Metasurface Paper
Metasurface Paper
Metasurface Paper
1 Methods/Experimental
The methods used in the paper are based on the mathematical tools of random
spatial processes and stochastic geometry. A new analytical framework for perfor-
mance analysis is introduced. The theoretical framework is validated against Monte
Carlo simulations.
2 Introduction
Future wireless networks will be more than allowing people, mobile devices, and
objects to communicate [1]. Future wireless networks will be turned into a dis-
tributed intelligent wireless communications, sensing, and computing platform,
which, besides communications, will be capable of sensing the environment to pro-
vide context-awareness capabilities, of locally storing and processing data to enable
its time critical and energy efficient delivery, of accurately localizing people and
objects in harsh propagation environments. Future wireless networks will have to
fulfill the challenging requirement of interconnecting the physical and digital worlds
in a seamless and sustainable manner [2], [3].
Different solutions towards realizing this wireless future are currently emerging
[6]-[14]. Among them, the use of reconfigurable metasurfaces constitutes a promis-
ing and enabling solution to fulfill the challenging requirements of future wireless
networks [15]. Metasurfaces are thin metamaterial layers that are capable of modi-
fying the propagation of the radio waves in fully customizable ways [16], thus owing
the potential of making the transfer and processing of information more reliable
[17]. Also, they constitute a suitable distributed platform to perform low-energy and
low-complexity sensing [18], storage [19], and analog computing [20]. For this rea-
son, they are particularly useful for improving the performance of non-line-of-sight
transmission, e.g., to appropriately customize the impact of multipath propagation.
In [14], in particular, the authors have put forth a network scenario where every
environmental object is coated with reconfigurable metasurfaces, whose response
to the radio waves is programmed in software by capitalizing on the enabling tech-
nology and hardware platform currently being developed in [21]. Current research
efforts towards realizing this vision are, however, limited to implement hardware
testbeds, e.g., reflect-arrays and metasurfaces, and on realizing point-to-point ex-
perimental tests [6]-[14]. To the best of the authors knowledge, notably, there exists
no analytical framework that investigates the performance of large-scale wireless
networks in the presence of reconfigurable metasurfaces. In the present paper, mo-
tivated by these considerations, we develop the first analytical approach that allows
one to study the probability that a random object coated with a reconfigurable
metasurface acts as a reflector according to the generalized laws of reflection [16].
To this end, we capitalize on the mathematical tool of random spatial processes
[22], [23].
Random spatial processes are considered to be the most suitable analytical tool
to shed light on the ultimate performance limits of innovative technologies when
applied in wireless networks, and to guide the design of optimal algorithms and
protocols for attaining such ultimate limits. Several recent results on the appli-
cation of random spatial processes in wireless networks can be found in [24]-[32].
Despite the many results available, however, fundamental issues remain open [29].
In the current literature, in particular, the environmental objects are modeled as
entities that can only attenuate the signals, by making the links either line-of-sight
or non-line-of-sight, e.g., [26]-[28]. Modeling anything else is acknowledged to be dif-
ficult. Just in [33], the authors have recently investigated the impact of reflections,
but only based on conventional Snell’s laws. This work highlights the analytical
complexity, the relevance, and the non-trivial performance trade-offs: The authors
emphasize that the obtained trends highly depend on the fact that the total dis-
tance of the reflected paths is almost always two times larger than the distance of
the direct paths. This occurs because the angles of incidence and reflection are the
Di Renzo and Song Page 3 of 25
The remainder of the present paper is organized as follows. In Section 3, the sys-
tem model is introduced. In Section 4, the problem is formulated in mathematical
terms. In Section 5, the analytical framework of the reflection probability is de-
scribed. In Section 6, numerical results are illustrated, and the proposed approach
is validated against Monte Carlo simulations. Finally, Section 7 concludes the paper.
Notation: The main symbols and functions used in this paper are reported in
Table 1.
Di Renzo and Song Page 4 of 25
Tx
Rx
Figure 1: Probe transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) in the presence of randomly
distributed environmental objects.
3 System Model
We consider a wireless network on a bi-dimensional plane, where the transmitters
and receivers are distributed independently of each other. Without loss of generality,
the location of the transmitter and receiver of interest, i.e., the probe transmitter
and receiver, are denoted by (xTx , yTx ) and (xRx , yRx ), respectively.
Besides the transmitter and receiver, we assume that environmental objects, e.g.,
buildings in a urban outdoor scenario, are randomly distributed in the same region.
An example of the network model is depicted in Fig. 1. More precisely, the envi-
ronmental objects are assumed to follow a Boolean model of line segments with the
following properties [22]:
• The center points of the objects form a homogeneous Poisson point process.
• The orientation of the objects are independent and identically distributed in
[0, 2π].
• The lengths of the objects are fixed and all equal to L.
• The random orientation and the center points of the objects are independent
of each other.
We consider a generic environmental object, i.e., the typical object, and denote its
center by (xobject, yobject), and the coordinates of its two end points by (xend1 , yend1)
and (xend2 , yend2 ).
4 Problem Formulation
The objective of the present paper is to compute the probability that a randomly
distributed object can act as a reflector for the pair of transmitter and receiver
located in (xTx , yTx ) and (xRx , yRx ), respectively. We analyze two case studies:
• Scenario I: The first scenario corresponds to the case study where the typical
object is coated with a reconfigurable metasurface, which can optimize the
angle of reflection regardless of the angle of incidence [16].
Di Renzo and Song Page 5 of 25
• Scenario II: The second scenario corresponds to the case study where the
typical object is not coated with a reconfigurable metasurface. This is the
state-of-the-art scenario, where the angle of reflection needs to be equal to
the angle of incidence according to Snell’s law of reflection [16].
The aim of the present paper is to develop a mathematical theory to compute the
probability that the typical object can act as a reflector, i.e., the reflection prob-
ability, and to quantify the gain of adding reconfigurable metasurfaces in wireless
networks. For analytical tractability, we assume that the reconfigurable metasur-
faces are capable of producing any angle of reflection for any given location of
transmitter and receiver, for any angle of incidence, and for any length. This yields
the best-case performance bound compared with conventional Snell’s law of reflec-
tion. The analysis, in addition, is conducted by relying on ray tracing arguments,
in order to highlight the potential gains of using reconfigurable metasurfaces. The
two case studies are sketched in Fig. 2. Generalizations of the proposed analytical
framework are left to future research works.
Event 1 The probe transmitter, Tx, and receiver, Rx, are located on the same side
of the infinite line passing through the end points (xend1 , yend1 ) and (xend2 , yend2)
of the typical object.
Di Renzo and Song Page 6 of 25
Tx
Rx Tx
Rx
(a) (b)
Therefore, the typical object acts as a reflector if Event 1 holds true. Our objective
is to formulate the probability of Event 1, i.e., to compute Pr {Event 1}. This latter
probability can be formulated in two different but equivalent ways.
4.1.1 Approach 1
Let us consider the infinite line that connects the locations of transmitter and re-
ceiver, and the infinite line that connects the two end points of the typical object.
Event 1 holds true if the intersection point, denoted by (x∗ , y ∗ ), of these two infinite
lines falls outside the line segment that connects that transmitter and the receiver.
An illustration is given in Fig. 3.
Pr {Event 1} = 1 − Pr Event 1 (1)
where Event 1 is the complement of Event 1, and Pr Event 1 denotes the proba-
bility that the intersection point (x∗ , y ∗ ) is on the Tx-Rx line segment:
4.1.2 Approach 2
The probability that Event 1 holds true can be formulated also in terms of the po-
sitions of the transmitter and receiver with respect to the infinite line that connects
the end points of the typical object. In particular, Event 1 holds true if both the
transmitter and receiver are on the same side of the infinite line, i.e., either they
are above or they are below the infinite line. This interpretation can be viewed as a
problem of classifying points with respect to a line. This interpretation is depicted
in Fig. 4.
Di Renzo and Song Page 7 of 25
Tx
Rx
Tx Tx
Rx Rx
Figure 5: Illustration of Event 3. In (a), Event 1 and Event 2 hold true: The
typical object acts as a reflector. In (b), Event 1 holds true but Event 2 does
not hold true: The typical object cannot be a reflector.
( )
{[Tx is above the line] ∩ [Rx is above the line]}
Pr {Event 1} = Pr (3)
∪ {[Tx is below the line] ∩ [Rx is below the line]}
Event 2 The mid-perpendicular of the line segment that connects the transmitter
and receiver intersects the line segment that represents the typical object.
Di Renzo and Song Page 8 of 25
Let (x∗ , y∗ ) denote the intersection between the mid-perpendicular of the line
segment that connects the transmitter and receiver, and the line segment that rep-
resents the typical object. According to Snell’s law of reflection, for some given
locations of the transmitter and receiver, the typical object acts as a reflector if
the mid-perpendicular of the line segment that connects the transmitter and re-
ceiver intersects the line segment that represents the typical object (i.e., Event 2),
and, at the same time, the transmitted and receiver are located on the same side
of the infinite line passing through the end points of the typical object (i.e., Event 1).
Based on Snell’s law of reflection, therefore, the typical object acts a reflector if
the following event holds true.
Event 3 The transmitter and receiver are located on the same side of the infinite
line passing through the end points of the typical object, and the mid-perpendicular
of the line segment that connects the transmitter and receiver intersects the line
segment that represents the typical object.
y = mx + z (6)
yTx −yRx
where m = xTx −xRx , and z = yRx − mxRx .
( xend1 , yend1 )
( xobject , yobject )
p ( xend2 , yend2 )
a
o
Lemma 2 Let us consider the typical object of length L depicted in Fig. 6. The
√
distance between the center of the line segment and the origin is p = Rnet u, where
u is a uniformly distributed random variable in [0, 1], and Rnet is largest size of
the region of interest. Let α be the angle between the perpendicular line to the line
segment, which passes through the center of the object, and the horizontal axis. The
infinite line passing through the end points of the object can be formulated as follows:
In addition, the center of the line segment can be written as (xobject, yobject) =
(p cos α, p sin α), and its end points (xend1 , yend1 ) and (xend2 , yend2) can be formu-
lated as follows:
L L
xend1 = xobject − sin α, yend1 = yobject + cos α
2 2 (8)
L L
xend2 = xobject + sin α, yend2 = yobject − cos α
2 2
Proof: The proof follows by noting that the centers of the line segments (the ob-
jects) are distributed according to a Poisson point process with random orientations,
√
which implies p = Rnet u and α ∈ [0, 2π]. The rest follows from geometric consid-
erations.
y = mp x + z p (9)
Di Renzo and Song Page 10 of 25
1 1 1
where mp = − m , and zp = 2m (xTx + xRx ) + 2 (yTx + yRx ).
Lemma 4 The intersection point between the infinite line that connects the trans-
mitter and the receiver, and the infinite line that connects the end points of the line
segment representing the typical object can be formulated as follows:
p − z sin α
x∗ =
m sin α + cos α (10)
y ∗ = mx∗ + z
The intersection point between the (infinite) mid-perpendicular line to the line
segment that connects the transmitter and the receiver, and the infinite line that
connects the end points of the line segment representing the typical object can be
formulated as follows:
p − zp sin α
x∗ =
mp sin α + cos α (11)
y∗ = mp x∗ + zp
Proof: Equation (10) follows by solving the system of equations in (6) and (7).
Equation (11) follows by solving the system of equations in (7) and (9).
• The point (x1 , y1 ) is above the line if ax1 + by1 + c > 0 and b > 0, or if
ax1 + by1 + c < 0 and b < 0.
• The point (x1 , y1 ) is below the line if ax1 + by1 + c < 0 and b > 0, or if
ax1 + by1 + c > 0 and b < 0.
Pr {Event1} = 1 − Pr Event1
Z δ1 Z 2π
θ (α, x , x , y , y )dα + θ (α, x , x , y , y )dα
1 Tx Rx Tx Rx 1 Tx Rx Tx Rx
Z0 δ2
δ1 Z 2π
1
=1− + θ2 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + θ2 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π
0 δ2
δ2 δ2
Z Z
+ θ3 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + + θ4 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
δ1 δ1
(12)
√
where the integral limits are defined as δ1 = 2tan−1 m + 1 + m2 , and δ2 =
√
2π + 2tan−1 m − 1 + m2 , and the auxiliary functions are given in Table 2.
Pr {Event1}
1
Z 2π
1
Z 2π (13)
= ρ1 (α, xTx , yTx , xRx , yRx )dα + ρ2 (α, xTx , yTx , xRx , yRx )dα
2π 0 2π 0
2
xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
ρ1 (α, xTx , yTx , xRx , yRx ) = min , ,1
Rnet Rnet
xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
×H min , ,1
Rnet Rnet
(14)
Di Renzo and Song Page 12 of 25
and
" 2 #
xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
ρ2 (α, xTx , yTx , xRx , yRx ) = 1 − max , ,0
Rnet Rnet
xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
×H 1 − max , ,0
Rnet Rnet
(15)
Remark 1 Theorem 1 and Theorem 2 are two analytical formulations of the same
event. In the sequel, we show that they coincide.
where Γ1 (α) = Γa1 (α) + Γb1 (α) + Γc1 (α) + Γd1 (α), Γ2 (α) = Γa2 (α) + Γb2 (α) + Γc2 (α) +
Γd2 (α), Γ3 (α) = Γa3 (α) + Γb3 (α) + Γc3 (α) + Γd3 (α), and Γ4 (α) = Γa4 (α) + Γb4 (α) +
Γc4 (α) + Γd4 (α), which are all defined in Table 3.
0.8
0.7
Probability of being a reflector
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
With Metasurface (Approach 1, simulation)
With Metasurface (Approach 1, analysis)
0.2 With Metasurface (Approach 2, simulation)
With Metasurface (Approach 2, analysis)
Without Metasurface (simulation)
0.1
Without Metasurface (upper-bound, simulation)
Without Metasurface (upper-bound, analysis)
0
0 50 100 150
Length of the object [m]
Figure 7: Probability of being a reflector versus the length of the object. Setup:
Rnet = 30m, location of the transmitter (0, 3), location of the receiver (20, 20).
by the size of the metasurface on its capability of obtaining a given set of angles
of reflection as a function of the angle of incidence is an open but very important
research issue, which is left to future research.
0.9
0.8
Probability of being a reflector
0.7
0.2
0.1
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Abscissa of Tx
presence of multiple reflectors, however, may also increase the level of interference.
Therefore, the optimization of wireless networks in the presence of reconfigurable
metasurfaces is a challenging and open research issue. Figure 7, in addition, con-
firms the main finding in Remark 2.
In Figs. 8 and 9, we depict the probability that the typical object is as a reflec-
tor as a function of the location of the transmitter and for a fixed length of the
typical object. Once again, the proposed analytical frameworks are accurate, and
the upper-bound in Theorem 3 is sufficiently accurate for the considered setups.
Especially for small-size objects, we observe the large gains that employing meta-
surfaces bring about. Even small-size objects can provide one with a relatively high
probability of being a reflector, which is useful information in order to reduce the
deployment cost of the metasurfaces over large-size environmental objects. Small-
size metasurfaces, in fact, may be moved along large(size surfaces, and their location
may be optimized in order to optimize the system performance.
0.9
Probability of being a reflector
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.2
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Abscissa of Tx
the object is not coated with reconfigurable metasurfaces. This result has been ob-
tained by modeling the environmental objects with a modified random line process
with fixed length, and random orientations and locations. Our proposed analytical
approach allows us to prove that the probability that an object is a reflector does
not depend on the length of the object if it is coated with metasurfaces, while it
strongly depends on it if the Snell’s law of reflection needs to be applied. The reason
of this major difference in system performance lies in the fact that the angles of
incidence and reflection need to be the same according to the Snell’s law of reflection.
In spite of the novelty and contribution of the present paper, it constitutes only a
first attempt to quantify the potential of reconfigurable metasurfaces in large-scale
wireless networks, and to develop a general analytical approach for understand-
ing the ultimate performance limits, and to identify design guidelines for system
optimization. For example, the performance trends are based on the assumption
that, for any angle of incidence, an arbitrary angle of reflection can be synthetized.
Due to practical constraints on implementing metasurfaces, only a finite subset of
angles may be allowed, which needs to account for the concept of field-of-view of
the metasurfaces. Also, the analytical models and the simulation results have been
obtained by using ray tracing assumptions, and ignore, e.g., the radiation pattern of
the metasurfaces, and near field effects. A major step is needed to obtain tractable
analytical expressions of relevant performance metrics that are suitable to unveil
Di Renzo and Song Page 17 of 25
scaling laws, amenable for optimization, and account for different functions applied
by the metasurfaces (not just reflections).
mx − y + z = 0
(18)
mp − y + z p = 0
The two lines in (18) are perpendicular to each other if their directional vectors
are orthogonal:
∆T ∆p = 0 (20)
which implies that the following identity need to be fulfilled mmp = −1.
The coordinates of the mid-point of the line segment between the transmitter
Rx yTx +yRx
and receiver is xTx +x
2 , 2 , which is located on the line y = mp x + zp . By
substituting this latter point in (18), zp turns out to be the following:
1 1
zp = (xTx + xRx ) + (yTx + yRx ) (21)
2m 2
ax1 + c
ax1 + by + c = 0 ⇒ y = − (22)
b
A ( x1 , y1 )
P ( x1 , y )
• If the point A is above the line, then it must be y1 − y > 0. From equation
ax1 +by1 +c
(23), we evince that y1 − y > 0 if b > 0. This, in turn, corresponds
to the following: i) either ax1 + by1 + c > 0 and b > 0 or ii) ax1 + by1 + c < 0
and b < 0.
• If the point A is below the line, then it must be y1 −y < 0. From equation (23),
ax1 +by1 +c
we evince that y1 − y < 0 if b < 0. This, in turn, corresponds to the
following: i) either ax1 +by1 +c < 0 and b > 0 or ii) ax1 +by1 +c > 0 and b < 0.
Based on the sign of m sin α + cos α and m, four cases can be identified.
Di Renzo and Song Page 19 of 25
C.1 Case 1
p − z sin α
min (xTx , xRx ) 6
6 max (xTx , xRx )
m sin α + cos α
Pr Event 1 = Pr
∩ min (yTx , yRx ) 6 m p − z sin α + z 6 max (yTx , yRx )
m sin α + cos α
( )
(a) f (α, min (xTx , xRx )) 6 υ 6 f (α, max (xTx , xRx ))
= Pr
∩g (α, min (yTx , yRx )) 6 υ 6 g (α, max (yTx , yRx ))
Z 2π Z min{f (α,max(xTx ,xRx )),g(α,max(yTx ,yRx )),1}
1
= fυ (υ) × H (m sin α + cos α) H (m)
2π 0 max{f (α,min(xTx ,xRx )),g(α,min(yTx ,yRx )),0}
!
min {f (α, max (xTx , xRx )) , g (α, max (yTx , yRx )) , 1}
×H dυdα
− max {f (α, min (xTx , xRx )) , g (α, min (yTx , yRx )) , 0}
(Z Z 2π )
δ1
(b) 1
= θ1 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + θ1 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π 0 δ2
(25)
√
where (a) follows from p = Rnet u = Rnet υ, and (b) follows by computing the
integral with respect to υ, whose probability density function is fυ (υ) = 2υ, since
u is uniformly distributed in [0, 1].
The integration limits in (b) are determined from the conditions m sin α + cos α >
√
0, which implies 0 6 α 6 δ1 and δ2 6 α 6 2π, where δ1 = 2tan−1 m + 1 + m2
√
and δ2 = 2π + 2tan−1 m − 1 + m2 .
The other three case studies can be obtained by using the same approach as for
Case 1. Thus, the details are omitted and only the final result is reported.
C.2 Case 2
p − z sin α
min (xTx , xRx ) 6
6 max (xTx , xRx )
m sin α + cos α
Pr Event 1 = Pr
∩ min (yTx , yRx ) 6 m p − z sin α + z 6 max (yTx , yRx )
m sin α + cos α
(Z Z 2π )
δ1
1
= θ2 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + θ2 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π 0 δ2
(26)
Di Renzo and Song Page 20 of 25
C.3 Case 3
If m sin α + cos α < 0 and m > 0, we have the following:
p − z sin α
min (xTx , xRx ) 6
6 max (xTx , xRx )
m sin α + cos α
Pr Event 1 = Pr
∩ min (yTx , yRx ) 6 m p − z sin α + z 6 max (yTx , yRx )
m sin α + cos α
(Z )
π Z δ2
1
= θ3 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + θ3 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π δ1 π
Z δ2
1
= θ3 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π δ1
(27)
C.4 Case 4
If m sin α + cos α < 0 and m < 0, we have the following:
p − z sin α
min (xTx , xRx ) 6
6 max (xTx , xRx )
m sin α + cos α
Pr Event 1 = Pr
∩ min (yTx , yRx ) 6 m p − z sin α + z 6 max (yTx , yRx )
m sin α + cos α
(Z )
π Z δ2
1
= θ4 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα + θ4 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π δ1 π
Z δ2
1
= θ4 (α, xTx , xRx , yTx , yRx )dα
2π δ1
(28)
• Case 1: The location of the transmitter (xTx , yTx ) is above the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α > 0.
• Case 2: The location of the transmitter (xTx , yTx ) is above the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α < 0.
• Case 3: The location of the receiver (xRx , yRx ) is above the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α > 0.
• Case 4: The location of the receiver (xRx , yRx ) is above the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α < 0.
• Case 5: The location of the transmitter (xTx , yTx ) is below the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α > 0.
• Case 6: The location of the transmitter (xTx , yTx ) is below the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α < 0.
Di Renzo and Song Page 21 of 25
• Case 7: The location of the receiver (xRx , yRx ) is below the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α > 0.
• Case 8: The location of the receiver (xRx , yRx ) is below the line x cos α +
y sin α − p = 0 given sin α < 0.
Therefore, four probabilities need to be computed. Let us start with the first one:
Pr {Case 1 ∩ Case3}
= Pr {(xTx cos α + yTx sin α − p > 0 ∩ sin α > 0) ∩ (xRx cos α + yRx sin α − p > 0 ∩ sin α > 0)}
= Pr {[(xTx cos α + yTx sin α − p > 0) ∩ (xRx cos α + yRx sin α − p > 0)] ∩ sin α > 0}
(a) xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
= Pr υ< ∩ υ< ∩ sin α > 0
Rnet Rnet
n o
Z π Z min xTx cos Rα+yTx sin α , xRx cos Rα+yRx sin α ,1
1 net net
= fυ (υ)
2π 0 0
xTx cos α + yTx sin α xRx cos α + yRx sin α
×H min , ,1 dυdα
Rnet Rnet
Z π
(b) 1
= ρ1 (α, xTx , yTx , xRx , yRx )dα
2π 0
(30)
√
where (a) follows from p = Rnet u = Rnet υ, and (b) follows by solving the integral
with respect to υ whose probability density function is fυ (υ) = 2υ, since u is uni-
formly distributed in [0, 1].
E.1 Case 1
If xend1 > xend2 and yend1 > yend2 , which implies sin α < 0 and cos α > 0, we obtain
the following:
p − zp sin α p − zp sin α
Pr {Event 2} = Pr xend2 6 6 xend1 ∩ yend2 6 mp + zp 6 yend1
mp sin α + cos α mp sin α + cos α
L z sin α 1 L zp sin α
p
2 sin α + m sin α + cos α 6 m sin α + cos α − cos α p 6 − 2 sin α + m sin α + cos α ∩
p p p
= Pr
− L cos α +
mp zp sin α mp L mp zp sin α
− zp 6 − sin α p 6 cos α + − zp
2 mp sin α + cos α mp sin α + cos α 2 mp sin α + cos α
(33)
1 mp
Depending on the sign of mp sin α+cos α − cos α and mp sin α+cos α − sin α , four
sub-cases need to be studied.
E.1.1
Case 1-a
1 mp
If mp sin α+cos α − cos α > 0 and mp sin α+cos α − sin α > 0, we have the follow-
ing:
p − zp sin α p − zp sin α
Pr {Event 2} = Pr xend2 6 6 xend1 ∩ yend2 6 mp + zp 6 yend1
mp sin α + cos α mp sin α + cos α
(a) L L L L
= Pr F α, sin α 6 υ 6 F α, − sin α ∩ G α, − cos α 6 υ 6 G α, cos α
2 2 2 2
Z 2π Z min{F (α,− L sin α),F (α,− L sin α),1}
1 2 2 1 mp
= fυ (υ)H − cos α H − sin α
2π 0 max{F (α, L sin α),G(α,− L cos α),0} mp sin α + cos α mp sin α + cos α
2 2
L L
min F α, − sin α , F α, − sin α , 1
2 2
×H H̄ (sin α) H (cos α) dυdα
L L
− max F α, sin α , G α, − cos α , 0
2 2
Z 2π Z 2π
(b) 1 1
= Γa1 (α)H̄ (sin α) H (cos α) dα = Γa1 (α)dα
2π 0 2π 3π
2
(34)
Di Renzo and Song Page 23 of 25
√
where (a) follows from p = Rnet u = Rnet υ, and (b) follows by solving the integral
with respect to υ whose probability density function is fυ (υ) = 2υ, since u is uni-
formly distributed in [0, 1].
E.1.2
Case 1-b
1 mp
If mp sin α+cos α − cos α > 0 and mp sin α+cos α − sin α < 0, we have the follow-
ing:
2π 2π
1 1
Z Z
Pr {Event 2} = Γb1 (α)H̄ (sin α) H (cos α) dα = Γb1 (α)dα (35)
2π 0 2π 3π
2
E.1.3
Case 1-c
1 mp
If mp sin α+cos α − cos α < 0 and mp sin α+cos α − sin α > 0, we have the follow-
ing:
2π 2π
1 1
Z Z
Pr {Event2} = Γc1 (α)H̄ (sin α) H (cos α) dα = Γc1 (α)dα (36)
2π 0 2π 3π
2
E.1.4
Case 1-d
1 mp
If mp sin α+cos α − cos α < 0 and mp sin α+cos α − sin α < 0, we have the follow-
ing:
2π 2π
1 1
Z Z
Pr {Event 2} = Γd1 (α)H̄ (sin α) H (cos α) dα = Γd1 (α)dα (37)
2π 0 2π 3π
2
2π 2π
1 1
Z Z
Γa1 (α) + Γb1 (α) + Γc1 (α) + Γd1 (α) dα
Pr {Event 2} = Γ1 (α)dα =
2π 3π
2
2π 3π
2
(38)
By using a similar line of thought, the remaining three cases can be studied. The
final result is reported in the following sections.
E.2 Case 2
If xend1 > xend2 , and yend1 < yend2 , which implies sin α < 0 and cos α < 0, we
obtain the following:
3π 3π
1 1
Z 2
Z 2
Γa2 (α) + Γb2 (α) + Γc2 (α) + Γd2 (α) dα
Pr {Event 2} = Γ2 (α)dα =
2π π 2π π
(39)
Di Renzo and Song Page 24 of 25
E.3 Case 3
If xend1 < xend2 , and yend1 > yend2 , which implies sin α > 0 and cos α > 0, we have
the following:
π π
1 1
Z 2
Z 2
Γa3 (α) + Γb3 (α) + Γc3 (α) + Γd3 (α) dα
Pr {Event 2} = Γ3 (α)dα =
2π 0 2π 0
(40)
E.4 Case 4
If xend1 < xend2 , and yend1 < yend2 , which implies sin α > 0 and cos α < 0, we have
the following:
π
π
1 1
Z 2
Z
Γa4 (α) + Γb4 (α) + Γc4 (α) + Γd4 (α) dα
Pr {Event 2} = Γ4 (α)dα =
2π 0 2π π
2
(41)
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