituals, theoretical
knowledge, abstract rules, religion. Culture can be acquired through various forms
of subjective memory (reflexes, words, images) and by objective memory (objects,
landscapes, cards, numbers, rules).
But the media has distorted its purpose and ceased to be a way of
transmitting specific values to a closed group. It started to render various values to
a very large group of individuals which at a certain moment became to identify in
the received information. This information is usually rendered in English as a
second language, after the native language. Another factor for aquiring this
language is the recent spread of the Internet which basically offers information in
English.
The modern English is often called “lingua franca”, a global language,
because is the first language dominated on an international scale in domains such
as communication, science, business, air force, entertainment, radio and
diplomacy. English is a language that absorbs aspects of cultures in the entire
world, as its influence is getting bigger.
The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of contacts
resulting in communication between people with different linguistic and cultural
backgrounds. This intercultural communication takes place because of contacts
within the areas of business, military cooperation, science, education, massmedia,
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entertainment, tourism but also because of immigration brought about by labor
shortage or political conflicts.
In all these contacts, there is communication which needs to be as constructive as
possible, without misunderstandings and breakdowns. The goal of this project is to
present some causes which lead to intercultural communication problems, and the
means to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers. It is my belief that research on
the nature of linguistic and cultural similarities and differences can play a positive
and beneficial role in intercultural communication.
Encounters between people of different cultural background have existed forever,
and equally forever, people were thinking about phenomena that were unusual in
other cultures. However, these intercultural encounters were relatively seldom in
early times, but in the 20th century society, they are part of everyday life. Along
with the growth of intercultural encounters, English has reached the level of
universal language, which facilitates intercultural communication, due to its
approachable characteristics and its global status.
The truth for studying English is that it’s a very easy language to learn and in a
very short time, it has become a language spoken on all continents. It’s the
language of communication.
Foreign language learning is comprised of several components, including
grammatical competence, communicative competence, language proficiency, as
well as a change in attitudes towards one’s own or another culture. For scholars
and laymen alike, cultural competence, i.e., the knowledge of the conventions,
customs, beliefs, and systems of meaning of another country, is indisputably an
integral part of foreign language learning, and many teachers have seen it as their
goal to incorporate the teaching of culture into the foreign language curriculum. It
could be maintained that the notion of communicative competence, which, in the
past decade or so, has blazed a trail, so to speak, in foreign language teaching,
emphasising the role of context and the circumstances under which language can
be used accurately and appropriately, ‘fall[s] short of the mark when it comes to
actually equipping students with the cognitive skills they need in a second-culture
environment’ (Straub, 1999: 2). In other words, since the wider context of
language, that is, society and culture, has been reduced to a variable elusive of any
definition—as many teachers and students incessantly talk about it without
knowing what its exact meaning is—it stands to reason that the term
communicative competence should become nothing more than an empty and
meretricious word, resorted to if for no other reason than to make an “educational
point.” In reality, what most teachers and students seem to lose sight of is the fact
that ‘knowledge of the grammatical system of a language [grammatical
competence] has to be complemented by understanding (sic) of culture-specific

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meanings [communicative or rather cultural competence]’ (Byram, Morgan et al.,
1994: 4).
Of course, we are long past an era when first language acquisition and second or
foreign language learning were cast in a “behaviouristic mould,” being the
products of imitation and language “drills,” and language was thought of as a
compendium of rules and strings of words and sentences used to form propositions
about a state of affairs. In the last two decades, there has been a resurgence of
interest in the study of language in relation to society, which has led to a shift of
focus from behaviourism and positivism to constructivism to critical theory (see
Benson & Voller, 1997: 19-25). Yet, there are still some deeply ingrained beliefs
as to the nature of language learning and teaching—beliefs that determine
methodology as well as the content of the foreign language curriculum—which
have, gradually and insidiously, contrived to undermine the teaching of culture.
One of the misconceptions that have permeated foreign language teaching is the
conviction that language is merely a code and, once mastered—mainly by dint of
steeping oneself into grammatical rules and some aspects of the social context in
which it is embedded—‘one language is essentially (albeit not easily) translatable
into another’ (Kramsch, 1993: 1). To a certain extent, this belief has been
instrumental in promoting various approaches to foreign language teaching—
pragmatic, sociolinguistic, and communicative—which have certainly endowed the
study of language with a social “hue”; nevertheless, paying lip service to the social
dynamics that undergird language without trying to identify and gain insights into
the very fabric of society and culture that have come to charge language in many
and varied ways can only cause misunderstanding and lead to cross-cultural
miscommunication.
At any rate, foreign language learning is foreign culture learning, and, in one form
or another, culture has, even implicitly, been taught in the foreign language
classroom—if for different reasons. What is debatable, though, is what is meant by
the term “culture” and how the latter is integrated into language learning and
teaching. Kramsch’s keen observation should not go unnoticed:
Culture in language learning is not an expendable fifth skill, tacked on, so to speak,
to the teaching of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is always in the
background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when
they expect it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won
communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world
around them. (Kramsch, 1993: 1)
The teaching of culture is not akin to the transmission of information regarding the
people of the target community or country—even though knowledge about (let
alone experience of) the “target group” is an important ingredient (see Nostrand,
1967: 118). It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that culture is merely a
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repository of facts and experiences to which one can have recourse, if need be.
Furthermore, what Kramsch herself seems to insinuate is that to learn a foreign
language is not merely to learn how to communicate but also to discover how
much leeway the target language allows learners to manipulate grammatical forms,
sounds, and meanings, and to reflect upon, or even flout, socially accepted norms
at work both in their own or the target culture.
There is definitely more than meets the eye, and the present paper has the aim of
unravelling the “mystery,” shedding some light on the role of teaching culture in
fostering cross-cultural understanding which transcends the boundaries of
linguistic forms—while enriching and giving far deeper meaning to what is dubbed
“communicative competence”—and runs counter to a solipsistic world view.
Teaching of culture has enjoyed far less “adulation” than it merits, and consider
ways of incorporating it not only into the foreign language curriculum but also into
learners’ repertoire and outlook on life. We cannot go about teaching a foreign
language without at least offering some insights into its speakers’ culture. By the
same token, we cannot go about fostering “communicative competence” without
taking into account the different views and perspectives of people in different
cultures which may enhance or even inhibit communication. After all,
communication requires understanding, and understanding requires stepping into
the shoes of the foreigner and sifting her cultural baggage, while always ‘putting
[the target] culture in relation with one’s own’ (Kramsch, 1993: 205). Moreover,
we should be cognisant of the fact that ‘if we teach language without teaching at
the same time the culture in which it operates, we are teaching meaningless
symbols or symbols to which the student attaches the wrong meaning…’ (Politzer,
1959: 100-101).

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 CHAPTER 1

WHY TEACHING CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

In a century of speed where changes occur at each step (the mentality of

appreciation of the value system), you may ask yourself the question where do
you fit in the relation with the assimilated knowledge base over time.
If a man does not know history, artistic manifestations of his fellows,
traditions, habits, he cannot find himself. He has nowhere to go if he does not
know where he goes and what he left endowed with in life. He has to manage to
find his own identity, you know himself, his resources, the sap that he feeds on the
spiritual level, when he make contact with his fellows’ creations.
It is interesting to analize how people from different cultures come together
to work and communicate with each other without taking into consideration
barriers between them (religion, social status, beliefs, habits). Nowadays, more and
more people talk about globalization in the world and that is why it is considered to
be absolutely necessary for us to take into consideration, and adapt to intercultural
communication. Being a subject of great importance it is attractive and educative.

1.1. COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

The relationship between communication and culture is a very complex one.

Because communication is an element of culture, it has often been said that these
two elements are considered inseparable. It is also said that culture is
communication and communication is culture. One can say, therefore, that culture
is created, shaped, transmitted, and learned through communication and also
communication practices are largely created, shaped, and transmitted by culture.
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Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group
of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
Chaney and Martin (2005, p. 5) say that whereas communication is a process,
culture is the structure through which the communication is formulated and
interpreted. Culture deals with the way people live. When cultures interact,
adaptation must take place for the cultures to communicate effectively. With
intercultural communication, being aware of each culture’s symbols, how they are
the same, and how they are different is important. As Alfred G. Smith
(Communication and Culture, 1966) wrote culture is a code we learn and share and
sharing require communication.
No matter what definitions we gave to these two interconnected elements, one
thing is clear; the bond between them cannot be broken. It is obvious that it is hard
to communicate effectively when you do not know a thing about your audience
culture. The building of cultural awareness may not be an easy task, but once
accomplished, it definitely helps a job done efficiently in a foreign environment.
Understanding the nature of culture in relationship to communication is helpful in
a number of ways. First of all it helps to explain the origin of differences between
the practices, beliefs, values, and customs of various groups and societies. This
knowledge can make people more tolerant to cultural differences. Second, we are
human beings that have to adapt to different situations, groups, programs, people.
We live in a world of change, we interact and it would be very helpful for us to
understand the process that individuals go through in adapting to all these.
With the pass of time, cultures have clearly moved closer together. The changes in
communication technology, the political changes, encourage and facilitate the
emergence of globalization.
We live in a century of speed, where everything happens very fast around us and
we have to keep up with changes around us. This is a good reason for us to learn
how to communicate, especially with people from different nationalities (we have
to become more opened to new collaborations). This way we make sure we do not
miss opportunities that might occur.
From one point of view language is a part of culture, and yet it is more than that. It
is central to culture since it is the means through which most of culture is learned
and communicated. Only humans have the biological capacity for language, which
allows them to communicate cultural ideas and symbolic meanings from one
generation to the next and to constantly create new cultural ideas. The capacity for
language separates humans from the other primates. In any language, an infinite
number of possible sentences can be constructed and used to convey an infinite

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number of cultural ideas. Because of this, human language is significantly different
from any other system of animal communication.
People share society-organized life in groups-with other animals. Culture,
however, is distinctly human. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted
through learning, that govern the beliefs and behavior of the people exposed to
them. Children inherit these traditions by growing up in a particular society.
Cultural traditions include customs and opinions, developed over the generations,
about proper and improper behavior. Cultural traditions answer such questions as:
How should we do things? How do we tell right from wrong? How do we interpret
the world? A culture produces consistencies in behavior and thought in a given
society, because through culture people create, remember, and deal with ideas.
The world, in which we live, is in a continuous change, with the advancement of
technology, and changes in the political and economical structures. The cultural
adaptation has, for many, become part of everyday life, without it being almost
impossible to integrate and successfully adapt in a community, which has its own
set of cultural and social values.

1.2. INTERCHANGE BETWEEN CULTURES

Fundamental changes in an entire society have a big impact upon the

individuals, but, when exposed to a society with a fundamentally different culture,
the individual is exposed to 'foreign' concepts of life, such as, for example, a
capitalist view of economy, a hierarchically structured society with deep respect
for authority, a deeply individualistic society. While adaptation is not necessarily
the outcome, the individual will start reflecting on the concept, and may choose to
adapt parts or all of the new outlook.
Being exposed to new ideas or a new environment, the society culture
changes significantly at all levels, resulting in a shift in culture over time. Shifts in
culture can of course initiate in the own society, but are more likely to be brought
in by an outside culture, with a different set of assumptions, norms, values, etc.
Shifts can of course be significant, or subtle, they can be fast or slow. The
significant shifts are easily determined, changing society structure as a whole while
taking place, and over a relatively short period of time.
Slow shifts are those shifts that occur over a long period of time, at least
relatively spoken. The feminist movement is such a slower shift, taking some
hundred years and more to change the basic assumptions, the values and attitudes
of society. Fast shifts are dramatic like revolution developments: the end of the
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Third Reich was a fast shift, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe etc.
The shift is abrupt, and changes society values fundamentally over a very short
period of time.
The encounter of the individual with foreign concepts of a diverse society
can easily give birth to serious complications and misunderstandings. A major
problem of the individual regarding intercultural encounters is language. Language
can be considered a barrier when it comes to communication, because conversation
is fundamentally interactive and it requires response. This in turn requires a mutual
understanding of conversational patterns/conventions. Conversational patterns are
highly structured and very difficult to shift. Even when one speaks another
language well, one probably still uses your native language conversation strategies.
Immigration, or the migration of a people into a country, along with its correlative
emigration, or the migration of a people out of a country, constitutes an important
social phenomenon. The issue of linguistic survival or the assimilation of
individuals and groups into another language continues to be one of the most
debated subjects regarding social and cultural matters.
The language assimilation patterns of today are not precisely those of the
early 20th century, but they do not appear to pose any threat to English as the
language that sets the bases of the nation and its culture. Bilingualism is more
common today than in the past. Most children of immigrants speak to some extent
in the mother tongue at home, especially if their parents have come from Latin
America. However, if they are born and raised in the U.S., they are highly likely to
speak English well or very well. We conclude that both the anxieties about the
place of English in an immigration society and the hopes for a multilingual society
in which English is no longer hegemonic are misplaced. Other languages,
especially Spanish, will be spoken in the U.S., even by the American born; but this
is not a radical departure from the American experience. Yet the necessity of
learning English well is accepted by virtually all children and grandchildren of
immigrants.
It is compulsory to study the relationship between globalization and
contemporary culture, explaining the importance of time and space concerns,
"deterritorialization," the impact of the media and communication technologies,
and the possible growth of more cosmopolitan culture. Differences between
speakers in any of these elements can lead to irritation, moral judgments, or
misreading of intent. When there are tensions between the participants already,
these conversational differences can cause serious confusions.
Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to
recognize, interpret and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are
open to misunderstanding due to cultural differences. Because, a genuinely

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cosmopolitan culture is unlikely to emerge unless we respect cultural differences
and share a common sense of commitment about the world.
Forget the saying “the world is getting smaller” - it has gotten smaller.
Advances in transport and communications technology combined with the
development of a world economy have resulted in people from different nations,
cultures, languages and backgrounds now communicating by means of English
language, meeting and interacting one another more than ever.
It is an acknowledged fact that English is the present-day lingua franca of
the planet. Some take it as a blessing, others as a form of “linguistic imperialism”,
but this phenomenon cannot be denied, whether it is called International English or
Global English. Since one may speak of different standards at different times, at
different places, and on different occasions, it is appropriate to speak about
successful usage of this language. This is a matter of combining rules of grammar
with acceptable meanings of words, as well as taking in account the particularities
of the context and of the relationships with the interlocutors.
Terminology can be negotiated, grammar differences can be overlooked, and
people can still understand each other in English, despite all the differences.
English has proved to be a connector between different cultures, its universal
language status pointing it as the intermediator of intercultural communication, a
means to avoid misunderstandings and to ensure better collaboration.

1.3. THE HISTORY OF CULTURE TEACHING

As will become evident, the role of cultural learning in the foreign language
classroom has been the concern of many teachers and scholars and has sparked
considerable controversy, yet its validity as an equal complement to language
learning has often been overlooked or even impugned. Up to now, two main
perspectives have influenced the teaching of culture. One pertains to the
transmission of factual, cultural information, which consists in statistical
information, that is, institutional structures and other aspects of the target
civilisation, highbrow information, i.e., immersion in literature and the arts, and
lowbrow information, which may focus on the customs, habits, and folklore of
everyday life (see Kramsch, 1993: 24). This preoccupation with facts rather than
meanings, though, leaves much to be desired as far as an understanding of foreign
attitudes and values is concerned, and virtually blindfolds learners to the minute
albeit significant aspects of their own as well as the target group’s identity that are
not easily divined and appropriated (ibid.) All that it offers is ‘mere book
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knowledge learned by rote’ (Huebener, 1959: 177). The other perspective, drawing
upon cross-cultural psychology or anthropology, has been to embed culture within
an interpretive framework and establish connections, namely, points of reference
or departure, between one’s own and the target country. This approach, however,
has certain limitations, since it can only furnish learners with cultural knowledge,
while leaving them to their own devices to integrate that knowledge with the
assumptions, beliefs, and mindsets already obtaining in their society. Prior to
considering a third perspective, to which the present paper aspires to contribute, it
is of consequence to briefly sift through the relevant literature and see what the
teaching of culture has come to be associated with.
As Lessard-Clouston (1997) notes, in the past, people learned a foreign
language to study its literature, and this was the main medium of culture. ‘[I]t was
through reading that students learned of the civilization associated with the target
language’ (Flewelling, 1993: 339, cited in Lessard-Clouston, 1997). In the 1960s
and 1970s, such eminent scholars as Hall (1959), Nostrand (1974), Seelye ([1974]
1984), and Brooks (1975) made an endeavour to base foreign language learning on
a universal ground of emotional and physical needs, so that ‘the foreign culture
[would appear] less threatening and more accessible to the language learner’
(Kramsch, 1993: 224). In the heyday of the audiolingual era in language teaching,
Brooks (1968) ‘emphasized the importance of culture not for the study of literature
but for language learning’, as Steele (1989: 155) has observed. Earlier on, Brooks
(1960) in his seminal work Language and Language Learning had offered sixty-
four topics regarding culture interspersed with questions covering several pages.
These ‘hors d’ oeuvres’, as he called them, concerned, inter alia, such crucial
aspects of culture as greetings, expletives, personal possessions, cosmetics, tobacco
and smoking, verbal taboos, cafes, bars, and restaurants, contrasts in town and
country life, patterns of politeness, keeping warm and cool, medicine and doctors.
In a sense, his groundbreaking work was conducive to a shift of focus from
teaching geography and history as part of language learning to an anthropological
approach to the study of culture. What is important is that, by making the
distinction between “Culture with a Capital C”—art, music, literature, politics and
so on—and “culture with a small c”—the behavioural patterns and lifestyles of
everyday people—he helped dispel the myth that culture (or civilisation or
Landeskunde, or what other name it is known by, (see Byram, 1994)) is an
intellectual gift bestowed only upon the elite. Admittedly, the main thrust of his
work was to make people aware that culture resides in the very fabric of their lives
—their modus vivendi, their beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes—rather than in a
preoccupation with aesthetic reflections or high-falutin ideas. As Weaver
insightfully remarks, the commonly held notion of culture is largely concerned

11
with its insignificant aspects, whereas our actual interaction with it takes place at a
subconscious level.
Many, if not most, people think of culture as what is often called “high
culture”—art, literature, music, and the like. This culture is set in the framework of
history and of social, political, and economic structures….Actually, the most
important part of culture for the sojourner is that which is internal and hidden…,
but which governs the behavior they encounter. This dimension of culture can be
seen as an iceberg with the tip sticking above the water level of conscious
awareness. By far the most significant part, however, is unconscious or below the
water level of awareness and includes values and thought patterns. (Weaver, 1993:
157, cited in Killick & Poveda, 1997: 221)
Following Brooks, Nostrand (1974) developed the Emergent Model scheme,
which comprised six main categories. The first, culture, regarded value systems
and habits of thought; society included organizations and familial, religious, and
other institutions. The third category of conflict was comprised of interpersonal as
well as intrapersonal conflict. Ecology and technology included knowledge of
plants and animals, health care, travel etc., while the fifth category, individuals,
was about intra/interpersonal variation. Finally, cross-cultural environment had to
do with attitudes towards other cultures. As Singhal (1998) notes, ‘[i]t is evident
that one would have to be quite knowledgeable in the culture under study to be
able to present all of these aspects accurately to second language learners’. Since
the 1960s, a great many educators have concerned themselves with the importance
of the cultural aspect in foreign language learning, with Hammerly (1982), Seelye
(1984) and Damen (1987) being among those who have considered ways of
incorporating culture into language teaching. In the 1970s, an emphasis on
sociolinguistics led to greater emphasis on the situational context of the foreign
language. Savignon’s (1972: 9) study on communicative competence, for example,
suggested the ‘value of training in communicative skills from the very beginning
of the FL program’. As a result, the role of culture in the foreign language
curriculum was enhanced, and influential works by Seelye (1974) and Lafayette
(1975) appeared. The audiolingual method was replaced by the communicative
approach, and Canale and Swain (1980: 31) claimed that ‘a more natural
integration’ of language and culture takes place ‘through a more communicative
approach than through a more grammatically based approach’. In addition, teacher-
oriented texts (Hammerly, 1982; Higgs, 1984; Omaggio, 1986; Rivers, 1981) now
included detailed chapters on culture teaching for the foreign language classroom,
attesting to the predominant goal: communication within the cultural context of the
target language. (see Lessard-Clouston, 1997)
It is only in the 1980s that scholars begin to delve into the dynamics of
culture and its vital contribution to ‘successful’ language learning (Byram, Morgan
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et al., 1994: 5). For example, Littlewood (cited in Byram, Morgan et al., 1994: 6)
advocates the value of cultural learning, although he still ‘keeps linguistic
proficiency as the overall aim of communicative competence’ (ibid.). Also, there
are many insightful comparisons made between behavioural conventions in the L1
and L2 societies which are culture-specific and which could be said to impede
understanding: the use of silence (Odlin, 1989; La Forge, 1983: 70-81), frequency
of turn-taking (Preston, 1989: 128-131, Odlin, 1989: 55), politeness (Odlin, 1989:
49-54), and so forth (see Byram, Morgan et al., 1994: 8) Furthermore, in the 1980s
and 1990s, advances in pragmatics and sociolinguistics (Levinson, 1983) laying
bare the very essence of language, which is no longer thought of as merely
describing or communicating but, rather, as persuading, deceiving, or punishing
and controlling (Byram, 1989; Fairclough, 1989; Lakoff, 1990), have rendered
people’s frames of reference and cultural schemata tentative, and led to attempts at
‘bridg[ing] the cultural gap in language teaching’ (Valdes, 1986).
On the assumption that communication is not only an exchange of
information but also a highly cognitive as well as affective and value-laden
activity, Melde (1987) holds that foreign language teaching should foster ‘critical
awareness’ of social life—a view commensurate with Fairclough’s (1989 and
1995) critical theory (see also Byram, Morgan et al., 1994). More specifically,
when the learner understands the perspectives of others and is offered the
opportunity to reflect on his own perspectives, ‘through a process of decentering
and a level of reciprocity, there arises a moral dimension, a judgmental tendency,
which is not defined purely on formal, logical grounds’ (Byram, Morgan et al.,
1994). To this end, the learner needs to take the role of the foreigner, so that he
may gain insights into the values and meanings that the latter has internalised and
unconsciously negotiates with the members of the society to which he belongs
(ibid.). Beside Melde, Baumgratz-Gangl (1990) asserts that the integration of
values and meanings of the foreign culture with those of one’s “native culture” can
bring about a shift of perspective or the ‘recognition of cognitive dissonance’
(Byram, Morgan et al.), both conducive to reciprocity and empathy. What is more,
Swaffar (1992) acknowledges the contribution of culture when he says that, in
order to combat, as it were, ‘cultural distance’, students must be exposed to foreign
literature with a view to developing the ability to put into question and evaluate the
cultural elements L2 texts are suffused with. Kramsch (1993, 1987a) also believes
that culture should be taught as an interpersonal process and, rather than presenting
cultural facts, teachers should assist language learners in coming to grips with the
‘other culture’ (Singhal, 1998). She maintains that, by virtue of the increasing
multiculturality of various societies, learners should be made aware of certain
cultural factors at work, such as age, gender, and social class, provided that the
former usually have little or no systematic knowledge about their membership in a
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given society and culture, nor do they have enough knowledge about the target
culture to be able to interpret and synthesize the cultural phenomena presented.
(Kramsch, 1988b)
From all the above, it is evident that, much as the element of culture has
gained momentum in foreign language learning, most educators have seen it as yet
another skill at the disposal of those who aspire to become conversant with the
history and life of the target community rather than as an integral part of
communicative competence and intercultural awareness at which every “educated
individual” should aim. As has been intimated above, the present paper takes a
third perspective, in claiming that cultural knowledge is not only an aspect of
communicative competence, but an educational objective in its own right.
Nevertheless, cultural knowledge is unlike, say, knowledge of mathematics or
Ancient Greek, in the sense that it is an all-encompassing kind of knowledge
which, to a certain extent, has determined—facilitated or precluded—all other
types of “knowledge.” Rather than viewing cultural knowledge as a prerequisite
for language proficiency, it is more important to view it as ‘the community’s store
of established knowledge’ (Fowler, 1986: 19), which comprises ‘structures of
expectation’ (Tannen, 1979: 144) with which everyone belonging to a certain
group is expected to unconsciously and unerringly comply. A corollary of this third
perspective is to view the teaching of culture as a means of ‘developing an
awareness of, and sensitivity towards, the values and traditions of the people
whose language is being studied’ (Tucker & Lambert, 1972: 26). It goes without
saying that to foster cultural awareness by dint of teaching culture means to bring
to our learners’ conscious the latent assumptions and premises underlying their
belief and value systems (see Humphrey, 1997: 242) and, most importantly, to
show that our own culture predisposes us to a certain worldview by creating a
‘cognitive framework….which is made up of a number of unquantifiables
….embracing …assumptions about how the world is constructed’ (ibid.). But this
cognitive framework is, to a great extent, maintained and sanctioned through the
very use of language, which is arguably ‘the most visible and available expression
of [a] culture’ (Brown, 1986, cited in Valdes, 1986: 33).
As will be shown, though, language and culture are so intricately related that
their boundaries, if any, are extremely blurred and it is difficult to become aware of
—let alone question—the assumptions and expectations that we hold. It should be
reiterated that language teaching is culture teaching, and what the next chapter will
set out to show is that, ‘by teaching a language…one is inevitably already teaching
culture implicitly’ (McLeod, 1976: 212), and gaining insights into the foreign
language should automatically presuppose immersion in the foreign culture, in so
far as these two, language and culture, go hand in hand.

14
By way of conclusion, we should reiterate the main premise of the present study:
the teaching of culture should become an integral part of foreign language
instruction. ‘Culture should be our message to students and language our medium’
(Peck, 1998). Frontiers have opened and never before have nations come closer to
one another—in theory, at least. As a result, people from different cultures weave
their lives into an international fabric that is beginning to fray at the edges by
virtue of miscommunication and propaganda. In order to avoid this ignominious
cultural and political disintegration, and foster empathy and understanding,
teachers should ‘present students with a true picture or representation of another
culture and language’ (Singhal, 1998). And this will be achieved only if cultural
awareness is viewed as something more than merely a compartmentalised subject
within the foreign language curriculum; that is, when culture “inhabits” the
classroom and undergirds every language activity. According to Singhal (1998),
language teachers ought to receive both experiential and academic training, with
the aim of becoming ‘mediators in culture teaching’ (ibid.). At any rate, culture
teaching should aim to foster ‘empathy with the cultural norms of the target
language community’ and ‘an increased awareness of one’s own ‘cultural logic’ in
relation to others’ (Willems, 1992, cited in Byram, Morgan et al., 1994: 67). This
cultural logic, though, is achieved through ‘a recognition of ‘otherness’, and of the
limitations of one’s own cultural identity’ (Killick & Poveda, 1997).
On a practical note, culture teaching should allow learners to increase their
knowledge of the target culture in terms of people’s way of life, values, attitudes,
and beliefs, and how these manifest themselves or are couched in linguistic
categories and forms. More specifically, the teaching of culture should make
learners aware of speech acts, connotations, etiquette, that is, appropriate or
inappropriate behaviour, as well as provide them with the opportunity to act out
being a member of the target culture. Equipped with the knowledge that such
notions as “superior” or “inferior” cultures are nothing but sweeping
generalisations emanating from lack of knowledge and disrespect to other human
beings with different worldviews, learners can delve into the target language and
use it as a tool not only to communicate in the country where it is spoken but also
to give a second (or third) voice to their thoughts, thus flying in the face of cultural
conventions and stereotypes. To this end, language educators should ‘not only
work to dispel stereotypes [and] pockets of ignorance…but…contribute to
learners’ understanding that begins with awareness of self and leads to awareness
of others’ (Singhal, 1998). There is certainly room for improvement, and things
bode well for the future. Beyond current practice, there are still some areas, such as
the ones identified by Lessard-Clouston (1997), that need further investigation. For
example, is there such a thing as a ‘natural order’ in L2/FL culture acquisition?

15
What cultural patterns do foreign language students need to learn first and at what
levels? Furthermore, are these patterns best learnt by means of immersion in the
target culture, or are there any techniques obviating this need? Most importantly,
are these acquired patterns maintained over the long haul, or is there some kind of
regression at work? Once these besetting issues are investigated, the next step is to
do some research on content and materials design for cultural syllabuses (see
Nostrand, 1967).
It goes without saying that foreign language teachers should be foreign
culture teachers, having the ability to experience and analyse both the home and
target cultures (Byram, Morgan et al., 1994: 73). The onus is on them to convey
cultural meaning and introduce students to a kind of learning ‘which challenges
and modifies their perspective on the world and their cultural identity as members
of a given social and national group’ (ibid.). Unfortunately, by teaching about other
cultures, foreign language educators do not necessarily nip prejudice in the bud, so
to speak; cultural bias can still plague the very aspects of the target culture which
teachers ‘choose to indict or advocate’, as Cormeraie (1997) insightfully remarks.
It is hoped that the present paper has contrived to clarify most of the issues it set
out to investigate, and has helped contribute to a better understanding of culture
and its importance in the foreign language classroom.

CHAPTER 2

ENGLISH AS LINGUA FRANCA

2.1. LINGUA FRANCA

English continues its triumph as a worldwide language of a previously

unknown scale. The numbers of speakers keep expanding, and at the same time,
the status of English is dramatically changing as a foreign language: native
speakers of the ‘core’ varieties of British and American English are far
outnumbered by bilingual speakers. In a recent report, Graddol (2006) predicts an
16
end to English as a foreign language (EFL) as we know it, with native speakers
providing the gold standard. He foresees the teaching of English becoming part of
mainstream education worldwide, that is, a basic skill instead of just another
foreign language.
In this postmodern world, the myth of a uniform standard language becomes
less and less relevant and harder to maintain. The spread of English has been both
investigated and debated (e.g.Phillipson 1992, Pennycook 1994 Brutt-Griffler
2002), but these studies have not paid much attention to language itself, and how
its features take shape in different locations and in different functions. As English
has made its way to all corners of the world, it has developed a number of
varieties, some of which have institutional status, others not. The varieties
indigenised in countries where English has an institutional status, the “outer circle”
in Kachru’s (1985) terms, such as India, Nigeria, Singapore, South Africa, have not
always been easily accepted as varieties in their own right, but with time they have
increasingly become subject to linguistic research as well as to codification. The
linguistic research community has been much slower to react in the case of English
used as a lingua franca. While English as a foreign language (in Kachru’s
“expanding circle”) has been studied extensively for a long time as ‘learner
language’, the actual use of the language outside classrooms and learning contexts
has been neglected until very recently.
Learner English is of great interest in both practical and theoretical terms,
and the need to study second-language use in its own right is not competing with
that: it is simply doing different things. Many features of learner language are
shared by ‘real-world’ second language speakers; conversely, we certainly open a
new window to understanding second language use by investigating English as a
lingua franca.
Discussion on the necessity or desirability of the native speaker model for
language teaching has been very much alive since the turn of the millennium, and
it started even earlier in applied linguistics. English as the exclusive property of the
native speaker was challenged notably by Braj Kachru in the mid-eighties (Karchru
1985), and Henry Widdowson in the early nineties (Widdowson 1994). Yet it
seems that it is precisely in applied linguistics that it is hardest to accept the
implications of English as the globally dominant lingua franca and a language
which is predominantly used among non-natives.
Language teaching is based on strong normative views despite the ideology
of communicativeness, which has been with us for the last thirty years, and which
remains the unchallenged mainstream of pedagogic thinking. The teaching
profession appears to be constantly supplied with firm standards and guidelines
about the received view of what is acceptable and appropriate in the language. This
is what English as a lingua franca does not have. However, if the postmodern
17
acceptance of several simultaneous standards develops as Graddol (2006) predicts,
the attitude change which has been energetically advocated by Seidlhofer (e.g.
2001) is going to take place in the world of applied English linguistics.
Language contact research has mostly focused on contacts between two
languages in a relatively stable contact situation. With the increased mobility in
contemporary societies, such settings are becoming rarer. If we look at English in
contact with other languages, the reality is already extremely complex: English can
be spoken in encounters involving native speakers of practically any of the world’s
languages. Such complexity is most clearly reflected in the use of English as a
lingua franca (ELF), and although it may appear to present a chaotic, even
frightening view of endless variation, it is more likely that general constraints of
human languages come into play and the variation is neither endless nor chaotic,
and hardly arbitrary.
English as a lingua franca is a child of the postmodern world: it observes no
national boundaries and it has no definite centres. In many ways, it is part of a
transcultural flow, with its speakers using it in their own ways, constructing their
own identities and forming their own groupings. English is the means of
communicating with the rest of the world, but not only in a general or standard
way. It is also, importantly, used by a plethora of in-groups and special domains all
over the world. It takes many shapes, as we might expect of a language which is
used in an age of accelerated mobility and new contacts. It offers a rich and
intriguing research field to anyone interested in the ways in which language
changes, and in the ways that English is developing right in front of our eyes.
Research into English as a lingua franca, the study of ELF, is just finding its feet. It
is a research area which is only at the initial stages of calling itself a ‘field’ of
English studies – five or six years ago it was merely a suggestion, and not always
welcome to more traditionally oriented scholars. The strong presence of the native
speaker in linguistic theory has cast a long shadow on many fields of research as
well as applications. Having said this, we must immediately add that it is by no
means universally true: many scholars, especially among those investigating
variation and change, have been immediately sympathetic to the idea of studying
English in its nonstandard uses in today’s global world.
Jenkins’s (2000) seminal work on English phonology in contexts of
international communication among non-native speakers was the first major
description of ELF as a kind of language in its own right rather than as a deficient
form of English. Jenkins’s study was preceded by a few pragmatic studies of ELF
(e.g., Firth 1996; Firth and Wagner 1997; Meierkord 1998), and research into
pragmatics has continued strong (e.g. House 2002; Lesnyák 2004; Mauranen 2006;
and several papers in this issue). Attitudes towards ELF have been charted (e.g.
Erling 2004, Ranta 2004), and its status as a variety of English has been critically
18
investigated (Mollin 2006 and this volume). A few papers in Knapp and
Meierkord’s Lingua Franca Communication (2002) were also concerned with
English. Recently research has extended to lexicogrammatical features,
metadiscourse and discourse organisation; new databases pave the way to a greater
variety of approaches, and currently research groups are busy compiling ELF
corpora (e.g. ELFA, VOICE), which enable larger-scale studies than hitherto.
As things are going, it looks like the study of ELF is well on its way to
become an established domain of English studies. Papers in this volume indicate
that interest in English as a lingua franca is growing, and that the focus is clearly
on empirical studies of the language itself, even though the question of what
implications this has on teaching also surfaces in some of the papers.
This issue of NJES begins with an exploration into the attitudes and feelings
of university students in Germany to English as a lingua franca, together with
typical features of their language. Elizabeth Erling and Tom Bartlett survey a
number of lexicogrammatical and discourse features in the students’ English,
observing that overwhelmingly the same features are present in other varieties of
L1 and L2 English in many different parts of the world. It is not therefore likely
that what they find is either the result of particular first language interference or
idiosyncratic uses. Erling and Bartlett conclude by strongly advocating an identity
of New Europeanism, where ELF is a natural and legitimate common language.
A very different view is taken in the next paper by Sandra Mollin, who seeks to
establish whether “Euro-English” can already be regarded as a variety of English
in its own right. She sets out to investigate this with a corpus-based, largely
quantitative approach. Mollin has compiled a corpus of both spoken and written
data used in the context of the EU, and compares her database to Standard English
corpora. Her findings suggest that European non-native usage varies too much to
meet the criterion of a homogeneous and systematic variety. Neither does her data
bear out hypothesized changes for instance in the case of the third person
singular s. She concludes that ELF should be regarded as a register, not a variety.
Discussing the pedagogical implications of her ELF findings, Mollin takes the
cautious line that it is indeed the native speaker norms that should constitute the
model in English language teaching, spiced with more intercultural skills than has
traditionally been the case.
The third paper, by Alessia Cogo and Martin Dewey, starts from a more
situated view of language, assuming that pragmatic and lexicogrammatical choices
are closely intertwined. The article first investigates in detail pragmatic and
interactive aspects of ELF conversations, and goes on to discuss lexicogrammatical
features, focusing in on the controversial third person singular s. They show that a
closer look into ELF discourse reveals new facets of the choices speakers make;
the study throws new light on the third person s, or more precisely, its non-use.
19
This turns out to be clearly dependent on the type of verb it is attached to (main or
auxiliary) as well as situational parameters reflecting speakers’ accommodation to
their interlocutors. The authors also relate the loss of the s ending to findings from
earlier language contact research, observing that ELF speakers behave in a fairly
regular manner: marked features are likely to be lost, and this particular feature has
a previous history of being lost in comparable situations.
Lexicogrammatical features are also the focus in Elina Ranta’s paper, which
addresses the frequent and divergent use of the ing form of the verb by ELF
speakers. She looks into data from the ELFA corpus to illustrate how the use of the
progressive by ELF speakers differs from that of native speakers. Although the
‘overuse’ of the ing form has often been described as a problem for non-native
speakers in second language acquisition studies, the author finds no evidence of the
feature causing trouble in communication in the data. In fact, the article suggests
that the frequent use of the ing form could function in the opposite way: to prevent
miscommunication in ELF. It also turns out that this feature is attested in the
English of speakers from typologically very different first languages which makes
it a candidate for a true ‘ELF feature’ and calls into question the common
assumption that this kind of use of the progressive is either transfer from the
speaker’s mother tongue or a result of the teaching the speaker has received.
Maria Metsä-Ketelä continues to investigate spoken ELF in the light of the ELFA
corpus. Her study takes up a phenomenon that is common to all languages and to
spoken language in particular, namely vagueness. The article concentrates on the
frequently occurring vague expression more or less and describes in detail its use
and functions in academic lingua franca English. Comparison with the MICASE
corpus shows that non-native speakers use the expression considerably more often
than native speakers of English. In the ELFA corpus, more or less is used for
multiple communicative functions affecting both the information content
of the utterance and the discourse situation as well as the relationship between the
speakers. The article concludes that lingua franca speakers are able to come up
with innovative uses of vague expressions without compromising the effectiveness
of communication.
The next two articles describe the two ELF corpora that are referred to in
many of the other papers in this volume. The ELFA corpus is described by Anna
Mauranen, who argues that a corpus based on academic speaking makes a
particularly rewarding point of departure for ELF research: academic discourses
are inherently international, they are sophisticated, demanding and influential, and
a set of genres that native speakers have no greater claim to than non-native
speakers. She describes the compilation principles of ELFA, outlining the main
strains in the research it has already given rise to, and some new directions that
it is taking.
20
 Angelika Breiteneder, Marie-Luise Pitzl, Stefan Majewski, and Theresa
Klimpfinger present a thorough discussion of the issues that need to be considered
when collecting a large electronic corpus of spoken lingua franca English. In the
article, special attention is drawn to the compilation criteria that determine the
quality of the corpus and the balancing act between theoretical specifications,
methodological considerations, and practical limitations. The writers provide an
illustration of the challenges and solutions they have encountered during the
arduous but rewarding process of capturing spoken ELF.
The final article of the volume takes a look at written text in the location
where we would expect to find the most traces of ELF: the Internet. Sirkku
Aaltonen investigates the use of English on Finnish corporate websites and
introduces features that could be submitted to more systematic study as features of
ELF. On a more general level, the article discusses the suitability of corporate
websites as a setting for ELF research. Aaltonen concludes that such websites can
provide a useful background for the study of lingua franca English and she calls for
further reserach on the topic.
This special issue is written in ELF. Although native speakers have not been
excluded from the volume, they have not acted as the ultimate authorities of
linguistic correctness or comprehensibility. Thus, the papers have not been
‘checked by a native speaker’, as the saying goes.
The ELF-speaking editors have not imposed their idiolects on the papers
with a heavy hand either. The writers are all expert users of English despite their
varying status of nativeness. They hope that the readership finds the texts as clear
and comprehensible as they do, and thatthe issues raised and the findings presented
give food for thought for English scholars in the European countries and beyond.

2.2. STANDARD ENGLISH VS ‘CHANGING’ ENGLISH

Although there are at least 360 million native speakers of English world-
wide, Sir Randolph Quirk, writing in the Sunday Times on 17 April, 1994,
estimates that on a global basis non-native speakers of English now outnumber
native speakers’ (Firth, 1996:240). The fact that so many people are using English
all over the world inevitably means that the language is changing, as individuals
communicate with each other in the way that they find the easiest. Crystal
(1996:15) states that ‘the reason why linguistic change is so unpredictable is that it
is in the hands of so many people. In their minds, rather.’ There is much
controversy as to the changes that are happening in English. Furthermore, the more
21
traditional prescriptive grammarians argue that there should be a standard in terms
of grammar, lexis, orthography and pronunciation in English.
However, it is difficult to define exactly what standard English (SE) is.
Crystal (1997:110) attempts to define the idea by summarising five essential
characteristics: ‘that SE is a variety of English, like a dialect; that the linguistic
features of SE are chiefly matters of grammar, vocabulary and orthography, not a
matter of pronunciation; that SE is the variety of English which carries most
prestige within a country; that the prestige attached to SE is recognised by adult
members of the community and it is the norm of leading institutions such as the
government, law courts and the media; and that although SE is widely understood,
it is not widely produced.’
Radical prescriptive linguists and language academies may argue with
Crystal about the points above stating, that the definitions are too flexible. For
example, it could be argued that the notion that pronunciation is not important is
too lenient, as English speakers should aim for Received Pronunciation. Although
as Medgyes (1994:5) writes ‘Received Pronunciation is unlikely ever to have been
spoken by more than three or four percent of the British population’. On the other
hand, descriptive grammarians may accept the author’s arguments and go even
further by saying that if two foreigners using English as a lingua franca can make
themselves understood, even though they are grammatically incorrect according to
SE, there is no problem and that is how the language is actually spoken or written.
Firth (1996:242) argues that ‘the dominant impression is that lingua franca talk is
not only meaningful, it is also normal and indeed ordinary.’  Furthermore,
Medgyes (1994:5) reports that ‘ordinary native speakers do not expect foreigners
to speak a standard variety and any accent is accepted as long as it is
understandable without undue effort.’

2.3. FROM LINGUA FRANCA TO GLOBAL ENGLISH

The English language has unmistakably achieved status as the world\'s

lingua franca through globalization. English is now the official or dominant
language for two billion people in at least 75 countries. According to the British
Council, speakers of English as a second language probably outnumber those who
speak it as a first language, and around 750 million people are believed to speak
English as a foreign language. English is the most common language to
communicate scientific, technological, academic, and international trade
22
information. English is clearly the world's lingua franca, but how did it get that
way? Part of the reason is the feedback loop driving its history - a dynamic which
may serve to illustrate how globalization often is the result of a natural course of
events: before English infiltrated the world, many of the world's languages
infiltratedEnglish.
The term ”lingua franca” originated in Mediterranean ports in the Middle Ages
among traders of different language backgrounds. In order to carry on the business
of trade, they spoke a common ”patchwork” language consisting of bits of Italian
mixed with Greek, French, Spanish, and Arabic words. Some of those words are
still part of ordinary conversation today – in modern English. Nearly every
language on Earth has contributed to the development of English. Languages of the
Indian subcontinent provided words such as pundit, shampoo, pajamas, and
juggernaut. From the Spanish are several words that came to define the spirit of the
American ”wild west:” mustang, canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are a few
examples. English has adopted literally hundreds of words from Arabic and
Persian. Though some filtered down through other languages, these words that
evoke images from American culture have Arabic origins: tariff, sugar, hazard, jar,
almanac, shrub, alcove, alfalfa, syrup, and spinach. Long is the list of words and
expressions that came to English from ”foreign languages.”
Now with mass media, contemporary English slings its patchwork of
historically adopted words and new pop slang back at the world in a very big way.
Some say, too big a way. John Swales describes English as "Tyrannosaurus Rex"
let loose in the world to gobble up other languages and, thus, their cultures. The
Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong has observed that the erosion of a first language
results in the loss of understanding the corresponding culture: "Language carries
culture, and culture carries . . . the entire body of values by which we perceive
ourselves and our place in the world." Anne Pakir ultimately dubbed English a
"killer language" when attempts to teach English alongside the first languages of
her homeland Singapore only resulted in the rise of a new language: Singlish.
On the other side of the debate, Salman Rushdie says that creating new
Englishes such as 'Singlish' can be a therapeutic act of resistance against whatever
dominance English exerts upon a given culture. "To conquer English may be to
complete the process of making ourselves free." Juliane House, professor of
applied linguistics at Hamburg University, Germany, notes that the spread of
English can actually enhance the preservation of local dialects. "Paradox as this
may seem, the very spread of English can motivate speakers of other languages to
insist on their own local language for identification, for binding them emotionally
to their own cultural and historical tradition. There is no need to set up an old-
fashioned dichotomy between local languages and English as the 'hegemonic
aggressor': there is a place for both, because they fulfill different functions. To
23
deny this is to uphold outdated concepts of monolingual societies and individuals."

It is the "different functions" aspect of English vs. ‘other languages' that is

fiercely debated today. The speaking of English often functions as an elevated
socio-economic currency on the international market and in international
diplomacy, while local languages are pressured to be kept within the home or
within communities, or for entertaining tourists. English is the official language of
the European Central Bank even though the bank is in Frankfurt, Germany, and no
predominantly English-speaking country is a member of the European Monetary
Union.
Globalization of the IT marketplace is accelerating the effect of English as a
commodity. For decades English has dominated the IT industry, from research and
development, to the design of hardware and software. In 2002, there were signs
that the impact of China's interest in respecting international intellectual property
rights heralded a new era of China-led technology standards which would slow
down the monopoly of technologies made primarily for English speakers. A new
culture of IT researchers had developed in China which was not built on U.S.-
trained engineers. However, more recently, India, which once was very concerned
about China's enthusiasm for changing standards in the IT industry, now sees the
threat as fading - partly due to Indian businesses assuming that China will take a
long time to catch up in English language proficiency, and India's dominance of
the outsourcing industry which was won in large part because of their command of
English.
English, like so many other aspects of Western culture, has the potential to
bring people together, or the power to divide people into classified groups. As the
debate goes on, English will continue to grow and change with the same force that
has always driven the patchworking of language: the natural desire to exchange
goods and ideas.

2.4. ENGLISH – THE UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE ON THE

INTERNET

Generally speaking, English is the universal language on the Internet, but it

has no official status, and it will never have. The reasons for the position of
English are the imperialism and economical and political importance of English-
speaking countries. Linguistically, English is extremely unsuitable for international

24
communication, and the actual wide use of English tends to polarize the world into
Internet users and Internet illiterates.
The position of English can only be altered by major world-scale political
and economical changes, such as increasing importance of the European Union or
a coalition between Japan and China. Such powers might wish and be able to
promote a language other than English, possibly a constructed language, for
international communication. Alternatively, or in addition to this, the technology
of machine translation may allow people to use their own language in international
communication.
The impulse to writing this article was a discussion in the newsgroup
sci.lang. The original question was "whether or not English should be made the
universal language of the internet".
In general, the universal language on the Internet is English, or more exactly
a vague collection of languages called "English" because their common origin is
the national language spoken in England by the English. That national language
has spread over the world, and several variants such as American (US) English,
Australian English, etc exist. A great number of people whose native language is
none of the variants know English as a foreign language. They typically use a more
or less simplified variant, e.g. excluding most of the idioms of British, American,
Australian etc English. Of course, they make mistakes, and sometimes the
"English" used by people as a foreign language on the Internet is almost
incomprehensible to anyone else. In addition, people who use English as their
native language do not know how to spell difficult words, since they basically
know English as a spoken language.
Thus, roughly speaking, the universal language of the Internet is clumsy,
coarse and misspelled "English". There are exceptions, most importantly national
newsgroups in such countries where English is not the native language of the
majority. Even in such groups English is used, for instance when people from other
countries wish to participate. And a few international groups have a theme like
discussing a particular language or culture so that it is natural to assume that the
participants have a common language other than English. Moreover, a group which
is partly international in the sense of not being purely national might use a
language other than English, for instance if the group is intended for people in
German-speaking countries.
Generally speaking, when a languages has got the position of a universal
language, the position tends to be affirmed and extended by itself. Since
"everyone" knows and uses English, people are almost forced to learn English and
use it, and learn it better.
Even if you expect the majority of your readers to understand your native
language, you may be tempted to use English when writing e.g. about research
25
work. Usually researchers all over the world know English and use it a lot, and
often the relevant terminology is more stable and well-known in English than in
your own language. Thus, to maximize the number of interested people that can
understand your text, you often select English even if the great majority of your
readers have the same native language as you. Alternatively, you might write your
texts both in your native language and in English, but this doubles the work needed
for writing your document and possibly maintaining it. The maintenance problem
is especially important for documents on the World Wide Web - the information
system where one crucial feature is the ability to keep things really up to date.
Consequently, the use of English in essentially national contexts tends to grow.
In the news system, the position of English in most international groups is
regarded as so obvious that people who post non-English articles to such groups -
by accident or by ignorance - typically get flamed quickly. This is the sort of
control that newsgroup communities exercise in other matters than language, too. It
is often regarded as an example of the "democratic" nature of the news system.
However, things are changing fast. The flame control - i.e. control by flaming - has
worked to a great extent because people have had relatively compatible status,
background, and values of life. The time has come - childhood's end for the
Internet - when we will see more and more people and organizations who pay little
attention to flames and netiquette. The increasing amount of spamming is just one
indication of this. But these general remarks hardly apply to the status of English.
By the way, when people post articles to international groups in their own
languages, the reason is typically novice users' ignorance of basic facts about the
news system. People start posting articles before they have read what is generally
written to the group. One thing that causes this happen relatively often that there is
no easily accessible and useable list of groups together with their content
descriptions, and typically content descriptions do not explicitely state what
language(s) should be used in the group.
During the history of mankind, there have been several more or less
universal languages or lingua francas, such as Latin (and Greek) in the Roman
empire, mediaeval Latin in Western Europe, later French and English. Universality
is of course relative; it means universality in the "known world" or "civilized
world", or just in a large empire. No language has been really universal (global),
but the current position of English comes closest. The position of a universal
language has always been gained as a by-product of some sort of imperialism: a
nation has conquered a large area and more or less assimilated it into its own
culture, including language, thus forming an empire. Usually the language of the
conquerer has become the language of the state and the upper class first, then
possibly spread over the society, sometimes almost wiping out the original
languages of the conquered areas. Sometimes - especially in the Middle Ages - the
26
imperialism has had a definite cultural and religious nature which may have been
more important than brute military and economic force.
As regards to the English language, it would have remained as a national
language of the English, had it not happened so that the English first conquered the
rest of the British Isles, then many other parts of the world. Later, some English
colonies in a relatively small part of America rebelled, formed the United States of
America, and expanded a lot. They formed a federal state where a variant of the
English language was one of the few really uniting factors. And that federal state
became, as we all know, wealthy and important. It also exercised traditional
imperialism, but more importantly it gained a very important role in world
economy and politics. Whether you call the US influence imperialism or neo-
imperialism is a matter of opinion, but it certainly has similar effects on
maintaining and expanding the use of English as classical imperialism.
The importance of the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life,
including not only research and education but also marketing and trade as well as
entertainment and hobbies. This implies that it becomes more and more important
to know how to use Internet services and, as a part of this, to read and write
English.
Of course, the majority of mankind cannot use the Internet nowadays or in
the near future, since they live in countries which lack the necessary economical
and technological infrastructure. But the Internet causes polarization in developed
countries, too: people are divided into Internet users and Internet illiterates, and as
the use of the Internet grows and often replaces traditional methods of
communication, the illiterates may find themselves in an awkward position.
In general, it is easy to learn to use Internet services. The worst problems of
Internet illiteracy are, in addition to lack of economical resources of course, wrong
attitudes. Older people are usually not accustomed to live in a world of continuous
and rapid change, and they may not realize the importance of the Internet or the
easiness of learning to use it.
But although Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to
learn and use, you will find yourself isolated on the Internet if you are not familiar
with English. This means that knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of
the most severe factors that cause polarization. Learning to use a new Internet
service or user interface may take a few hours, a few days, or even weeks, but it
takes years to learn a language so that you can use it in a fluent and self-confident
manner. Of course, when you know some English, you can learn more just by
using it on the Internet, but at least currently the general tendency among Internet
users is to discourage people in their problems with the English language. Incorrect
English causes a few flames much more probably than encouragement and friendly
advice.
27
 In different countries and cultures, English has different positions. There are
countries where English is the native language of the majority, there are countries
where English is a widely known second language, and there are countries where
English has no special position. These differences add to the above-mentioned
polarization. Specifically, it is difficult for people in previous colonies of other
countries than Great Britain (e.g. France, Spain, the Netherlands) to adapt to the
necessity of learning English. Locally, it may be necessary to learn the language of
the previous colonial power since it is often an official language and the common
language of educated people; globally, English is necessary for living on the
Internet. And the more languages you have to learn well, the less time and energy
you will have for learning other things.
There is no conceivable way in which any authority could define an official
language for the Internet. The Internet as a whole is not controlled by anyone or
anything, and this could only change if, by miracle, all countries made an
agreement on it or if the entire world were taken to the control of one government.
Thus, if the question "whether or not English should be made the universal
language of the internet" is interpreted as concerning the official status of English,
the answer is simply that English, or any other language, cannot be made the
official universal language. It is fruitless to ask whether an impossible thing should
be made.
Things can change, and they actually do, often with unpredictable speed.
The rapid fall of the Soviet empire - including the loss of the role of Russian as a
"universal" language within in - is a recent indication of this. English can lose its
position as a widely used (although not official) universal language in two ways.
Either a new empire emerges and its language becomes universal, or a constructed
language becomes very popular. Most people regard both of these alternatives as
extremely improbable, if not impossible. Perhaps they are right, perhaps not.
One can see two possible empires to emerge: the European Union and a yet
nonexistent Japanese-Chinese empire.
The European Union (EU) is an existing formation which is, at least
according to its own doctrine, moving towards federalism. In many respects, the
European Union already is a federal state, with less independence and autonomy
for its constituents than the states have in the United States. Although people may
present the EU as the successor of previous empires such as the Roman empire and
the empire of Charlemagne, it is quite possible that the EU never becomes a real
empire, since it seems to be inherently bureaucratic. Every empire needs a
bureaucracy, of course, to promote the aims of its ruler(s), but the EU lacks true
rulers. But if the EU ever becomes a true empire with prominent role in the world,
the language of the empire will hardly be any of the national languages in the EU,
except possibly English. It is more probable that the builders of the empire will
28
realize the need for a relatively neutral universal language, and adopt Esperanto or
some other constructed language for official purposes. In fact, such a choice would
be extremely rational at the present stage of the EU, since now a considerable
portion of EU expenses are used for translation and interpretation between the
official languages of the EU. A single official language of the EU might or might
not be adopted by people worldwide as a universal language for everyday
communication, including communication on the Internet.
Japan is probably too small, both as a country and as a nation, to create an
empire with its own forces, despite its flourishing technology and economy and
efficient social organization. But its potential combined with the vast human and
other resources of China would certainly constitute a basis for an empire that
succesfully competes with the United States and the European Union, even if latter
powers were (economically) strongly allied. Both Japan and China would have a
lot to gain from intensive mutual cooperation, or alliance, confederation, or
federation.
A Japanese-Chinese empire would have a difficult choice of language. It
might decide to accept the role of English as a universal language, both for
continuity and for the reason that selecting either Japanese or Chinese (Mandarin)
would set the Japanese-Chinese union at stake. Alternatively, it might seriously
consider using a constructed language - most probably not Esperanto but a
language which is culturally more neutral, i.e. not dominantly Indo-European, for
instance something like Loglan or Lojban.
Apart from being widely used and known, English is extremely unsuitable as
a universal language. There are several reasons to this. Any national language, i.e.
a language which is or was originally the language of a particular tribe or nation,
has obvious defects when used for international communication: Native speakers
of the language are in a quite different position than others. Some people regard
this as bad in itself, as contrary to the equality principle, but I think it is practical
consequences that make it bad. Native speakers tend to use idioms and rare words
and to speak too fast, unless they exercise conscious control over their language -
and such control is difficult and unnatural when applied to one's mother tongue.
This implies that in oral communication in particular native speakers of English
often have worse problems in getting themselves correctly understood than
nonnative speakers!
National languages exist in various dialects and forms - sometimes they are
even mutually unintelligible, but the differences always make communication
harder. There is usually no standard for a national language, and even if something
that can be called standard exists, it is just one form of the language - typically a
form that is only used by a minority, and even by it only in a minority of occasions.
For a native speaker of a language, it is natural to use one's own dialect, and it is
29
difficult to avoid this entirely; this emphasizes the importance of the above-
mentioned problem of native speakers expressing themselves in international
contexts.
When you learn your native language in your childhood, you learn it by
listening to and talking with people who have it as their native language. First they
know it much better than you, later equally well. Thus it is very natural human
behaviour to use your native language with the unconscious but strong assumption
that the listener or reader knows the language to the same or even higher extent
than you. In international contexts, this built-in assumption is almost always false,
and this has severe consequences. For instance, we tend to regard people as stupid
or ignorant if they do not understand normal language; this deep-rooted tendency is
present even if our conscious mind understands the situation correctly.
A national language carries with it the history of the nation. For instance,
words and phrases have got, in addition to their dictionary meanings, connotations,
colours and associations. This is an important cultural phenomenon which helps in
keeping the nation a nation, but in international communication it is a burden.
National languages have originally evolved as spoken languages. When written
national languages originated, they were usually formed on the basis of the dialect
of the capital or other important area, with the aim of creating a language which
supports the creation of a unified nation. Thus, the very origin of a national
language is in a sense nationalistic, not internationalistic.
Due to their long history, national languages have historical relics and
features which make them illogical and irrational, such as grammatical gender or
irregular forms. Moreover, being originally spoken languages, they lack sufficient
tools for expressing things in an exact, unambiguous manner; and the need for such
expression is immense and growing, especially in the areas of law and contracts,
technology and technical descriptions, and science.
These remarks apply to English, too, and especially to English. One of the
worst relics of English is the orthography. English has a very rich repertoire of
idioms, and it typically has several words which have the same basic meaning but
different connotations and stylistic value. Especially in international contexts you
can never know what words mean to people with different backgrounds. Thus, you
may occasionally get your basic message understood in some way, but you cannot
tell in which way. This is of course an inherent problem in all human
communication, but the nature of English makes it a really big problem.
English is an eclectic language which tends to borrow words from other
languages instead of constructing words for new concepts from older words with
derivation or word composition. People often say that English has a rich
vocabulary as if it were something to be proud of. The richness of the vocabulary
results basically from word borrowing and implies that words for related concepts
30
are typically not related to each other in any obvious, regular manner. Word
borrowing makes a language more international in one sense, but in the essential
sense it makes it less suitable for international communication, since learning the
vocabulary is more difficult.
The role of the Internet in this hypothetical development would be to create
the informational infrastructure for the discussion of the construction of the
language, the very construction work, spreading out information about the
language, the use of the language, and continuous development of the language.
Most probably the language would first be used in parallel with English, and the
initial use would be for such purposes like international agreements where national
languages are clearly insufficient. For instance, if you need to formulate an
agreement between two countries, you definitely need a neutral common language
instead of having the text in two languages, each text allowing its own
interpretations.
An alternative view of the future is that after a few years or decades, no
universal language is needed: machine translation will allow you to use your own
language. If the machine translation tools had sufficient quality and speed, you
could sit on your terminal writing your news article or an IRC message in, say,
Finnish, and another person in New Zealand would read your text in English, due
to automatic translation "on the fly".
During the last few decades, quite a lot of predictions and even promises
have been presented regarding machine translation, but useful software and
systems for it have not been available until recently. This has caused
disappointments and pessimism to the extent that many people consider machine
translation as definitely unrealistic.
Actually, machine translation is operational for a wide range of texts,
although corrective actions by human translators may be necessary. Corrections are
needed to resolve ambiguities which exist due to the limitations of the software and
to fix errors caused by the fact that translation of human languages requires
extralinguistic information.
Assumably fully automatic correct translation will never be possible.
However, this does not exclude the possibility of using it extensively. It only
means that we must be prepared to accept a risk - decreasing by advances in
technology, but never reaching zero - of translation errors. Such risks exist when
human translators are used, too, and in many respects automatic translation can be
more reliable. Both human beings and computer programs err, in different ways.
In addition to the advancement of translation techniques, there are several ways in
which the risk of errors in automatic translation can be decreased:
avoiding ambiguities in the source language: people can try to write their texts so
that they are more easily tractable by translation programs checking the
31
translations: a person who has written a text in his native language may run it
through a translation program, check and correct the result, and provide the
"authorized" translation together with the source text; although it is usually not
feasible to do this for several target languages, the authorized translation (typically,
to English) can be used by translation programs for checking purposes: if
translations from the original source and the authorized translation yield different
results, this fact should be signalled to the user warnings: in general, problematic
fragments of texts like those obviously allowing different syntactic analyses, can
be signalled to the user - i.e. to the author, to the reader, or both.
Currently the operational machine translation software is essentially based
on syntactic analysis, so that semantic information is implicit in the dictionaries
used by the software. An alternative approach, based on some kind of semantic
analysis in addition to syntax, does not appear to be practically applicable yet.
Machine translation and constructed international languages are alternative but not
mutually exclusive solutions to the problem of communication between people
with different native languages. They can be combined in several ways.
A constructed language might form the basis of a semantics-oriented
machine translation system. It could be used as an intermediate language, thus
reducing the problem of making m*n translators from m languages to n languages
into the problem of making m+n translators.
A constructed language, specifically designed to allow exact and
unambiguous expression, might also be more suitable than English to the role of
the language of "authorized" translations. The design of a constructed language
which might achieve general use is, of course, a very difficult and controversial
issue.

CHAPTER 3

ENGLISH ELEMENTS OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

3.1. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE

32
 There are a great number of theories of what culture is and it has always
been a subject of controversy so there is no single true definition. As Swingewood
says “culture is not a neutral concept; it is historical, specific and ideological”
(cited in Billington and Strawbridge.1991:21). Moreover, writers, mainly
sociologists and anthropologists, especially from differing theoretical traditions,
often borrowed concepts from each other (cited in Billington, Strawbridge,
Greensides, Fitzsimons.1991:Viii). Therefore, some selections had to be made for
practical reasons and to meet the needs of the topic i.e. what is really useful in the
teaching of culture.
The classic definition, which was agreed upon for about 50 years, was
written by an English anthropologist, Edward Burnett Taylor, as early as in 19th
century. In hisbook, “Primitive culture” (1871) he says that: “culture … is that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”( cited in
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992:874 ) .
In ”Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions” (1952)
American anthropologists, A.L.Kroeber and C. Kluckham present as many as 164
definitions of culture, “ranging from “learned behaviour” to “ideas in mind”, “a
logical construct”, a statistical fiction”, “ a psychic defence mechanism” and so
on” (ibid), whereas the most up-to-date source, Oxford English Dictionary 2001
and 2002 give us as only five definitions.
In “The Analysis of Culture” Raymond Williams says that every adequate
definition of culture should include three categories of equal importance: ideal,
documentary and social. According to the first one culture is “a state or process of
human perfection”. According to the second one culture is ”the documentary … of
intellectual and imaginative work”, “which sees value only in the written and
painted records”. According to the third one culture is “a description of a particular
way of life” with its meanings, values, institutions and ordinary behaviour
( Williams 1994: 56- 57 ).
We also “need to distinguish three levels of culture:” Level number 1 is “the
lived culture of a particular time and place”, which is not written, and
understandable only to the contemporaries. Level number 2 is ”the recorded
culture”, which also called “the culture of a period”. Finally, level number 3 is “the
factor connecting lived culture and period cultures, which is selective because of
the process of interpretation (Williams 1994:62-64).
From the point of view of a teacher the definition that we can use while
teaching a foreign language can be found in Encyclopaedia Britannica. According
to this source, culture consists of: “language, ideas, beliefs, religion, customs,
taboos, codes, work of art, rituals, ceremonies” and it is “the integrated pattern of
human knowledge, belief and behaviour”. “Culture may be viewed in terms of
33
component patterns: cultural traits, areas and types…. and institutional structure
and functions: social organisations, education, economic systems etc”
(Encyclopaedia Britannica. Micropeadia. 1992. vol. 3:784).
Some theoreticians divide culture into high culture and mass culture. “What
distinguishes mass culture is that it is solely and directly an article for mass
consumption, like a chewing gum”. High culture, however, is that of the
aristocracy prior to industrialisation. It is very easy to translate these names into
“good” and “bad” culture (Billington 1991:14 citing MacDonald). From
experience of teching, the teenagers are much more interested in the first one and
therefore in the role of a teacher one should teach both as “education is a major
transmitter of culture” (Strawbridge 1991: 139).
Tomalin and Stempleski’s approach to culture is very practical and useful
from the point of view of a teacher. They divide elements of culture into: “the Big
C” elements, which constitute “achievement culture” and “little c” elements, which
constitute “behaviour culture”. The first one consists of: history, geography,
institutions, literature, art and music-and the way of life. The latter one consists of:
beliefs, perceptions and cultural behaviours (Tomalin and Stempleski 1993: 6).
According to Rosamund Billington culture is “species specific: although
other species can communicate, only humans can communicate through symbols,
language being the most important symbol system”. On the other hand, the
American anthropologist, Kroeber said “culture is learned and transmitted through
groups and individuals in societies” (Billington 1991:3). These are the reasons why
we should teach culture.

3.2. CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

The presentation below is based mainly on an article by Banach (2003).

There are many theories about a relationship between a language and culture. This
relationship was described by: Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf,
Osgood, an American psychologist and Michael Byram . One of the first scientists
to see this phenomenon was Wilhelm Humbolt at the turn of 18th and 19th
centuries. He said that every culture was connected with a nation and this nation
shaped its language and the other way round. The language is the soul of the
nation. Franz Boas thought that culture creates the wealth of a particular language
through vocabulary. Edward Sapir’s theory was based on a belief that the language
cannot exist without culture because the language is the expression of a particular
culture. They exist as parallels. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf put
34
forward a hypothesis that the grammar of a native language enforces a particular
style of perceiving and understanding the world and this is different from thinking
norms and behaviour of people using other languages. In Bronisław Malinowski’s
opinion “language is essentially rooted in the reality of the culture … and the
customs of the people, and … it cannot be explained without constant reference to
these broader concepts of verbal utterance”. According to Osgood’s theory on the
one hand, some words can have the same meaning in different languages, on the
other hand they may also have different connotation, so they will trigger off
different emotional reactions.
From the point of view of a teacher the most important theory is that of
Michael Byram. We can draw a conclusion from it that we cannot separate the
teaching of a language from the teaching of a particular culture when we learn
foreign languages. We need to link them very skilfully because through the
teaching of the language we also teach different thinking and life styles. On the
same time we prepare learners to take part in the socio-cultural experience of other
nations. “The most obvious influence of language and culture on thought is that of
vocabulary” (Valdes 1990: 3 ). This view justifies the exercises I have prepared in
the practical part of this work. “The influence of language on thought and
behaviour can perhaps best be seen in the world of advertising” (ibid). All
components of culture are studied “by advertisers around the world to find the
basis for concepts and language that will inspire the people of any given place to
buy a product of one particular manufacturer rather than that of another” (ibid).

3.3. CULTURE IN ELT OR WHY AND HOW WE SHOULD TEACH

CULTURE

First and foremost, teachers of English teach culture because it is a part of

the curriculum and therefore it is a compulsory element of every syllabus accepted
by The Ministry of Education. According to the curriculum, teachers are expected
to be cultural instructors, which is a new social role of teachers added to many they
already fulfil. Therefore our new task is to help students develop intercultural
competence (Bandura 2000:61), which is a very fashionable word at the time of
globalisation. We can do it by providing students with skills that help them become
sensitive and critical observers of any culture including their own (ibid), and
intercultural mediators (Bandura 2000:65). The main aim of the educational policy
now, on the threshold of joining The European Union, is the education of a citizen
of Europe who lives in a multicultural society. On the one hand he/she should
35
respect the distinctness of others but on the other hand he/she should also be aware
of his/her own identity. This concept comes from the document of the Council of
Europe called A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
( www.menis.gov.pl ).
Generally speaking, we teach culture for two reasons: “to increase cultural
awareness … and to promote cross-cultural interaction” (Tomalin and Stempleski
1996:11). The first one can be described as “sensitivity to the impact of culturally-
induced behaviour on language use and communication” and it covers factors
“conveyed not only by language”, which is quite obvious, but also “by
paralinguistic features such as gesture, facial expression”. As for cross-cultural
interaction, it has become more and more important in recent days for several
reasons: the rise in economic importance of the Pacific Rim countries, the
influence of increased immigration on curricula, the study of pragmatics and the
study of non-verbal aspects of communication (Tomalin and Stempleski 1996:5-6).
While teaching English we also teach culture because successful cross-cultural
communication demands cultural fluency as well as linguistic fluency (Tomalin
and Stempleski 1996:105). “Communication, language, and culture cannot be
separated” (ibid). “… Student must accomplish … a knowledge of the culture to
understand behaviour, not necessarily to become part of it ” (Valdes 1990:x).
However, “…second language learning in some respects involves the acquisition
of a second identity” (Brown 1990:33). “Once the second language learner comes
to understand the behaviour of the speakers of the target language, regardless of
the original motivation for study, the task of adding the language becomes far
simpler, both through acceptance of the speakers of the language and through
increased knowledge of what the language means, as well as what it says” (Valdes
1990:2). “A positive attitude is seen as a boon to any learning situation, and
comprehension of a people’s behavior patterns and their underlying values clearly
gives a more positive attitude to the person who is trying to learn that language“
(Valdes 1990:2-3).
Nowadays people travel a lot, work abroad, and change their places of living
quite frequently so it is a must to get to know other cultures. According to Brown
“in order to understand just what second culture learning is, one needs to
understand the nature of acculturation, culture shock, and social distance”. He
defines acculturation as a complex “process of becoming adapted to a new
culture” (Brown 1990:33). It requires a reorientation of thinking, feeling and
communication (ibid). As for culture shock, many experience it when exposed to
unfamiliar way of life. Then they feel disorientated, angry or lost. This can be
prevented when people get enough knowledge before because it helps fight
prejudice, stereotypes and resentment. Social distance denotes “dissimilarity
between two cultures” (Brown 1990:39).
36
 It is worth remembering that “values, attitudes and beliefs lie so deep within
the culture that they are seldom, if ever questioned” (Tomalin and Stempleski
1993:121). This is very likely to be a source of misunderstanding. Familiarizing
with foreign symbols or images “helps students to feel more confident and to
become more fluent”, this is also very motivating and can “stimulate students’
intellectual curiosity” (Tomalin and Stempleski 1993:15). “They are then better
prepared to communicate with native speakers and handle everyday situations they
are likely to encounter in Englishspeaking countries”.
While teaching culture we should try to find both similarities and differences
between our own culture and a foreign culture. It helps appreciate and be more
aware of our own heritage. At the same time it teaches tolerance as well.
While teaching culture we should remember not only what we want to teach but
also how we do it. Tomalin and Stempleski advocate a task-orientated approach,
which is characterised by co-operative learning. This means that students will work
in teams, discuss, share opinions, interpret and compare information (1993:9).
Their approach is very useful. “Good techniques for teaching culture are not easy
to find and need to be shared. After one has determined what values and behaviour
patterns need to be taught, one must determine how it may be most effectively
done” (Valdes 1990:121).

3.4. CULTURE OF ENGLAND

It is difficult to isolate the impact of English people from the generic

influence of English culture, which was dominant in the institutions and people of
the British Empire. It is also difficult to exactly define ‘English culture’, or the
characteristics of ‘Englishness’, since there was an extraordinary range of cultures
from different regions and classes of English society.
Culture of England is rich and varied; and both influences and is been
influenced by the cultures of Europe and UK. It sometimes becomes difficult to
separate the culture of England from the influences of the culture of the United
Kingdom. Until recently, England was generally considered as a mild and fabled
land just out of the 1930s, which was home of the country pub, post office and
vicarage. Today it is known as one of the vibrant countries with pulsating
nightlife and great attractions, in contrast to its green and pleasant countryside
image.
From Stonehenge and Tower Bridge to Eton and Oxford, England is laden
with treasured icons of past eras. Fashion, fine dining, clubbing and shopping in

37
England rate with the world's best. The Culture of England is effected by many
aspects, most important of which include art of England, Cuisines of England,
Folklore, History, Literature, Religion and Music of England.
England Culture has come along way and has developed over several
millennia, to recent movements such as Brit Art and now encompasses a variety
of forms which include photography, painting, sculpture and performance art.
Cuisines of England also influence the England culture to a great extent. The
urbanized workers of England were in many cases cut off from regional food
traditions as the country was the first industrialized country of the world. More
recently, a new style of cooking called Modern British has emerged that
combines traditional British ingredients with foreign culinary influences.
English folklore that has evolved in England over a number of centuries is yet
another aspect that influences the Culture of England. England thrives with
folklore in all forms such as the traditional semi-mystical Arthurian legends and
semi-historical Robin Hood tales, to contemporary urban myths and facets of
crypto zoology.
Culture of England is lame till we include the heritage of the country as it
is massively affected and influenced by it. In recent years, Stonehenge has
become a focus for modern summer solstice celebrations. Though the
Stonehenge pre-dates the existence of England as a nation, it is believed by
many English people to hold an iconic place in the culture of England.
English literature has been made rich by the famous works by the popular
writer of the past like William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy
and many more. Just like literature, English music has been instrumental in
influencing the England Culture to a large extent.
The influence of the United States and Great Britain on political affairs
and international relations for the past 100 years has ensured the proliferation
and acceptance of English as the primary spoken language in many countries.
The widespread acceptance of American pop culture also has contributed to the
primacy of the English language. A working knowledge of English is important
for diplomats and high-ranking officials in such major countries as Germany,
Japan, France, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, and Russia so they can better
understand the nuance and craft of global affairs and international diplomacy.
English is not the most widely spoken language in the world in terms of the
number of native speakers--there are many more Chinese speakers than native
English speakers--but Chinese is spoken little outside of Chinese communities,
so English is the most widespread language in the world. It is difficult to
estimate exactly how many English speakers there are, but according to one
estimate there are more than 350,000,000 native English speakers and more than
400,000,000 speakers of English as a second language (a language used in
38
everyday life, even though it is not the native language) or foreign language (a
language studied but not used much in everyday life).
However, even these numbers do not really indicate how important
English is as a world language, because less than fifteen percent of the world
population uses English. The importance of English is not just in how many
people speak it but in what it is used for. English is the major language of news
and information in the world. It is the language of business and government
even in some countries where it is a minority language. It is the language of
maritime communication and international air traffic control, and it is used even
for internal air traffic control in countries where it is not a native language.
American popular culture--primarily movies and music--carries the English
language throughout the world.
In some countries, English is the sole or dominant language. It has that
role in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
and Ireland. All of these countries are former British colonies. In other
countries, English is widely used, particularly among people who have no other
language in common, even though it is not the dominant language of the
country. For example, English is widely used in Hong Kong, Singapore,
Nigeria, the Philippines, and Malaysia. In such countries, it is often used as a
means of communication between people who have different native languages.
English is commonly used as a medium for the communication of
information and news. Three quarters of all telex messages and telegrams are
sent in English. Eighty percent of computer data are processed and stored in
English. Much satellite communication is carried in English. Five thousand
newspapers, more than half of the newspapers published in the world, are
published in English. Even in many countries where English is a minority
language, there is at least one newspaper in English. In India alone, there are
three thousand magazines published in English. In many countries, television
news is broadcast in English. Because of the power of television, demonstrators
in every country use signs printed in English for the benefit of the international
press.
English is a major language of international business, diplomacy, and
science and the professions. It is the language that an Iranian businessman and a
Japanese businessman are likely to use to communicate. Important commodities
such as silver, tin, and hard currency are traded in English. English is also an
official language, or the official language, of many international organizations,
including the United Nations and many professional organizations. It is
frequently the language of international conferences, and it is the language of
international athletics. Throughout the world, many professional papers are
published in English. Even papers that are published in other languages often
39
have abstracts in English.
Popular culture has also played an important part in spreading English.
American and British popular music are heard all over the world. American
movies are seen in almost every country. Books in English are available even in
countries where few people actually use English. One reason that students give
for learning English is to understand these songs, movies and books.
Travel.
English is also very important for international travel. Much of the
information countries disseminate about themselves outside of their borders is in
English. English is spoken in large hotels and tourist attractions, at airports, and
in shops that tourists frequent. There are newspapers printed in English, and TV
news is available in English. Tours are almost always available in English. Even
in countries where few people speak English on the street, people who work
with tourists generally speak English. In some countries even drivers of buses or
streetcars and sellers at newsstands speak English well.
In many former British colonies, English is still used in government and as
a medium of communication among people who do not have another language
in common. In some cases, it is a neutral language that is used to avoid giving
any one indigenous language too much prestige. English is often used in India,
because it is neutral. It is the language of government. People who speak
English have a certain status in society. It is used for books, music and dance. In
Singapore, English is a second language, but it is necessary for daily life. Many
companies there use English. In addition, sixteen countries in Africa have
retained English as the language of government. Now standard English is taught
in schools in those countries, because it is necessary for careers.
English is also studied as a foreign language in countries where it is not
generally used as a medium of communication. In China, English language
lessons are popular TV programs. Two hundred fifty million Chinese--more
than the population of the US--are learning English on TV. English is usually
the first or most commonly taught foreign language in many countries, and
people understand it a little at least.
As we have seen, English is a widespread and important language in the
world today. It is used for everything from international academic conferences
to news reports to popular music lyrics. It is used not only for communication
between native speakers and nonnative speakers of English but between
nonnative speakers. Even though it does not have the greatest number of
speakers in the world, it is the most widely used language in the world, and it
will be used by more people in the future.

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 3.5. AMERICAN CULTURE VS BRITISH CULTURE

There are vast differences in culture between Americans and their British
Commonwealth counterparts throughout the world.
American English is spoken in the USA, Canada and many Pacific Rim
countries where America has exerted an influence.
Queen's English is spoken throughout the British Commonwealth of 54
countries, some of the most notable being the United Kingdom, Australia, New
Zealand and South Africa, with Canada being the exception. Although part of
the Commonwealth, Canadians tend to speak a mixture of American and British
English due to that country's proximity to the USA (although they spell the
British way).
In the dictionary section, you will see how many words differ completely
between the two "languages". This is a virtual "Yank to Limey speak" dictionary
- the words are listed in alphabetical order by American English word. Or visit
the search page to find a specific word or phrase.
The driving section examines the differences in driving practices (including
an explanation of why the English drive on the left) while the drinking and
eating sections explain the very different etiquettes prevalent between the two
cultures. In the section labeled other, you will find all sorts of miscellaneous
differences including measurements, legal driving and drinking ages as well as
lifestyle differences like choice of bedding and even how toilets differ!
The FAQ (frequently asked questions) covers those often asked questions
about Commonwealthers and Americans. Questions such as why are American's
called Yanks and the English called Limeys, and where does that "bloody" word
come from the English use in every sentence?
Funny stuff covers various hilarious situations that can occur because of
the differences in language and culture.
Spelling covers that vast and confusing differences in the ways of spelling the
exact same word. Pronunciation covers the differences in the way Americans
and Commonwealthers sound certain words. Slang is a new section that covers
different slang words in the USA, England, Australia and South Africa.
Truly, the Yanks have been taking a beating on the language front for
some time now. For H.L. Mencken, Samuel Johnson’s observation sums up the
"tone of English criticism" of the "American dialect" from colonial days right
up until the time of Mencken’s own ground-breaking publication, The American
Language, in the first half of this century. It should come as no surprise to
Mencken that the "tone" has persisted, and will persist in all likelihood into the
41
next century. Indeed, in the course of giving talks on the subject of American
English to various British groups, I encounter a range of reaction, from good-
natured teasing ("what do you call that language you speak over there?") to
downright hostility. On a broader level, American English still warrants the
attention of journalists, politicians, and scholars alike in the UK, not always in a
kindly or objective way. Often it is regarded as an aberrant version of English.
Most Americans would object to this latter classification, at least given the
postwar global influence of American culture and vocabulary. Still, the rather
vociferously-expressed comment from one audience member at a recent talk -
"We gave you a perfectly good language. Why can’t you speak proper English?"
- seems not far removed from Johnson’s tone in spirit, however remote in time.
Nevertheless, it has to be admitted, as Mencken and other scholars do, that a
certain amount of this hostility Americans called down upon themselves, thanks
to statements made by the likes of John Adams and Noah Webster. Adams was
just as capable of adopting a superior tone as Johnson:
The English language has been greatly improved in Britain within a century,
but its highest perfection, with every other branch of human knowledge, is
perhaps reserved for this land of light and freedom. As the people through this
extensive country will speak English, their advantages for polishing their
language will be great, and vastly superior to what the people of England ever
enjoyed.
One cannot help but hear the slap of a gauntlet thrown down here. There
was even some talk of an American Academy, along the lines of the Academie
Française, charged with the task of preserving the purity of the language..
Then there was Noah Webster, who regarded the form of English spoken in the
British Isles as having been corrupted by the English aristocracy. Webster
worked with dogged determination to standardise and simplify the spelling of
American English. He excised extraneous vowels: colour/color; favour, favor
(although he resisted this change for quite a while in the face of Johnson’s
example). And he transposed letters, most notably the final -re: theatre/theater;
centre/center. Some of his changes remain an integral part of American spelling,
where others have failed to survive (croud, hed, giv, meen etc.).
And so the stand-off has continued, and despite the bickering between the
two major factions, an international language has been born. And, of course,
both sides would lay claim to its current world dominance. Exactly whose
language is it, this current lingua franca?
Long before the United States became a superpower, it could lay claim to
being a "land of light and freedom," there was the British Empire which set its
cultural tone on many parts of the world. Earlier still, the British Isles
themselves had been subject to invasion by Vikings and Normans/ But, as soon
42
as the English experienced their first taste of relative freedom from foreign
dominance, British English underwent a growth surge, most notably perhaps in
the period immediately preceding the colonisation of America,. In some ways,
the rapid changes in the language represent the movement toward a more unified
English identity. If the Middle English of Chaucer in the late 1300s is compared
to Shakespearean English and then again to what begins to be Modern English
in the late 1700s, the language is virtually transformed in a matter of only 400
years. Current differences between British and American English pale in
comparison: inflection is lost; verb conjugations become more uniform;
thousands of new words flood the language, some 2000 alone attributed to
Shakespeare. These are only some of the more prominent changes, as on many
levels vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling and grammatical structure shift
dramatically.
At about the time that England was experiencing this linguistic awakening,
the spirit of exploration began to take hold. Of course, this exploration and
colonization brought English to the Americas, to the southern hemisphere, to
Africa, and to South Asia. In fact, India is exceeded only by the United States
and the United Kingdom in numbers of English speakers.
The role that English literature played, both in its contribution to
vocabulary and to its contribution to world literature, cannot be overemphasized
when considering the importance of the language. The English Renaissance,
Shakespeare, and the publication of the King James Bible particularly assisted
the expansion and lent prestige to the language. And though the United States
can lay claim to a literary tradition of its own, that of the British Isles remains
unparalleled.
Yet, even if the birthplace of the language and the importance of cultural
and social contributions are considered, its usefulness as a form of international
communication depended on the number of English speakers. True enough, the
United Kingdom alone has been in the process of producing these numbers.
According to David Crystal, "between the end of the reign of Elizabeth I (1588)
and the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth II (1952) this figure [of five to seven
million living within the British Isles increased almost fifty-fold." to include
emigrants and descendants. This is an impressive increase, but Americans can
justifiably point out that the English language was not much used abroad before
its introduction in North America. Only by turning their attention outward could
the English make their full impression on the world culturally, linguistically,
and politically. Perhaps Bill Bryson puts it a bit harshly when he states that
"...without America’s contribution English today would enjoy a global
importance on a par with Portuguese," (would that make India the UK’s Brazil?)
but it seems reasonable that the almost exponential population growth of the
43
United States, along with its own brand of English, coupled with the ever-
expanding nationalistic and cultural activities of the English, were what gave the
language its current status as a means of international communication.
And what of the English exported to America? It has often been said that
the English the colonists spoke was virtually Shakespearean or, more generally,
Elizabethan. But, as J. L. Dillard points out, it would be difficult to define what
exactly Shakespearean English is, considering Shakespeare’s own variation in
spelling and vocabulary. That it is equally difficult to describe Elizabethan
English is evidenced by the varieties of regional dialect which were even more
firmly entrenched by the 17th century than they are currently. Actually, the
English did not give America "a perfectly good language," but rather a number
of good languages or at least variations on a language, and those in a period of
rather intense transition. Instead of the "two streams" or two separate languages
that Mencken originally envisaged British and American English to be, it would
be more accurate to consider Modern British English to be one result of that
period of linguistic transition, and American English to be another.
In fact English was not immediately dominant in the colonies: other languages,
such as Dutch and French, figured prominently. According to Dillard, English
was a virtual "interloper" in some regions, and "had to adapt linguistically." At
one point during the colonial period, there were 18 different languages spoken in
the Hudson River Valley alone. Scholars have frequently suggested that the later
waves of immigration to the United States explain the disparity in vocabulary
between British and American English. But it is plainly not the whole story.
Nevertheless, with other languages along with the Pidgin English common
among Native Americans, slaves, and sailors undoubtedly contributed toward
making American English as a different branch from, and not a subset of, British
English.
Although the United States is not, geographically-speaking, the colonial
power that England was, it had some direct role before this century in exporting
its own brand of English. Dillard, citing Creole scholars, Berry and Hancock,
maintains that, at least with the founding of Liberia by ex-slave repatriation, "it
seems inescapable that, in a real sense, a variety of English that was in some
sense ‘American’ was transported overseas before the period of British
domination had ended." Of course, it is in the current century that American
English has made its mark internationally. Marckwardt and Dillard highlight the
efforts of such institutions and programs as the Fulbright Commission, the
United States Information Agency, and the Peace Corps, as exporters of
American culture and English. Technology has virtually assured the dominance
of American English on a scientific as well as a popular level. With a 250
million-strong block of first language English speakers, and the rise of the
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United States as a military, industrial, and political superpower after World War
II, Americans can certainly claim a prime responsibility for boosting English to
world prominence.
The above is just an outline of how the two countries have ensured the
position of English as the international language. There have been challengers to
the title, none successful. As many gloom and doomsayers as there are
predicting the demise of English as the predominant language in the United
States, and with as much resistance to English as there is expressed in individual
countries, no change in status seems imminent.
So, "Whose language is it?" appears to be a question of no pertinence. Crystal
would give credit to the United States and its influence in the 20th century,
"much to the discomfiture of some in Britain who find the loss of historical
linguistic preeminence unpalatable." But, the world dominance of the United
States rests partially on what the British had achieved in the 19th century. With
as many theories as there have been on the divergence of the "two streams of
English," it is still virtually impossible to consider them separately or even
sequentially. It is true that the use of English predates the European settlement
of America, but it has gained impetus concurrently with the rise of the United
States to international status, as well as with the rise of the United Kingdom to
that same status.
British Cultural Studies, or the Birmingham School (named for its founding
University of Birmingham (UK) Centre for Cultural Studies) is a broad-ranging
interdisciplinary approach that has existed for several decades, running more or
less parallel to AS, fulfilling some of its functions but differing in significant
ways. The school has made major contributions to literary and historical theory,
the ethnography of urban sub-cultures, popular culture and media studies,
women's studies, and to ethnic studies, among other areas. In its current
incarnation, it is perhaps best represented by Stuart Hall who combines
theoretical models and insights drawn from marxism, post-structuralism, critical
race theory and feminism with tools drawn from the disciplines of sociology,
history, ethnography, and media studies. Hall also follows the school's tradition
of aiming his scholarship as directly as possible into current arenas of political
contestation. Through the work of people like Hall, Raymond Williams, Dick
Hebdige, Angela McRobbie, and others, British Cultural Studies has long
influenced individual AS scholars.
In the late 80s and early 90s the term "cultural studies" (indebted to but not
synonymous with the British school) gained great prominence, emerging as an
important, contested concept in American scholarship. "Cultural studies" is
sometimes portrayed as a "British invasion" akin to the arrival of the Beatles and
the Stones in the 1960s. This is a useful idea only if one notes that, like the texts
45
created by the original, musical "invasion", cultural studies is deeply rooted in
already existing US texts. Thus I would argue that the label "cultural studies"
(without the Brit prefix) as currently used exceeds and partly precedes the
"British invasion" component. "Cultural studies" is a useful term to describe the
coalescence of interdsciplines like ethnic studies, women's studies and
les/bi/gay/queer studies with various post-poststructuralist currents in literary
cum textual studies. I think it should describe a more politically grounded
moment using, but arguing against the philosophical idealism of, much
poststructuralist-influenced cultural analysis. In the US the term seems to
represent a desire to combine the "textualist" turn of much recent theory with
greater respect for sociological and ethnographic approaches to putatively extra-
linguistic structures; it is also sometines used as an over-arching term to
designate a new interdisciplinary alternative to traditional work in the
humanities and social sciences, particularly one that draws on the strengths of
emerging scholarship on and by previously marginalized social groups. The
cultural studies tradition was first adapted, adopted and institutionalized in the
US by sites like the History of Consciousness Program at UC Santa Cruz,
Stanford's Program on Modern Thought, and the Center for the Study of 20th
Century Culture at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; in the early 1990s a
number of new graduate and undergraduate programs in cultural studies
emerged and a number of American Studies programs were revitalized by
attempts to incorporate some of this new work.

3.6. BORROWED TRADITIONS IN ROMANIA

In the recent decades, due to the media and the internet, we are witnessing
an intrusion of customs and traditions that are not hundred percent Romanian
but rather traditions which tend to gain a sense of globalization, being as well
heavily marketed. Besides Romanian authentic customs there slipped a lot of
customs taken from western culture, especially British and American customs
that the young generation starts to assimilate and celebrate.
Such customs are Valentine’s Day, Halloween, April Fool’s Day, Mother’s Day,
Christmas, New Year and Easter traditions that are not authentic and that have
merged with the Romanian ones.
Saint Valentine's Day festival is celebrated in a big way in countries around the
world ! It is interesting to note that the popularity of this ancient festival has
grown several folds and is said to be increasing by the year as more and more
46
people are getting influenced by idea of celebrating love and lovers. The present
generation holds the festival in high regard and celebrates the day by expressing
love not just to their sweethearts but everyone they hold dear and special.
Valentine's Day Festival is said to have originated in pagan times when
people celebrated February 14 in honor of Roman God of Fertility. This
February fertility festival celebration that also marked the beginning of spring
was known as the Feast of Lupercalia. In such festivals boys drew out names of
girls from a box. They would then be regarded as a couple for a year. Sometimes
these couples would fall in love and even marry. Christian Church decided to
turn the pagan event into Christian celebrations in honor of St Valentine.
Gradually, people began to celebrate February 14 by expressing love for their
sweethearts.
In the 14th century Valentine's Day began to be celebrated with loved ones
and a large feast was organized to mark the day. In 16th century began the
custom of exchanging gifts between lovers with the passing of paper Valentine.
Initially, Valentine's Day cards were usually handmade and given anonymously.
During the 1800s much larger hand-painted copperplates molded in the shape of
hearts replaced paper e-cards. In later years, the copperplates gradually gave
way to woodcuts and carvings and lithographs. By the middle of the 18th
century, Valentine's Day become popular amongst the masses and it became a
common tradition for all social classes to secretly exchange small tokens of
lover or handwritten love notes called Valentine. In 19th century began the
custom of sending mass-produced Valentine's Day greeting cards.
In present times, Valentine's Day Festival celebrations are massive in
several countries across the globe. The festival has emerged as a popular dating
and gift-giving festival and therefore has a major social and economic
significance. It may be noted that Valentine's Day started as a romantic festival
but today the festival has increased in scope. These days, Valentine's Day is
essentially regarded as festival that celebrates love between individuals and not
just lovers. People therefore wish ‘Happy Valentine's Day' to parents, teachers,
siblings, friends or any other person special to them.
Though there are various traditions and customs associated with the festival,
the most popular way of celebrating Valentines Day is by expressing love to
sweethearts and dear ones with an exchange of gifts. Some of the most
traditional Valentine's Day gifts exchanged between lovers are fresh flowers,
chocolates and cards. Jewelry is also fast emerging as the most sought after
Valentine's Day gift for women. In the modern technologically advanced age,
exchange of text messages between friends and loved ones has become a norm.
Going on dates with beloved is the other major way of celebrating
Valentine's Day Festival. Restaurants see a busy time as people celebrate the
47
day of romance with a candle light dinner. People also participate in Valentine's
Day dance parties and balls organized by various clubs and hotels. Private
parties are also organized in homes and farmhouses where young and the old
have a blast. Some couple use the occasion to propose their beloved while some
chose to get engaged on the festival that celebrates love and lovers.
Halloween is children’s favourite holiday because their imagination is tested and
it is set free, it is the moment when borders are broken and the rules of
conventional dressing are broken.
The word itself, "Halloween," actually has its origins in the Catholic
Church. It comes from a contracted corruption of All Hallows Eve. November 1,
"All Hollows Day" (or "All Saints Day"), is a Catholic day of observance in
honor of saints. But, in the 5th century BC, in Celtic Ireland, summer officially
ended on October 31. The holiday was called Samhain (sow-en), the Celtic New
year.
One story says that, on that day, the disembodied spirits of all those who
had died throughout the preceding year would come back in search of living
bodies to possess for the next year. It was believed to be their only hope for the
afterlife. The Celts believed all laws of space and time were suspended during
this time, allowing the spirit world to intermingle with the living.
Naturally, the still-living did not want to be possessed. So on the night of
October 31, villagers would extinguish the fires in their homes, to make them
cold and undesirable. They would then dress up in all manner of ghoulish
costumes (similar to today's Halloween costumes), and noisily parade around
the neighborhood, being as destructive as possible in order to frighten away
spirits looking for bodies to possess.
Probably a better explanation of why the Celts extinguished their fires was
not to discourage spirit possession, but so that all the Celtic tribes could relight
their fires from a common source, the Druidic fire that was kept burning in the
Middle of Ireland, at Usinach.
Some accounts tell of how the Celts would burn someone at the stake who was
thought to have already been possessed, as sort of a lesson to the spirits. Other
accounts of Celtic history debunk these stories as myth.
The Romans adopted the Celtic practices as their own. But in the first
century AD, Samhain was assimilated into celebrations of some of the other
Roman traditions that took place in October, such as their day to honor Pomona,
the Roman goddess of fruit and trees. The symbol of Pomona is the apple, which
might explain the origin of our modern tradition of bobbing for apples on
Halloween.
In Greek mythology, goddesses of the underworld were often used to
invoke the Samhain. Popular Greek Goddess costumes portray Hecate and
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Medusa. Hecate was the most favored goddess by Zeus, and wandered the
emptiness between the worlds of life and death looking for souls of the dead.
Both were considered serpent goddesses, and their ancient dark legends
spawned myths such as vampires, who fed off the living using venom and
snake-like fangs. Ritualistic dress includes snake adornments and three headed
masks. Today, Hecate is often referred to as the goddess of witches.
The thrust of the practices also changed over time to become more
ritualized. As belief in spirit possession waned, the practice of dressing up like
hobgoblins, ghosts, and witches took on a more ceremonial role.
The custom of Halloween was brought to America in the 1840's by Irish
immigrants fleeing their country's potato famine. At that time, the favorite
pranks in New England included tipping over outhouses and unhinging fence
gates.
The custom of trick-or-treating is thought to have originated not with the
Irish Celts, but with a ninth-century European custom called souling. On
November 2, All Souls Day, early Christians would walk from village to village
begging for "soul cakes," made out of square pieces of bread with currants. The
more soul cakes the beggars would receive, the more prayers they would
promise to say on behalf of the dead relatives of the donors. At the time, it was
believed that the dead remained in limbo for a time after death, and that prayer,
even by strangers, could expedite a soul's passage to heaven.
The Jack-o-lantern custom probably comes from Irish folklore. As the tale
is told, a man named Jack, who was notorious as a drunkard and trickster,
tricked Satan into climbing a tree. Jack then carved an image of a cross in the
tree's trunk, trapping the devil up the tree. Jack made a deal with the devil that,
if he would never tempt him again, he would promise to let him down the tree.
According to the folk tale, after Jack died, he was denied entrance to
Heaven because of his evil ways, but he was also denied access to Hell because
he had tricked the devil. Instead, the devil gave him a single ember to light his
way through the frigid darkness. The ember was placed inside a hollowed-out
turnip to keep it glowing longer.
The Irish used turnips as their "Jack's lanterns" originally. But when the
immigrants came to America, they found that pumpkins were far more plentiful
than turnips. So the Jack-O-Lantern in America was a hollowed-out pumpkin, lit
with an ember.
So, although some cults may have adopted Halloween as their favorite
"holiday," the day itself did not grow out of evil practices. It grew out of the
rituals of Celts celebrating a new year, and out of Medieval prayer rituals of
Europeans. And today, even many churches have parties complete with
Halloween costumes or pumpkin carving events for the kids. After all, the day
49
itself is only as evil as one cares to make it.
Another international holiday borrowed from the outside is Mother’s Day.
In the U.S. Mothers' Day is a holiday celebrated on second Sunday in May. It is
a day when children honor their mothers with cards, gifts, flowers, and mother's
rings. First observance in Philadelphia, Pa. in 1907, it is based on suggestions by
Julia Ward Howe in 1872 and Anna Jarvis in 1907.
Although it wasn't celebrated in the U.S. until 1908, there were days
honoring mothers even in the days of ancient Greece. In those days, however, it
was Rhea, the Mother of the gods that was given honor.
Later, in the 1600's, in England there was an annual observance called
"Mothering Sunday." It was celebrated during Lent, on the fourth Sunday. On
Mothering Sunday, the servants, who generally lived with their employers, were
encouraged to return home and honor their mothers. It was traditional for them
to bring a special cake along to celebrate the occasion.
In the U.S., in 1908 Ana Jarvis, from Grafton, West Virginia, began a
campaign to establish a national Mother's Day. Jarvis persuaded her mother's
church in Grafton, West Virginia to celebrate Mother's Day on the anniversary
of her mother's death. A memorial service was held there on May 10, 1908 and
in Philadelphia the following year where Jarvis moved.
Jarvis and others began a letter-writing campaign to ministers, businessmen,
and politicians in their quest to establish a national Mother's Day. They were
successful. President Woodrow Wilson, in 1914, made the official
announcement proclaiming Mother's Day a national observance that was to be
held each year on the 2nd Sunday of May.
Many other countries of the world celebrate their own Mother's Day at
different times throughout the year. Denmark, Finland, Italy, Turkey, Australia,
and Belgium celebrate Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May, as in the
U.S.
A fun holiday is April Fool’s Day. Unlike most of the other nonfoolish
holidays, the history of April Fool's Day, sometimes called All Fool's Day, is
not totally clear. It is not like Halloween, where despite an interesting history,
most people just put on Halloween costumes, get candy, and leave it at that.
There really wasn't a "first April Fool's Day" that can be pinpointed on the
calendar. Some believe it sort of evolved simultaneously in several cultures at
the same time, from celebrations involving the first day of spring.
The closest point in time that can be identified as the beginning of this
tradition was in 1582, in France. Prior to that year, the new year was celebrated
for eight days, beginning on March 25. The celebration culminated on April 1.
With the reform of the calendar under Charles IX, the Gregorian Calendar was
introduced, and New Year's Day was moved to January 1.
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 However, communications being what they were in the days when news
traveled by foot, many people did not receive the news for several years. Others,
the more obstinate crowd, refused to accept the new calendar and continued to
celebrate the new year on April 1. These backward folk were labeled as "fools"
by the general populace. They were subject to some ridicule, and were often sent
on "fools errands" or were made the butt of other practical jokes.
This harassment evolved, over time, into a tradition of prank-playing on the
first day of April. The tradition eventually spread to England and Scotland in the
eighteenth century. It was later introduced to the American colonies of both the
English and French. April Fool's Day thus developed into an international fun
fest, so to speak, with different nationalities specializing in their own brand of
humor at the expense of their friends and families.
In Scotland, for example, April Fool's Day is actually celebrated for two
days. The second day is devoted to pranks involving the posterior region of the
body. It is called Taily Day. The origin of the "kick me" sign can be traced to
this observance.
Mexico's counterpart of April Fool's Day is actually observed on December
28. Originally, the day was a sad remembrance of the slaughter of the innocent
children by King Herod. It eventually evolved into a lighter commemoration
involving pranks and trickery.
Pranks performed on April Fool's Day range from the simple, (such as
saying, "Your shoe's untied, or I accidentally stepped on your glasses!), to the
elaborate. Setting a roommate's alarm clock back an hour is a common gag.
Whatever the prank, the trickster usually ends it by yelling to his victim, "April
Fool!"
Practical jokes are a common practice on April Fool's Day. Sometimes,
elaborate practical jokes are played on friends or relatives that last the entire
day. The news media even gets involved. For instance, a British short film once
shown on April Fool's Day was a fairly detailed documentary about "spaghetti
farmers" and how they harvest their crop from the spaghetti trees.
April Fool's Day is a "for-fun-only" observance. Nobody is expected to buy
gifts or to take their "significant other" out to eat in a fancy restaurant. Nobody
gets off work or school. It's simply a fun little holiday, but a holiday on which
one must remain forever vigilant, for he may be the next April Fool!
Another borrowed traditions are the Easter Bunny, sending greeting cards
on Christmas and on New Year’s Eve, traditions that have been adopted and
turned into something of our own.
Traditions and holidays are very important everywhere in the world, not
only in Romania or England because they connect future generations with the
past. No matter what age we are, traditions of holidays past and present give us
51
 something all to enjoy and look forward to. Every family has its own favorite
holiday rituals, from simple things like making specific cookie recipes and
hanging decorations from Christmases of the past, to having elaborate family
reunions.
As the child grows, holiday traditions become very important. Linda Gulyn,
a professor of psychology at Marymount University who specializes in child
development, emphasizes the importance of family traditions for children,
saying that they place importance on certain rituals, not because of their
meaning, but because of the relational experiences that help them bond with
their family members. Recent surveys have found that adults continue traditions
they experienced as children, such as making specific foods and watching
certain holiday television specials, because a major portion of their childhood
memories are based around holiday experiences.

CHAPTER 4

LESSON PLANS

The role of a teacher in a society is very important that’s why every teacher
should make use of the values a society is transmitting and at the same time to
keep up with the changes a modern society is bringing. Here are some examples of
lesson plans that should be integrated in every ELT teacher’s planning.

4.1. Title - The Importance of Tradition and History

Grade Level – 5
Description: This activity is designed to help students understand the importance of
tradition and culture. To help them better understand why we should not forget our
past and culture but embrace it.
Time Required: 50 min.
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Goal: Students will have a better understanding and respect for traditional culture
and keeping culture alive in the present day world.
Objectives: Students will be able to
Be able to identify cultural or family secrets (recipes, arts and crafts, words and
ways of speaking…) which has been passed down through the generations
Identify why these aspects and traditions in their life as important
Make his/her own basket filled with cultural or family secrets (or just anything
they feel is important) that they do not want to forget or lose over time
Background Information: No background information is needed for this lesson
plan. This activity can be used with students at lower or higher levels and helps the
students explore aspects of their own and others lives which they may have never
thought about.
Concepts: Students will be able to
1. identify traditions in family life and society
2. identify differences between cultures and ideas of other students
3. learn to respect the differences of others
4. understand the importance of history and tradition
Materials:
Jonathan London’s The Village Basket Weaver (book)
Scissors
Copy paper with a large basket drawn on it
Crayons
Procedure:
Teacher will:
1. Before reading story ask students if there is anything (traditions, games,
concepts) they would not want to forget about or lose over time
2. Read story
3. After reading the story let children discuss why the village needed the tradition
of basket weaving to continue.
4. Ask the students what they think would happen to the people of the village if
they forgot how to make the basket and other traditions
5. Hand out paper with Basket outline on it along with scissors and crayons
6. Explain to children that they will be making their own basket and be putting one
idea/tradition in it they do not want to lose or forget about
Children will:
1. Color basket first
2. Cut out basket
3. Write their personal tradition/ideas on the back of the basket
Assessment:

53
Students will present their basket to the class and explain why they chose what
they did to place in the basket.
Teachers will hang the baskets when the school day is over, so the kids can see
them when they return the next day, displaying their thoughts and values on their
own traditions/ideas.

4.2. Title:  St. Valentine's Day

Grade Level: 6
Time Required: 50 min.
The main aim of the lesson is to develop creative activity of the students:
1. Some spots of St. Valentine's Day history.  Students have a talk about it.
2. Adding to the song "And I Love Her" ("The Beatles") and writing down the
missed words in the typed text of the song.  The song is listened to three times.
3. The literary translations of the poem by Jack Prelutsky "It's Valentine's Day"
into Romanian and choosing the best variant (students made it on special sheets
using pictures)
4. Discussing the meaning of the word "love": 1 The definition of Collins Cobuild.
Young learner's dictionary. 2 Students are to continue the phrase "Love is..." using
the poem "Love is..." and trying to express own thoughts.
5. Drilling of the phrases with the word 'love" such as "to fall in love with smb",
"to be badly in love" etc.  Students make own sentences and short stories to
illustrate the meaning of the phrase.
6. Poem by Jack Prelutsky "I love you more than applesauce" : reading,
understanding and creating own poem "I love you more than..."
7. The results of the competition for the best St. Valentine's card.
8. The best transformation of the poem:
Roses are red, Violets are blue, Honey is sweet and So are you" -
students take the first and the last lines and their create own poem.
9. Any song about love ( e.g. "Every night..." )
10. Results of the lesson

4.3. Title - Create A Holiday

Grade Level – 7
Time Required: 50 min.
Instead of merely asking what you favorite holiday is and why, it is much more
enjoyable if students create their own holiday. With a partner, they should be able
to select a date and a theme for the holiday. Included in the project are the

54
following:
1. Purpose of holiday?
2. Decorations? What are colors of holiday?
3. Is gift giving involved?
4. What symbol would represent the holiday? (Santa for Christmas; Halloween has
pumpkins, ghosts, goblins; etc)
5. Is it an international holiday?
6. Is in a Romanian only holiday?
The inspiration is Festivus. Fans of Seinfeld will remember George's father's
holiday which included a metal pole, the airing of the grievances, and a feats of
strength competition.
Requirements: must be made into a booklet. (Merely folding paper in half with
symbol on front cover.)
Inside of booklet:  Date of holiday
           Purpose of holiday  
Foods for feast
           Background, history of holiday
           Booklets should be colorful!
Extra Credit is obtained through the making of a greeting card for that holiday.

4.4. Title - Mother's Day

Grade Level - 6
Time Required: 50 min.
1. Mother’s Day Poem
Have students use the letters of MOTHER to create an acrostic. These poems can
be illustrated and framed or placed inside a special hand-crafted Mother’s Day
card!
Here is an example:
"M" is for the million things she gave me,
"O" means only that she's growing old,
"T" is for the tears she shed to save me,
"H" is for her heart of purest gold;
"E" is for her eyes, with love-light shining,
"R" means right, and right she'll always be,
Put them all together, they spell
"MOTHER,"

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A word that means the world to me.
2. Breakfast in Bed Menu:
Have students plan a breakfast menu for mom for Mother’s Day. Have them make
a list of things they need to buy to make their mom’s breakfast and create a
breakfast scroll to go on her breakfast tray.
3. Vouchers for Activities:
Sometimes the nicest gifts are gifts of time and caring. Have students each prepare
a booklet of twelve vouchers for "free" labor for mom. She may use them any time
she needs them. Here are some examples from a sixth grade class.
Walk the dog voucher
Baby-sit my little brother voucher
Feed the goldfish voucher
Take out the garbage voucher
Do the dishes voucher
Set the table voucher
Make dinner voucher
Vacuum the house voucher
"You name the task" voucher
4. Mother’s Day Resolutions
Have students create Mother’s Day Resolutions for the members of their family.
Here are some examples from a junior grade class.
I hereby resolve to make my own bed; pick up my clothes; and take out the trash
the first time Mom asks.
Dad hereby resolves to compliment Mom on every meal she cooks, and will
regularly release her from kitchen duty by preparing a Mother’s Day dinner for the
family.
I hereby resolve to take back to the kitchen all the knives, forks, spoons, plates
cups and mugs I have somehow accumulated under my bed, in the car and in my
tree house.
I hereby resolve to conquer the monsters who have taken over our backyard. I will
pull those weeds, prune those bushes and cut that grass before it grows over the
house!
I hereby resolve to walk around Mom's flowerbeds instead of through them. And
I'll never, ever kick the tops off the rose bushes again.
I hereby resolve to help Dad paint the trim over the garage.
I hereby resolve to remove the French Fries Tots from the box before sticking them
into the oven, thereby reducing stress for Mom. I will also stop drinking juice from
the carton and I will not put empty milk cartons back into the fridge.
5. A Card for Mother
At this center, locate a variety of craft supplies. Have the students design their own
56
Mother's Day cards using this material.
6. A Portrait of the Family:
Locate family paintings at this center. Have the children each paint a picture of
their family. Have them write a brief description of the members of their family. If
they wish to include grandparents or exclude absentee parents, do not discourage
them. This is their vision of their family. Praise individual differences.
7. Mother’s Day Coffee Cup:
Purchase china markers and plain coffee mugs. Have the children design in crayon
a band which is the same height and circumference as their coffee mug. When they
are satisfied with their design, have them copy it onto the coffee mug using china
base markers. These designs, when dried, are dishwasher safe! For younger
students, you can purchase mugs which allow the student to fit his finished crayon
design into the cup and snap the upper rim in place. This avoids the use of
permanent markers! The cups are more expensive and not as durable.
8. Mother’s Day Wrapping Paper:
Have the students cut a design into a potato half. Then have them dip the potato
print block into liquid tempera or a stamp pad and stamp the design onto craft
paper or tissue paper or newsprint. Have them use the completed wrapping paper
to wrap their Mother’s Day gift. The same technique may be used on long sheets of
white mural paper to make table cloths for Mother’s Day dinner.
9. The Cat’s Meow!:
Have the students use a modeling base of equal parts of plaster of Paris and
sawdust poured into a one liter milk carton. Let dry overnight and remove the
carton. Have them sculpt the block into a cat or other shape for a Mother's Day
sculpture. The completed sculptures may be sprayed with clear shellac, painted and
sprayed, spray painted or antiqued with brown shoe polish.
10. The Big Book of Mothers:
Have the class create a Big Book by each painting a picture to go with a caption
starting "Mothers are..." In order to avoid repetition, you may wish to start this
activity during the whole group session and have each child select which caption
he/she is going to illustrate. Place the Big Book in the school or classroom library
and allow each child to take it home for sharing.

4.5. Title - Halloween Computer Lesson Plan - Party Planner Set

Grade Level - 5
Time Required: 50 min.
Aim

57
To make a complete set of Halloween party invitations, Halloween name labels,
Halloween stickers, Halloween envelopes
Resources
Computer, Halloween clipart, paper, envelopes, sheets of stickers, card, color
printer
What to do
1. Making a Halloween invitation
Open your favorite word processor or desktop publishing program such as
Microsoft Word or Publisher.
Type in the following invitation details.
Invitation
<insert name here> invites you to the
Scariest Halloween Party
Of the Season
Maybe a treat or even a trick or two… awaits you.
Remember to RSVP by
<insert date here> to <insert name and number here>
Add clipart and adjust the font to a scary looking style to fit in with the Halloween
theme.
If you are printing on plain paper, you might like to add a border and color the
writing.
Save your file as “Halloween invitation”.
2. Halloween envelopes
Open Microsoft Word.
Go to the Tools menu and find Envelopes and Labels.
Choose the correct size for the envelopes you have bought.
In the wizard, fill in the return details of the sender.
Find a Halloween clipart that suits and add it to the front of the envelope.
Print off your blank part envelopes ready to place you invitations in.
Save as “Halloween envelopes”.
3. Halloween Name Labels – Know your ghouls
Open Microsoft Word.
Go to the Tools menu and find Envelopes and Labels.
Choose the correct size for the labels you have bought – personally I prefer Avery
labels.
In the wizard, fill in the people’s names and add a little picture to finish of the look
of the name labels.
Set the color of the font so that it shows clearly on the white name labels.
Send to your printer.
Save as “Halloween name labels”.
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4. Halloween stickers – For prizes etc
Open Microsoft Word.
Go to the Tools menu and find Envelopes and Labels.
Choose the correct size for the sticker labels
Some sticker sheets have special layouts so you may need to set the margins. You
may choose to use small square Avery labels instead.
Add Halloween images and maybe titles such as Best Costume, Scariest Witch, etc
Set the color of the font so that it shows clearly on the sticker labels.
Send to your printer.
Save as “Halloween stickers”

4.6. Title - April Fool's Day

Grade Level - 8
Time Required: 50 min.
Aims:
To give intensive reading practice
To give freer speaking practice
To give free writing practice
Assumptions:
That the studens will be interested in the topic of April Fool's Day.
That the language will not be too difficult to get the overall meaning of the texts.
Anticipated Problems and Solutions:
Some of the vocabulary may be challenging - dictionaries on hand/ meaning from
context tasks.
Structures - have a good look at the texts you want to use. You may want to
provide tasks focusing on the vocab & language with each text.
Procedure
Stage 1 - Intro to the theme of April Fool's Day through the 'fool' quotations
1. Elicit the vocab: a fool, foolish, to act the fool.
2. Handout the quotes & in pairs read & discuss the ones they like.
3. Feedback - class - elicit their faves & discuss why. Ask if they know any in their
own language?
4. Introduce/elicit April Fool's Day - maybe through the day they celebrate in their
country to play pranks on each other. Elicit what kind of things are done on a day
like this. During this introduce vocab connected to the lexical set: to play a joke on,
a prank, to be taken in, gullible, etc....
Stage 2 - Reading

59
1. Explain the activity - the stds read one of the past pranks, work on the text, &
then get together with other stds to explain their prank & rank them in order of
imaginativeness, effectiveness, fun etc..- a jigsaw activity.
2. Handout texts - studens in pairs read & help each other with comprehension -
poss. have dictionaries on hand. You could add comprehension & vocab tasks at
the end of each text. Be on hand to help out when all else fails.
Stage 3 - Jigsaw speaking activity
1. Put studens into two or three different groups - each having read a different text,
depending how many you have in the group. The studens explain their stories &
then together they rank them. Also encourage them to write down new vocab they
learned from each other.
2. When they have an order either get one std to go to the other group to explain
the order & justifications or go back to the original pairs & they compare what they
have heard & their group's orderings.
3. Feedback - on both the task achievement & the language, both difficulties &
good things that came up.
Stage 4 - Stds design their own April Fool's joke
1. Set up the activity, explaining that they are going to design their own & write a
report of it for all to read & then put them on the walls to vote on most
imaginative.
2. In small groups/pairs stds discuss & write - be on hand if needed.
3. Stick up reports on walls - stds wander round reading each others.
4. Vote on best - could be done informally in a class discussion.

4.7. Title - Halloween

Grade Levels – 7-8
Time Required: 50 min.
Materials: Wrapped Candy, Small paper bags, Markers, Paper.
Procedures
Write the following words in large letters on a piece of paper and tape the paper up
where everyone can see it: HALLOWEEN, CANDY, WITCH, PARTY, GHOST,
TRICK OR TREAT, and PUMPKIN.
Give each student a bag with ten pieces of wrapped candy in it.
Have the players write their names on their bags so that the bags don't get mixed
up.
Instruct students to sit in pairs on the floor with their bags of candy in their laps.
Read the rules for the Halloween Word Game aloud:

60
The object of the game is to avoid saying the words: HALLOWEEN, CANDY,
WITCH, PARTY, GHOST, TRICK OR TREAT, or PUMPKIN when discussing a
topic selected by the teacher.
Every student must talk about the topic --staying silent or discussing something
else is not an option.
If a student says any of the Halloween words by mistake she must give one piece
of candy to her partner.
The person with the most candy in his bag at the end of the game is the winner.
Start the game by reading the first prompt:
PROMPT #1: An alien rings your doorbell on Halloween night and asks you what
is going on. Describe Halloween for him.
PROMPT #2: Describe five activities that people do on Halloween.
PROMPT #3: You are having a Halloween party and you need to get your friends
to help you decorate the room. They have no idea what to do and you need to
instruct them. What would you say?
It should be a challenge for students to discuss these topics without using any of
the forbidden words. A lot of candy exchanging should happen during the game.
End the game when student tire of it, (or when the whistle sounds to move on to
another activity). Remind students that everyone gets to keep any candy they have
left in their bags at the end.

4.8. Title - Winter Holidays

Grade Level: 8
Time Required: 50 min.
Introduction
This lesson provides students with an opportunity to learn about the traditions of
various winter holidays.
Objectives
Students will understand that most winter holidays are associated with an
important object that gives light.
Students will study the origin and customs of several winter holidays such as
Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, and the Winter Solstice.
Students will create individual holidays that celebrate someone or something that is
important to them.
Materials
Copies of Winter Holidays Article, Vocabulary Worksheet, and Winter Holidays
Chart
Pictures of a menorah, kinara, Advent wreath, Christmas tree
61
Pictures of winter and summer
Procedures
Introduce and define key vocabulary: heritage, anticipation, Menorah, Kinara,
Advent wreath, Winter Solstice, Kwanzaa, Hanukkah, Christmas.
Have students read the Winter Holidays Article individually or in pairs. Have them
fill in the Vocabulary Worksheet.
Ask the students to think of various customs and traditions associated with
holidays throughout the year. Have them fill in the Winter Holidays Chart.
Tell the students they are individually responsible for creating a new holiday
celebrating something or someone that is very important to them. Students may
include illustrations if time permits, but they must include:
Why their holiday is meaningful.
What people can do to celebrate their holiday.
Significant songs, games, or recipes that will be associated with their holiday.
Display the students' holiday descriptions in the classroom.
Assessment
Have students discuss the differences and similarities of the four winter holidays
described in the article.
Students should be able to define key vocabulary.
Students should be able to fill in the Winter Holidays Chart using clues from the
class discussion and Winter Holidays Article.
Students should be able to identify the history and traditions of various holidays.
Extension Activities
Challenge students to create their own Holiday Chart with different column titles.
Students can switch charts with a partner.
Have students write in their journals about why respect for each other's beliefs is
important. You may introduce the term divergent thinking.

4.9. Title - Christmas

Grade Level: 6
Time Required: 50 min.
Aims:
To give freer speaking practice
To give reading practice
To introduce some vocabulary & traditions connected to Christmas celebrations
Assumptions:
That the group will be interested in Christmas traditions

62
Anticipated Problems and Solutions:
The texts might prove to be challenging in terms of the vocabulary >> pre-teach
crucial stuff, meaning from context task for the other interesting items & ignore the
remainder.
The Xmas wish letter might not go down well with all groups.
Aids:
Texts - x 4 on aspects of Xmas & the jokes taken with permission from Crew's
Nest web site
Accompanying comprehension tasks
Accompanying chart for the info exchange
Procedure
Stage 1 - Lead in - sink stds into the theme of Xmas - jokes
1. Tell one of the jokes below.
2. Handout the reindeer joke matching - pairwork.
3. Handout a joke to each std & they tell each other in pairs.
4. Elicit if they know any jokes themselves.
5. Stds tell you about their Xmas traditions.
Stage 2 - Xmas vocabulary - brainstorm
1. Brainstorm - stds throw out all words connected to Xmas. This would be an
opportunity for you to pre-teach any vocab from the text that you deem necessary.
Stage 3 - Reading
1. Put stds into four groups - handout copies of each text - one version per group.
2. Stds read & write four questions for each other to check understanding. It would
probably be a good idea to have dictionaries a hand.
3. In their groups they hand round their questions & answer them, getting back to
the question writer, clarifying any problems. You could be going round & sorting
out any problems.
4. Handout the chart & they fill in for their text.
5. Make sure that each group is OK with their texts.
Stage 4 - Information exchange
1. Explain the activity - that you will put them in groups of four & each member of
the group will have a different text. The aim is to find out if their are any
similarities with the dates & to generally find out as much information as possible
about the different aspects - the chart is to help them focus - check instructions.
2. Group the stds & the discuss & exchange. Take notes while they are doing the
activity.
3. Regroup the stds back to their individual groups to compare ideas & completed
charts.
4. General content feedback - any similarities in dates, anything new that didn't
know before, anything similar in their countries & could develop into a good
63
discussion on altruistic behaviour re. St Nicholas, etc.
5. Linguistic feedback - pick up on some general +/- areas from your notes.
Stage 5 - Follow up activities:
Letter writing - depending on the group! - 20 mins
1. Introduce the idea of a letter to Father Xmas or the Kings - do they have it etc..
2. Handout letter outline & stds write their own. Go round & help out.
3. When all finished pin on the walls, all read & decide on best/most convincing
letter..
Roleplay with Santa
1. Stds brainstorm questions they would like to ask Santa if they had the chance.
2. Designate who takes on Santa roles & others interview.
Presents
1. Stds think what would be a suitable present for each of their classmates,
including you. They write these each down on slips of paper.
2. Stds, & you, mingle & give out the papers, the presents, to everyone & at the
same time wishing each other a happy Christmas.

4.10.Title - The Christmas Tree

Grade Level – 5
Time Required: 50 min.
Objectives:
Students will recognize that the Christmas tree is one symbol of Christmas.
Students will demonstrate their ability to identify symbols.
Students will compare the lightstock (Christmas pyramid) with the Paradise tree.
Students will apply their knowledge about the history of ornaments.
Students will analyze and observe evergreen samples.
Students will use and demonstrate their mapping skills.
world map or globe
picture of the Christmas pyramid
music to "O Christmas Tree"
The Christmas Tree by Daniel Foley
samples of evergreens (pine, spruce, fir, cedar)
Procedures:
A. Brainstorm. Ask students to think about some of the possible symbols for
Christmas and the Christmas tree. Write these on the board.
B. Think-Pair-Share. Have students think about Christmas trees they have seen or
have helped decorate. Have them think specifically about the ways in which the
trees were decorated (tinsel, garland, ornaments, lights). Have students pair up and
64
share their ideas with a partner. Call on some of the students to share with the
entire class. After the students have been given the background information on the
Christmas tree, have them write down some similarities and differences between
the first tree and the trees of today on a piece of paper.
C. Mini-lecture. Explain to students that the Christmas tree is a symbol for the
Christian holiday of Christmas. The Christmas tree we know today came from two
German traditions: the Paradise tree, and the lightstock (Christmas pyramid). Show
the students where Germany and the Rhine River are on the world map or globe.
Share with the students the information of the Paradise tree and the Christmas
pyramid. Talk with students about the symbolism of the evergreen, apples, wafers,
and candles. Explain that the German custom was spread throughout Europe,
England, and America by German settlers. Check for understanding by asking
questions about the information presented. Have students draw what they think the
Paradise tree and pyramid looked like standing next to each other.
D. Jigsaw. (This can take the place of the Mini-lecture.) Divide students into
groups of four. One person in each group will be given information on the Paradise
tree, the Christmas pyramid, the spread to England, or growth in America. Students
will read their assigned material and then meet in "expert" groups to discuss their
topic. Original groups will meet together again, and each member will share their
information. Students will be responsible for reading and teaching the information
of their own topic. The class will be given a quiz made up of questions from the
readings. A discussion will be held after so that students are able to process the
experience.
E. Four Corners. Talk to the class about the two kinds of trees: deciduous and
coniferous. Explain to the students that coniferous trees are evergreen trees.
Evergreen trees stay green all year long. Put the students into four groups. Send the
groups to four corners or stations set up in the room. At each station have a
different type of evergreen sample, such as a branch. There should also be a large
piece of paper at the station. Give the groups different colors of markers and send
them to a corner. Have the students write down observations of the evergreen.
Only allow a short amount of time then tell the students to switch stations. Have
each group go to all of the stations. After each group has been to every corner,
bring the class back to their seats. Have one person from each group stay at the last
corner and read what was on the lists. Talk about the answers and different
characteristics of the evergreens.
F. Hands-on. Talk to the students about the wafers that were hung on the Paradise
tree. These wafers were later replaced by cookies. These wafers and cookies
represented the "fruits of redemption." Ask the students to describe some
ornaments they have seen in stores or on Christmas trees. Tell the students that the
ornaments which hang on trees today came from the wafers and apples that were
65
on the Paradise tree. The cookies were made out of white dough, and formed into
shapes of angels, flowers, bells, stars, and hearts. Have the students mix the
ingredients together. Then shape them into one of the previous shapes, or let
students create their own shape. Cook the cookies in the lunchroom kitchen.
G. Mapping Skills (Utah). Talk with students about the tree that was selected from
the Manti-La Sal National Forest to be the U.S. Capitol Holiday Tree for 1996. The
tree that was selected to be the "people's tree" was a 70-foot Engleman spruce. The
National Holiday Tree shows Utah's abundant natural resources, and will serve as a
symbol of hope, prosperity, and good will for people of all beliefs throughout the
holiday season. Give students information on the cities and states that the tree wil
take to the Capitol in Washington D.C. Have students mark the destinations on a
worksheet map of the United States. Draw lines in between the markers to show
the route the tree takes.
H. Music. Have the students sit in a group. Remind the students that the Christmas
tree originated in Germany. Have the words of the traditional carol "O Christmas
Tree" where the students can see them. Have the students sing the song. Tell the
students that the German version is called "O Tannenbaum."
I. Open Discussion. When the previous activities have been finished, have the
students respond to the following question. "What do you know about the
Christmas tree and its symbols?"
Assessment:
Participation in the brainstorming activity will be assessed.
Drawings of Christmas tree and Christmas pyramid will be assessed.
Participation and preparedness during jigsaw will be assessed.
Quizzes on the jigsaw information will be assessed.
Paper listing similarities and differences of early tree and modern Christmas trees
will be assessed.
Participation in making a cookie ornament will be assessed.
Wall lists of evergreen characteristics will be assessed.
Participation in four corners activity will be assessed.
Maps of the Holiday Tree journey will be assessed.
Participation of music activity will be assessed.
Answers to the discussion questions will be assessed.
Appendix:
O Christmas Tree
O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree
How lovely are your branches. Happiness we greet you.
In summer sun, in winter snow, When decked with candles once a year
A dress of green you always show, You fill our hearts with Yuletide cheer,
O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree,
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How lovely are your branches. With happiness we greet you.

4.11. Title - Father’s Day

Grade Level – 5
Time Required: 50 min.
Objectives Students will be able to do the following:
1. Identify when Father’s Day is celebrated.
2. Write a paragraph about buying a Father’s Day gift.
3. Read aloud in a group.
4. Solve a crossword puzzle using clues.
5. Understand and use words related to Father’s Day.
6. Describe things fathers do.
Warm-Up
Write the sentences on the board.
1. Father’s Day is on the third Sunday in June.
2. It is a holiday to honor fathers.
3. We give cards and gifts to our fathers and grandfathers on
Father’s Day.
4. We say: Thank you! I love you! Happy Father’s Day!
Directions: Have the students copy the sentences. Read them aloud
several times. Explain the use of capital letters. Lead the class in a
listen/repeat exercise. Select a student to read the sentences to the
class.
Introduction
Sharing: Let students know that today’s subject is Father’s Day. Tell
them that they are going to learn when Father’s Day is, how we
celebrate it, and some new vocabulary words.
Presentation
Q & A: Survey the class by asking students to raise their hands:
Who is a father? Who has a father? Who celebrates Father’s Day?
Discuss the results.
Listening: Describe your father or grandfather to the class. Elaborate
by sharing a few humorous or interesting stories.
Family Tree: Draw a simple family tree on the board.
Practice
A Present for Father: Read the story about Maria’s problem aloud to
the class. Allow 15 minutes for the students to complete the
worksheet. Review the T/F exercise together. Select one student’s
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paper, and read his or her paragraph to the class.
Presentation
Father’s Day Read Aloud: Read the worksheet to the class 2x.
Instruct the students to repeat the sentences the second time. Put the
students in small groups and have them read the worksheet to each
other. Ask for a volunteer to read to the class. Discuss the gift choices
and describe how the Internet can be used to buy Father’s Day gifts.
Practice
Vocabulary Match: Allow students to use a translator or dictionary to
complete the 20 word vocabulary exercise. Tell them they can help
each other. Pass markers around the room and have students write the
answers on the board. Review verbally. Use the words in other
sentences.
Part 2 – Writing Sentences: Instruct the students to select five of the
words in the first column and write one sentence for each word.
Collect their papers, shuffle them, and randomly read them aloud.
Evaluation
Crossword Puzzle: Have students complete the Father’s Day
crossword puzzle on their own. Pass out several markers and have the
students write the answers on the board. Discuss the vocabulary
words and clues.

4.12. Title – Earth Day

Grade Level – 6
Time Required: 50 min.
Presentation: Earth Day, celebrated April 22, is a day designed to inspire
awareness and appreciation for the Earth's environment. It is held annually during
both spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere. It
was founded by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in in 1970
and is celebrated in many countries every year. The United Nations celebrates an
Earth Day each year on the March equinox, a tradition which was founded by
peace activist John McConnell in 1969.
Learning Objective(s):
The student will be able to:
know when Earth Day is
value the importance of respecting the Earth
recite the four seasons without the teacher's help after reading Four Seasons
write high frequency words on paper with help of reading rods in five minutes
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construct and answer questions of the high frequency words and worksheet after
spelling out words with teacher
List of Materials Needed:
Four Seasons book
Comprehension worksheet
Reading rods
White boards
High frequency words
Word fishing game
Word worksheet
Pencils and white erase board markers
Materials for making a simple wind chime (optional)
Pre-Activity Preparation:
Make sure you have enough copies of Four Seasons
Create and make copies of a comprehension worksheet.
Transition:
Have students check and change their schedules and have them ready for the
lesson.
Establishing Set/Motivation/Introduction:
Start by going over the calendar together before you start the lesson.
Have students talk about what goes on in the seasons.
Learning Experience/Presentation/Procedure:
Getting Ready:
Pass out the "Four Seasons" book
Have students read the book all together
Ask questions throughout the book
Introduce high frequency words and make words with reading rods
Spelling Activity:
Answer questions about the comprehensive worksheet
Write new words on worksheet
Get white board and spell out words together
Fishing Word Game:
Use high frequency words and play game
Have student say the word and use it in a sentence
If time allows, let students make a seasons wind chime
Closure:
Have students tell the one thing they learned about the seasons that they liked the
most.

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 CHAPTER 5

TEACHING ACTIVITIES

5.1. Christmas Card Activity

GRADE: 5
SKILLS: Speaking, Writing, Some Listening
TIME: 50 min.
Christmas Flashcards, colored origami paper, ‘Color-By-Number’
picture copies (approx. to number of students in class), colored
MATERIALS:
construction paper, glue sticks, scissors, crayons/colored
pencils/markers, sample card, Christmas CD (optional)
 OBJECTIVES:
 To review colors and numbers
To introduce Christmas vocabulary
To make a Christmas card
 PROCEDURE:
 1. First, introduce the new Christmas vocabulary. This can be done using the
flashcards and may include any number of Christmas related words. However, be
certain to include ‘Christmas Tree’ and ‘Santa Claus’. Have the students repeat
each new vocabulary word after you.
 2. Next, explain that back home (where ever that is… for me, America), you give
cards to people for Christmas. Then, introduce the day’s lesson by saying that
today they will all get to make a card for their mom/dad/dog/whatever (I found it
helpful to have a sample card finished to show them). Tell them that you have two
‘special’ pictures they can choose from. Show them both pictures and tell them that
one is the ‘Christmas Tree’ picture and the other is the ‘Santa Claus’ picture.
 3. Call the students to the front of the room and have them pick one card. To pick
a picture, have the student ask for it by name (for example, ‘Christmas Tree,
please!’). Once they have a picture, they can return to their desks, but make sure
they do not start coloring.

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 4. When every student has returned to their desk, ask them to look at you. Go up
to the board and write the numbers 1-10 on the board in a column. Turn to the
students and prompt them to answer “What’s this?”, pointing to each number.
Now, take your origami paper and place each color next to the corresponding
number. As you do this, be sure to ask them “What’s this?” again, but pointing to
each individual color. After every color has been placed, hold up one of the blank
pictures and explain that they must color all of the 1’s yellow, all of the 2’s green,
all of the 3’s pink and so on. Below is a list of the corresponding numbers and
colors for both pictures:  
1– 2– 3– 4– 5– 6– 7– 8– 9–
Yellow Green Pink White Black Blue Brown Red Orange
 *NOTE: Not all colors will appear on each picture.
 5. Let the students know they can start coloring! You, in the meantime are free to
relax, put on some Christmas music (that’s where the CD comes in) and walk
around to help anyone who needs it… and some of them will.
 6. As the students finish up with the coloring (and they will finish at different
speeds) have them come up to you to get a sheet of colored paper. Instruct them to
fold it in half and paste the colored Christmas picture on the front of the card. A
finished sample card is a great help here!
 7. Next comes the writing part. On the front of the card, in the space provided on
the picture, have them write ‘Merry Christmas!’. Then, have them open the card
and write ‘To: Mom/Dad/Grandma/Grandpa/etc.’ and ‘From: _________’ I write
all of this on the board to help them with spelling.
 8. The students who finish early can either choose to color on the inside of their
finished card, or, if there are extra copies and sheets of construction paper, they
may make another card. I’ve even had students ask me how to spell some of the
other vocabulary words (like candy cane or present) so they can write it on the
inside of the card!
 9. End the class with a few shouts of ‘Merry Christmas!’ and reminders to give
these cards to their moms/dads/dogs/whatever.
 

5.2. Earth Day Jeopardy Activity

Grade Level : 6
Concept:
Earth Day Jeopardy is a great cross-curricular ecology lesson (reading, social
studies and science) that the kids love and will ask for more.
Standards:
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Earth Day Jeopardy complies with Missouri State Standards covering
vocabulary/language arts, ecology, and current events.
Materials:
This activity can be done either in PowerPoint for the SMARTboard or simply by
using index cards.
Procedure:
Come up with a handful of questions relating to Earth Day.
Group those into categories like:
NATURAL GREEN
RECYCLING POLLUTION CONSERVATION
RESOURCES UP

Make sure you have a set of five questions under each category. For example:

"A mixture of decaying organic matter, like leaves and manure, used to
improve soil structure and provide nutrients."

Give each question a point value, i.e. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 points.
Next, write the answers to all questions on individual index cards. For example the
answer to the previous question would be:
COMPOST

Hand out paper or dry erase boards to 2-3 "contestants".

Allow contestants to choose their questions, but either teacher or another student
should be the host and keep score.
Extensions:
For a little more drama, drag a table to the front of the room and draw names for
contestants. The rest of the class is the audience!
If you would like to make it a whole class activity, just divide into groups, then
divide groups into contestants and hosts.
Note:
This activity went over like gangbusters. I had one parent ask for a copy of all the
questions and answers so they could play at home!

5.3. Santa's Hideaway - "The North Pole" Activity

Grade Level : 6-7
Procedure:

72
No one has ever seen Santa's village at the North Pole. What would it look like
from the air?
Draw an imaginary community map of Santa's hideaway. Neatly label each
building and object on the map.
Include:
Santa's House
Elves' Workshop
Reindeer Stable
Elves' Living Quarters
Landing Strip for Sleighs
Warehouses
Garage for Sleighs

What else might you find in the community? Add three additional places that you
might find at Santa's hideaway.

5.4. Make a Multi-Cultural Calendar

Grade Level : 5
In this activity, students research the traditions of different cultures through the
creation of a multi-cultural calendar.
WHAT YOU NEED
Six sheets of 11" x 17" construction paper
Multiple copies of blank calendar pages
Twelve pieces of 8 1/2" x 11" drawing paper
Art materials
Reference sources on the holidays of various cultures
Calendar for the next year, for reference
WHAT TO DO
Explain to the class that they are going to create a multi-cultural calendar.
Together, develop a list of at least twelve present-day ethnic or religious cultures
students would like to learn more about. (Examples: African-American, Latino,
Vietnamese, Jewish, Irish, Christian, Buddhist, Thai, Chinese, Islamic, Swedish,
Hawaiian.)
Divide the class into twelve groups. Giving consideration to student interests,
assign a culture to each group.
Groups then do research to find important calendar dates in the traditions of their
assigned culture. As a class, decide which culture will be assigned to which month,
in order to maximize the number of events per month. Have students complete the
73
calendar pages by filling in the dates for holidays and other important dates in the
culture. For example, students assigned to Irish culture and working on March
should label the 17th with "St. Patrick's Day." Students might decorate the calendar
month with motifs and symbols from their assigned culture. They should choose
one holiday or important date from their month and create an illustration on the 8
1/2" x 11" drawing paper.
Have students mount the illustration and the calendar sheet on a piece of 11" x 17"
construction paper. Collect students' pages and fold and staple them in the middle
to create the calendar. If possible, before binding the sheets, copy them and then
bind them so students will each have a copy to take home. You might ask one
student to make a cover for the calendar that incorporates several of the cultures
inside.
TEACHING OPTIONS
Have students search through books of quotations, or other sources, for sayings,
short poems, proverbs, etc., from their assigned culture to add to their month. For
example, the month for African-Americans might include a quotation from
Langston Hughes' poem "My People," such as, "The night is beautiful,/So are the
faces of my people." Students might choose to have a "Quote of the Day," too.
Use the calendar in your classroom, encouraging the class to learn more about the
culture of each month. You may also wish to celebrate certain occasions from the
calendar by having students recite poems, sing songs, bring in special foods, or
read stories appropriate to the day.

5.5. Cultural Beliefs Activity

Grade Level : 6
Directions for the teacher:
Step 1 – Explain the legend of the Tooth Fairy. Ask students to share what they
know.
Step 2 – Hand out the chart on the next page to pairs of students. Ask them to
discuss similarities and differences between the U.S. cultural beliefs and their own.
They should use their charts to make notes.
Step 3 – Have volunteers share their information with the whole class. Information
can be added or changed during this time. Encourage questions for clarification
and confirmation.
Step 4 – Repeat this pattern of discussion for the remaining two legends, the Easter
Bunny and Santa Claus.

74
Step 5 – In pairs, ask students to write short summaries based on their notes and
class discussion. If you wish to limit the amount of writing, you can assign a topic
to each pair: Tooth Fairy, Easter Bunny, or Santa Claus.

Possible template:
____________ is a well-known legend in the United States. Americans
believe_________
__________________________________________________________________
_____________
__________________________________________________________________
_____________.
In our country, we believe
_________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_____________.
It is interesting to compare cultural beliefs.

U.S. cultural belief Our Country

SAME DIFFERENT
(Place an X if the belief is (Place an X if the belief
shared.) is different. State other belief if
known.)
Tooth Fairy
Easter Bunny
Santa Claus

5.6. Halloween Games for Students

Grade Level : 5-8
Holidayslike Halloween are a great opportunity for teachers to introduce fun and
educationalgamesto the classroom. Between the candy and the costumes,
Halloween is a favorite holiday with moststudents, but it also opens the window
for new vocabulary and cultural lessons.
Pin the Nose on the Zombie
For this game, you will need a large poster with a picture of a zombie, a blindfold
and a separate paper nose for each student. Before the game, label the zombie's
body parts (head, stomach, torso, legs,etc.) clearly on the poster. Write each
student's name on the back of one nose and hand them out.Blindfold each student
and have them try to pin the nose on the zombie's face in turn. The other students
75
can try to help with verbal instructions, like "That's his arm!" or "That's his chest!"
The studentwho gets his nose the closest to the right spot wins. Other options
include pin the wart on the witch, pinthe mouth on the jack-o-lantern or pin the
fangs on the vampire.
Bats: Fiction or Fact?
This game show style game is great for introducing scientific facts about bats to
students. To begin, useindex cards to write a statement about bats. Use websites
like Incredible Bats (see References) to findcommonly misunderstood bat
information, and make some of your statements true, and some false. Atrue
statement could be, "Most bats do not have rabies." A false statement could be,
"Bats are blind."Divide the class into two teams. Choose one student on one team
to start. When you read the card,finish by asking whether the statement is fact or
fiction. ("Bats are blind. Fact or fiction?") If thestatement is fiction, explain the
fact: Bats can see very well, and some can even see in the dark.Record one point
for each correct answer to both teams on the board. The team with the most
pointswins.
A Very Haunted House
This game is designed to help students work on addition. For best results,
particularly with younger students, prepare a drawing or cutout of a haunted house,
along with a dozen or more ghosts. For more fun, try building a 3D paper haunted
house, working from a template such as the one provided byRavens Blight (see
Resources). Move the ghosts to different rooms of the house by taping them to
thefront or placing them inside, then ask: "There are two ghosts in the kitchen, one
in the bedroom, andfour in the attic! How many ghosts are there in the house?" The
students can also take turns movingghosts around the house and creating their own
addition word problems.

5.7. Christmas School Activities

Grade Level : 5-8
Introduce a few Christmas school activities into your program and the children in
your class will think you are wonderful. What they won't realize is that they are
actually still doing school work with educational content. There are many different
educational Christmas activities that can be used in the classroom.
Christmas Writing Activities
There are many different Christmas school activities that involve writing. Some of
these will get kids tapping into their creative side and even get them using higher
order thinking skills.
Acrostic Poem
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One simple Christmas writing activity is to have the children create an acrostic
poem. These poems are usually created by writing a word vertically down the page
and then children create a poem using each of the letters to start a line of the poem.
Children could create poems using the following words, Christmas, Reindeer,
Santa, Ornaments or Christmas Tree.
What I Don't Like About Christmas
Another writing activity is to get children to think differently about Christmas. Ask
the children to list five things that they don't like about Christmas. This is quite an
interesting activity that really makes the kids think of Christmas from a different
perspective.
A Perfect Christmas Day
Children could also write a diary of an ideal Christmas day. Ask them to describe
where they would be, who they would be with and what they would be doing.
Christmas Math Activities are also ideal for practicing math skills in a fun and
festive way.
Christmas Tree Jumble
A simple Christmas math activity is to draw several Christmas trees on the board
and then put the numbers from an addition, subtraction, multiplication or division
operation jumbled up in each tree. The pattern for the operation is then written
under the tree.
If the numbers 2, 4, 6 and 7 are in the tree, the pattern? X? =??, would be added
under the tree. Children then have to unjumble the numbers in the tree to create a
true equation to fit the pattern. In this example it could be 6 X 7 = 42.
Decorate the Tree
For this game two players or two teams can complete to be the first to decorate a
Christmas tree with ten decorations. A Christmas tree is drawn for each player or
team. The two players or teams compete to be the first to answer an equation. You
could use basic addition, subtraction, multiplication or division facts for the game
or more complex calculations involving decimal numbers or percentages. The first
player to answer correctly gets to draw a decoration on the tree. The first player or
team with ten decorations on their tree is the winner.
There are many other Christmas school activities that can be used to entertain and
educate kids in the lead up to Christmas. Children can make crafts, solve Christmas
puzzles and play Christmas word games also. These are all valuable Christmas
school activities that the kids will enjoy without them even realizing that they are
still learning.

5.8. Hearts Activity

Geade Level : 6

77
Directions:Your teacher will give you and a
partner a box of candy hearts.
Work together to answer the questions on this sheet.
Partner Names _________________________& _________________________
Activity 1 Estimation
1. Before opening the box of hearts,
estimate how many hearts are in the box.
Write your guesses in the blanks:
Partner 1: ___________________ Partner 2: __________________
2. Open the box and count the hearts. How many? ______________
3. Have each partner subtract to find the
difference between your estimate and the actual number of hearts.
Who had the closest guess? ___________________________
Activity 2 Classification
How many different ways can you find to group your hearts?
Here are some examples:
* Group hearts that are the same color together.
* Group hearts that have the same message together.
List all the different ways that you could group your hearts
Activity 3 Measurement
1. Together estimate the number of hearts,
laid end to end, that would equal one foot. What is your estimate?
___________________________
Use a ruler to find the actual number
of hearts needed to equal a foot.  
 What is the actual number needed to equal a foot?
 ___________________________
2. How many hearts wide is the top of one of your desks?
Estimate: _______________ Actual Number: _________________
3. How many rows of ten hearts can you make with the hearts in your box?
Estimate: _______________ Actual Number: _________________

5.9. April Fool's Day Activities

Grade Level : 5-8
1. Cut out a 1" square for every child playing this game. Write "A" on one of them
and put them all in a bag. Have all children choose a square, not telling anyone
which they chose, and put them back in the bag. As children sit in a circle, a child
is chosen to go first. If he did not choose the "A", he will walk around the circle
78
and return to his spot; another child is chosen. Only the child who chose the "A"
will walk around the circle, tap another on the shoulder, say "April Fool!" and start
running. The tapped child chases him. If the tapped child does not beat the first
child back to his spot, he continues walking around the circle and taps someone
else; if he DOES beat the first child back, the first child has another turn to walk,
tap, and run.
2. For older children, follow the same directions for the squares. After the squares
have all been chosen, let the children scatter in the play area. At the Start signal,
have children start moving around. The child who chose the "A" is IT and tries to
tag the other children by whispering "April Fool!" each time he tags someone.
Children that are tagged must freeze into statues. IT must be subtle in order to
sneak up and tag the other children.
NOTE: The top two games are easily adapted to any letter of the alphabet for any
theme. Try one for a birthday party!
3. Have children create their own lists of ten things (a good way to review nouns)
or create a class list. Have an interesting variety. Without letting children see the
silly story they are going to create, call on ten to say one of their words or to call
out one from the class list. Fill in the blanks of this story (from Spring is Here,
Macmillan Seasonal Activity Packs, 1987) as they provide the words:
One day, I put on my beautiful brand- new _____. Then I went out for a walk. The
first thing I saw was a funny _____. It was right next to a striped _____! Then a
tiny little _____wearing a huge _____walked past me. I was so surprised that I
forgot to watch where I was going. I walked right into a big _____and bumped my
_____. Then I saw a huge _____riding on a small _____. I laughed so hard I
almost dropped my _____. What a silly way to start the day!
4. See if you are fooled by these riddles!
a. Which animals can jump higher than a tree?
b. What are the things you'll never eat for lunch?
c. What do you lose every time you stand up?
d. Why can't you tell a secret in a vegetable garden?
ANSWERS to riddles: a. Every animal can jump higher than a tree because a tree
can't jump! b. Breakfast or dinner c. Your lap d. The corn has ears and the potatoes
have eyes.

5.10. Memory Box- Mother’s Day

Grade Level : 5

79
Overview and Purpose: Students create a memory box that they can share with
their mom on Mother's Day. This activity allows students to be creative and
practice their writing skills.
Objective: The student will be able to write ten memories of his mom to share with
her on Mother's Day.
Resources:
Various colors of paper
Wrapping paper or paint
Chinese take-out boxes
Tape
Glue
Markers/crayons/colored pencils
Activities:
Have students write ten memories of their moms. Check each one for correct
spelling, grammar, and punctuation. When they are correct, have them copy the
memories onto separate pieces of colored paper (one memory per piece of paper.)
Have them wrap the Chinese boxes in wrapping paper (or paint them). They can
put the memories in the box and then each day their moms can take out one
memory and read it.
Wrap Up:
Some students may need some sentence starters. You can brainstorm with the
students a list of starters that you can put on a piece of chart paper. Some students
may want to decorate their memory pages with drawings, stickers, or pictures.
Remember to be sensitive to students who may not have moms in the home. They
may have to write to a grandmother or favorite aunt.

80
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 CONTENTS

I. Introduction…………………………………………………………..2
II. Chapter 1: Why Teaching Culture and Civilization
…………………………………………………….………………….6
1.1 Communication and Culture…………………………………….6
1.2 Interchanges between Cultures…………………………..…….8
1.3 The History of Culture Teaching………………………….….10
III. Chapter 2: English as Lingua Franca………………………..…..16
2.1 Lingua
Franca…………………………………………………16
2,2 Standard English vs. Changing
English………………………21
2.3 From Lingua Franca to Global English………………..……
22
2.4. English – The Universal Language on the
Internet……………24
IV. Chapter 3: English Elements of Culture and Civilization……….…..32
III.1 The Concept of Culture……………………………………..…
32
III.2 Culture and
Language………………………………………….34
III.3 Culture in ELT or Why and How WE Should Teach Culture…
35
III.4 Culture of
England…………………………………………….37
III.5 American Culture vs. British Culture……………………..
…..41
III.6 Borrowed Traditions in
Romania……………………………..46
IV. Chapter 4: Lesson Plans…………………………………………..52
IV.1 The importance of Traditions and History……………………
52
IV.2 St. Valentine’s Day………………………………………….…
54

85
 IV.3 Create a Holiday………………………………………..
……..54
IV.4 Mother’s Day……………………………………………..……
55
IV.5 Halloween Computer – Party Planner Set………………..
…..57
IV.6 April Fool’s
Day……………………………………………….59
IV.7 Halloween………………………………………………………
60
IV.8 Winter Holidays………………………………………….……
61
IV.9 Christmas………………………………………………….
…..62
IV.10 The Christmas Tree……………………………………..…..64
IV.11 Father’s Day…………………………………………….…..67
IV.12 Earth’s Day…………………………………………………..68
V. Chapter 5: Teaching Activities …………………………………….70
V.1Christmas Card Activity………………………………………..70
V.2Earth Day Jeopardy Activity………………………………….…71
V.3Santa’s Hideaway – “The North Pole” Activity……………...…73
V.4Make a Multi-Cultural Calendar………………………………...73
V.5Cultural Beliefs Activity……………………………………...…74
V.6Halloween Games for Students……………………………….....75
V.7Christmas School Activities……………………………………..76
V.8Hearts Activity…………………………………………………..78
V.9April Fool’s Day Activities……………………………………...78
V.10 Memory Box – Mother’s Day Activity………………………80
VI. Bibliography…………………………………………………………81
VII. Contents……………………………………………………………..85

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