Chapter 1

Alaska Plate Tectonics

Resources
• U.S. Geological Survey
 Fuis, G.S., and Wald, L.A., 2003, Why do earthquakes occur in southern Alaska?:
U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 014-03, 4 p. (Also available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2003/fs014-03/alaska.html.)
 Haeussler, P.J., and Plafker, G., 1995, Earthquakes in Alaska: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report, 95-624, 1 sheet. (Available at
o PDF Poster http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of95-624/of95-624L.pdf
o PDF page-size http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of95-624/of95-624.pdf
 Kious, W.J., and Tilling, R.I., 1996, This dynamic Earth—The story of plate
tectonics [online edition]: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey website.
(Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html and
o Some unanswered questions—What drives the plates?
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/unanswered.html#anchor19928310.)
 Robertson, E.C., [n.d.], The interior of the Earth: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological
Survey Generail Information Product. (Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/.)
 Shedlock, K.M., and Pakiser, L.C., 1994, Earthquakes: Reston, Va., U.S.
Geological Survey General Information Product. (Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/.)
 Simkin, T., and others, 2006, This dynamic planet—World map of volcanoes,
earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics (3rd ed.): U.S. Geological Survey
Geologic Investigations Map I-2800. (Available at
http://www.minerals.si.edu/tdpmap/ and
o Printable 8.5 x 11-inch pages
http://www.minerals.si.edu/tdpmap/printable.htm.)
 Winkler, G.R, 2000, A geologic guide to Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and
Preserve, Alaska—A tectonic collage of northbound terranes: U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 1616, p. 69–76. (Also available at
o Website Introductory Page http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1616/ and
o PDF http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1616/P1616.pdf [129 MB].)
 U.S. Geological Survey, Earthquake Hazards Program
o Wald, D., and Dewey, J.W., 2005, Did you feel it? —Citizens contribute to
earthquake science: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005-3016, 4 p. (Also
available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3016/ and
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3016/pdf/FS-2005-3016.pdf.)
o Wald, D., Wald L., Dewey, J., Quitoriano, V., and Adams, E., 2001, Did you
feel it?—Community-made earthquake shaking maps: U.S. Geological Survey
Fact Sheet 030-01, 2 p. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs030-01/
and http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs030-01/fs030-01.pdf.)

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 o Wald, D., Wald, L., Woden, B., and Goltz, J., 2003, ShakeMap—A tool for
earthquake response: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 87-03, 4 p. (Also
available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-087-03/FS-087-03-508.pdf.)
o U.S. Geological Survey, 2009, Earthquake Hazards program—Alaska
Earthquake Information: U.S. Geological Survey website. (Available at
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/index.php?regionID=3.)
• Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC), 2010, Maps: Alaska Earthquake
Information center website, accessed May 27, 2010, at
 AEIC Maps
http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/html_docs/maps.html and
 AEIC Frequently Asked Questions
http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/html_docs/faq.html.
• Lillie, R.J., 2005, Parks and plates—The geology of our National parks, monuments,
and seashores: New York, W.W. Norton and Comdishy, 298 p.
 Chapter 1: Plate tectonics, p. 5-21.
 Chapter 5: Subduction zones, southern Alaska subduction zone, p. 119-120.
 Chapter 11: Accreted terranes, Alaska—A glimpse of continental growth in
action, p. 241-245.
• Nye, C.J., McGimsey, R.G., and Power, J., 1998, Volcanoes of Alaska: Alaska
Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Information Circular 38, 1 sheet [2
sides], accessed May 27, 2010, at
 Front
http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/webpubs/dggs/ic/oversized/ic038ed1998_sh001.P
DF and
 Back
http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/webpubs/dggs/ic/oversized/ic038ed1998_sh002.P
DF

Activities
These activities include material associated with the concept of plate tectonics on a global
scale and related plate boundaries using the depth and location of associated earthquakes.
Through progression within the activities and from one activity to the next, these
concepts will be locally applied to the types of plate boundaries and associated
earthquakes and volcanic processes in Alaska. The materials included in these activities
will serve as base upon which the associated concepts of subduction and volcanism will
be built upon in subsequent chapters.

Activity I. Plate Tectonics Mapping

Activity II. Earthquake Mapping

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Activity I. Plate Tectonics Mapping

An activity or discussion illustrating the layers of the Earth and the process of mantle
convection would serve as an appropriate introduction prior to this activity. In addition to
the resources listed above, an excellent exercise for convection can be found in B.A.
Ford’s Project Earth Science—Geology published by NSTA Press in 1996 (activity 6, p.
71-79).

Grade Level 6–11

Setting Classroom

Time 45–90 minutes

Vocabulary (see Glossary)

convergence, divergence, hot spot, subduction zone, tectonic plate, trench, velocity

Correlations to Alaska State Department of Education (2006) Performance

Standards (Grade Level Expectations)
D1—Concepts of Earth Science
SD[6-11] Students develop an understanding of the concepts, processes, theories,
models, evidence, and systems of Earth and space science.
SD2[6-11] Students develop an understanding of the origins, ongoing processes, and
forces that shape the structure, composition, and physical history of the
Earth.
SD2.2[7] The student demonstrates an understanding of the forces that shape Earth
by describing how the movement of the tectonic plates results in both slow
changes (e.g., formation of mountains, ocean floors, and basins) and short-
term events (e.g., volcanic eruptions, seismic waves, and earthquakes) on
the surface.
SD2.2[9-11] Students demonstrates an understanding of the forces that shape Earth by
describing how the theory of Plate tectonics explains the dynamic nature
of its surface

Overview
Plate boundaries have an overall effect on determining the landscape and dominant
features local to a region, including volcanoes. In this activity, students will relate the
physical features of Alaska’s landscape with their associated tectonic plate boundaries,
namely convergent zones.

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Background
Alaska is home to an arc of volcanoes, which serves as one surface manifestation of the
subduction zone formed by the convergence of the North American and Pacific Plates.
Alaska’s varying geologic features, such as faults, folds, and mountains are also
associated with ongoing dynamic processes at depth associated with convergence.

Objectives
The students will be able to identify and define convergent, divergent, and transform
tectonic plate boundaries. The students will be able to describe how the velocity and
direction of movement of different plates affects the type of boundary present and will be
able to cite examples of this relationship to various landscape features in Alaska.

Materials
 the map, This Dynamic Planet by T. Simkin and others, 2006—you can enlarge the
version provided, or use a poster version of your own.
 scissors
 black felt, thick-tip pens or markers
 Plate Tectonics Q & A worksheet

Procedure
A. Teacher preparations before class
1. Study or prepare the map pieces on the page size map provided (Dynamic Planet Map
Pieces) first before cutting the poster size map to use for the activity in the classroom.
It is recommended to have an additional poster size version of the map available in
the classroom for students to view and reference during, or only after, they do the
activity. Two maps displayed in the classroom are preferred, because there is relevant
material on both sides. Another option is to enlarge and use the Dynamic Planet Map
Pieces on the page provided for the class to view after the activity is completed.

2. Use the poster size map, This Dynamic Planet. With scissors, trim off the white edges
(leaving latitude and longitude degrees) and the legend below the map. Save the
legend. Cut strips off the left and right sides of the map at 100°E longitude (some
areas of the world are duplicated on both sides of the map).

3. Cut the poster size map into pieces along the plate boundaries. Make a smooth cut
approximately on the plate boundary. You may use a simpler plate map to help you
decide where the plates begin and end. Remember use the Dynamic Planet Map
Pieces provided for guidance.

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 After cutting, you should have the following 17 pieces:
 1. African Plate (includes Nubia and Somalia Plates)
 2. - 3. Antarctic Plate (2 sections)
 4. Arabian Plate
 5. - 6. Australia Plate (2 sections)
 7. Caribbean Plate
 8. Cocos Plate
 9. - 10. Eurasia Plate (2 sections)
 11. Indian Plate
 12. Nazca Plate
 13. North American Plate
 14. Pacific Plate
 15. Philippine Plate
 16. Scotia Plate
 17. South American Plate

4. Find the arrows on most of the plates and the white numbers on many of the mid-
ocean ridges that indicate the directions and velocities of plate motion. Write the
velocity of the plate motion next to the arrows using a black felt marker or pen so that
the numbers are bigger and more visible. The length of the arrows indicate the
relative rate of plate motion (short arrows = slower velocities, long arrows = faster
velocities). The velocities are given in mm/yr. If you are more familiar with plate
motions given in cm/yr, you can write the velocities in cm/yr by “moving the decimal
point.” For example, for the Arabian Plate, the velocity is 26 mm/yr or 2.6 cm/yr. Still
further, you may want to convert it into in/yr.

5. Laminate the 17 plate pieces and cut off excess laminating material. Also, laminate
the legend (the strip cut off the bottom of the map) and save for reference (optional).

B. Students assemble the puzzle in class

1. Give one piece of the puzzle (a plate or piece of a plate) to each student or group of
students. Tell them that they will be responsible for their plate – placing it in the right
position to form the world map and determining the motion of the plate with respect
to surrounding plates. Instruct your students to assemble the map (like putting
together a jigsaw puzzle) on the floor or on a large table.

An alternative procedure that works well and stimulates thinking and discovery:
• Give a piece of the puzzle to each student (or team of students). Tell them that
these are pieces of a puzzle and that it comes from a world map.
• Their instructions are to put the puzzle together without talking. They can point to
communicate, but they must put the puzzle together in silence.
• After the puzzle is completed, the students can be asked about what they think the
pieces are and why.

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2. When the map puzzle is complete discuss with the class that the arrows and velocities
(in mm/yr, cm/yr, or in/yr – which ever you chose) indicate direction and rate of the
motion of the plates. Some plates do not include arrows. Find the highest (fastest) and
lowest (slowest) plate velocities. Comment on the speed of the plates; for example, 35
mm/yr or 3.5 cm/yr is equivalent to 35 km/million years, so the plates are not moving
very fast—about the speed that a person’s fingernails grow. Identify areas of the
Earth that are associated with the fastest plate velocities. (With older students, you
may want to tie in the concept of rates and vectors.)

3. Encourage students to spend some time looking at their plate and determining what
characteristics it may have. For instance, does the entire plate consist of a buoyant
continent or a heavy oceanic basin, or portions of both? This is important for students
to consider when determining the type of action the boundary of their plate may
make. Generally, continental crust is more buoyant (less dense) than the mantle, and
therefore resists subduction, however, after it cools, the oceanic crust is actually
denser than the mantle, which makes for easier subduction. Pay particular attention to
this during your discussion concerning convergent zones, subduction, and mountain
building.

4. Direct each student (or group of students) to determine how their plate moves with
respect to the surrounding plates. Students should discuss with each other and agree
with each other or note their differing interpretations. Ask a few students to explain
what their plate’s motion is and how it is interacting with adjacent plates.

5. Discuss with your students the locations that are associated with the different types of
plate boundaries. For each of these examples, move the appropriate plates a small
amount in the direction of the arrows to see what the plate interactions will be.
Question or comment on the features that are associated with the plate boundaries—
earthquakes, mountain ranges, deep-sea trenches, volcanoes. For this and other parts
of the activity, it is convenient for the class to stand around the map and to use a laser
pointer or a meter stick (or a ski pole!) to point our individual plates or plate
boundaries. The example summaries below are from:
• Braile, Larry, and Braile, Sheryl, 2006, Plate puzzle: West Lafayette, Ind., Purdue
University, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences website. (Available at
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/platepuzz/platepuzz.htm.)
• Kious, W.J., and Tilling, R.I., 1996, This dynamic Earth—The story of plate
tectonics [online edition]: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey website.
(Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html.)

9
Plate Movements
Convergence: The South American Plate and the Nazca Plate, the western Pacific,
Indian, and Eurasia (1) Plates. Note that convergence occurs when two plates are
moving in almost directions toward each other (for example, South America Plate and
Nazca Plate), or when two plates are moving in nearly the same direction but the plate
that is “following” is moving faster (for example, the Pacific Plate and the Philippine
Plate).

These two types of motions that result in convergence could be modeled with two
parallel lines of students representing the edges of two plates. In the first type of
convergence, the students face each other and walk slowly forward until collision. In
the second type of convergence, the students face the same direction and walk slowly
forward, with the second line of students walking faster until colliding with the first
line.

Divergence: The Mid Atlantic Ridge. Point out that Iceland straddles two sides of the
East Pacific Rise, thus is on two separate divergent plates, the North American and
Eurasian Plates.

Transform: The San Andreas fault in California, the Alpine fault in New Zealand,
and the transform faults along the southern boundary of the Nazca Plate.

Combination of movements: Sometimes the plate motions and interactions are more
complicated. For example, for the North American and Pacific Plates, the Pacific
Plate is moving approximately northwest and the North American Plate is moving
approximately southwest. The combination of these motions and the irregularly
shaped plate boundaries results in convergence along the Aleutian Islands, divergence
at the Juan de Fuca Ridge and predominately transforms motions along the San
Andreas Fault and within the Gulf of California.

Hot Spots: Note the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Plate. Although the
islands are not near a plate boundary, they are very active seismically and
volcanically. The ages of the volcanic rocks in the Hawaiian Islands, the chain of
seamounts to the west-northwest, and the Emperor seamounts located farther west
and north, all increase toward the west and north. These observations indicate that the
Hawaiian Island chain is the track of a mantle hotspot, currently located beneath the
southeastern part of the Island of Hawai`i (the “Big Island”). The volcanic islands and
seamounts at the northern end of the Emperor Seamounts, near the Aleutian Trench,
are more than 65 million years old. At the “bend” in the seamount chains, which
connects the Emperor and Hawaiian chains, the volcanic rocks are about 42 million
years old. At Kauai, the westernmost of the main Hawaiian Islands, the volcanic
rocks are about 5 million years old. The Big Island (Hawai`i) is less than 1 million
years old and eruptions are occurring today.

10
 To model the hotspot, place the flashlight under the north end of the Emperor
Seamount chain and cause the plate to move northwest and then west-northwest (at
the “bend”) until the flashlight is at the current position of the hotspot under Hawai`i.

For discussion:
• What direction has the plate been moving (with respect to the mantle
hotspot)?
• Where will the future volcanic chain of islands and seamounts be?
• How fast is the plate moving at Hawai`i?
• Does the velocity measurement (near the arrow) agree with the velocity
estimated from the volcanic ages (divide the distance in km from Hawai`i
to the “bend” by 42 million years, then convert to mm/yr or cm/yr)?

Note Mention to students that scientific understanding of ongoing and dynamic

processes below the Earth’s surface is an ongoing process in itself. There has been
research that indicates that the bend of the Hawaiian-Emperor hotspot track
mentioned above may have been formed by a fast change in position of the
Hawaiian hotspot (Tarduno and others, 2003)!

C. Exploring plate boundaries in Alaska

1. Convergence in the form of a subduction zone plays a major role in Alaskan
volcanism. Be sure to stress the presence of a subduction zone along southern Alaska
and note that it, like other convergent boundaries, experiences a great deal of
volcanism due to the melting of rock above the subducting plates.

2. Point out that the map shows (and you can demonstrate by moving pieces) that the
Pacific Plate is moving towards Alaska causing convergence and as it subducts it will
melt and generate the volcanism witnessed in Alaska. You can also mention the
existence of both continental and ocean crust playing key roles at this subduction
zone as illustrated in the following figure provided by the Alaska Earthquake
Information Center (AEIC).

Oceanic
Crust

Continental
Crust
Alaska

ench
ianTr
Aleut
Oceanic
Crust

11
3. Ask students if there are any other instances in the world where a convergent
boundary is in an area of great volcanism. Emphasize the volcanism and subduction
of Kamchatka, Russia, and Japan. Discuss and outline the “Ring of Fire.”

4. Focus for a bit more on Alaska. According to the Alaska Earthquake Information
Center website, Alaska is the most tectonically active region in the United States -
experiencing more than half of all earthquakes recorded in North America annually.
At the northwest corner of North America, Alaska is situated at the receiving end of
the Pacific Plate, which slides laterally past southeast Alaska and collides directly
with the North American Plate across southcentral Alaska and along the length of
Aleutian Arc. The accumulation of tectonic stresses at depth along the plate
boundaries and the translation of those stresses into the shallower crust of southern
Alaska are the driving forces behind the high level of earthquake activity that occurs
in the state.

5. You may wish to use additional maps to illustrate specific tectonic features in Alaska.
Here are some resources:
• Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC), 2010, Maps: Alaska Earthquake
Information center website, accessed May 27, 2010, at
http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/html_docs/maps.html.
• Haeussler, P.J., and Plafker, G., 1995, Earthquakes in Alaska: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report, 95-624, 1 sheet. (Also available at
 PDF Poster http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of95-624/of95-624L.pdf
and
 PDF page-size http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of95-624/of95-624.pdf.)

As illustrated on the USGS and AEIC Earthquakes in Alaska map, earthquake risk is
high in much of the southern half of Alaska, but the risk is not the same everywhere.
This map shows the overall geologic setting that produces earthquakes in Alaska. The
Pacific Plate (darker blue) is sliding northwestward past southeastern Alaska and then
dives beneath the North American Plate (light blue, green, and brown) in southern
Alaska, the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands. Most earthquakes are
produced where these two plates come into contact and slide past each other. Major
earthquakes also occur throughout much of interior Alaska and result from a collision
of a piece of crust with the southern border. A more detailed tectonic map of southern
Alaska is on p. 70 of:
• Winkler, G.R, 2000, A geologic guide to Wrangell―Saint Elias National Park and
Preserve, Alaska—A tectonic collage of northbound terranes: U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 1616, 166 p. (Also available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1616/P1616.pdf [129 MB].)

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D. Plate tectonics Q&A worksheet
1. Direct the students to fill out the Plate tectonics Q&A worksheet or use the questions
selectively to generate class discussion.

Extensions
1. Education Multimedia Isolation Visualization Center, 2008, Animation clips related
to plate tectonics: Santa Barbara, Calif., University of California website, accessed
June 1, 2010, at http://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/downloads.php.

2. Incorporate discussion on the Denali Fault earthquake of 2002.

Fuis, G.S., and Wald, L.A., 2003, Rupture in south-central Alaska—The Denali Fault
earthquake of 2002, U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 014-03, 4 p. (Also available
at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2003/fs014-03/index.html.)

Modified from
Braile, Larry, and Braile, Sheryl, 2006, Plate puzzle: West Lafayette, Ind., Purdue
University, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, accessed June 1, 2010, at
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/platepuzz/platepuzz.htm.

References Cited
Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC), 2010, The tectonic setting of Alaska and
how it causes earthquake in our state: Alaska Earthquake Information center website,
accessed June 1, 2010, at http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/vltpage2.html.
Alaska State Department of Education and Early Development, 2006, Standards and
grade level expectations, March 2006: State of Alaska website, accessed October 2009
at http://www.eed.state.ak.us/tls/assessment/GLEHome.html.
Simkin, T., and others, 2006, This dynamic planet—World map of volcanoes,
earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic
Investigations Map I-2800 1 sheet [2 sides]. (Also available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/2800/.)
Tarduno, J.A., and others, 2003, The Emperor Seamounts—Southward motion of the
Hawaiian hotspot plume in Earth's mantle: Science, v. 301, no. 5636, p. 1064-1069.

Glossary
Convergence―The act of two tectonic plates coming together, including subduction.

Divergence―The act of two tectonic plates moving away from each other.

Hot spot―An area where magma from deep within the mantle melts through the crust
above it.

Subduction Zone―The zone of convergence of two tectonic plates, one of which usually
overrides the subducting plate leading to localized volcanism.

Tectonic Plate―A segment of the Earth's crust that moves relative to other segments and
is characterized by volcanic and seismic activity around its margins.

13
Trench―A long narrow valley on an ocean or sea floor that occurs where two plates
converge or subduct.

Velocity―The time rate of change of position of a body in a specified direction.

Sources of Glossary Definitions

Kious, W.J., and Tilling, R.I., 1996, This dynamic Earth—The story of plate tectonics
[online edition]: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey website. (Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html.)
Stein, Jess, ed., 1982, The Random House College Dictionary Revised Edition: New
York, Random House, Inc.

14
 Dynamic Planet Map Pieces
Simkin, T., and others, 2006, This dynamic planet—World map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Investigations Map I-2800.

15
Name ____________________________________ Date ______________ Period _____

Plate Tectonics Q&A

1. What type of boundary exists in southern Alaska between the Pacific and North
American Plates?

2. Why is the boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates different in
Alaska than it is in California? Why might that give us a clue as to why Alaska has so
many volcanoes?

3. What happens when the plates move apart at the mid-ocean ridges? Note Iceland, an
area of active volcanism, located along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

4. What direction do you think that the Pacific Plate is moving? How do you know?

5. How does the plate boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates account
for or contribute to volcanism in Alaska? Draw a figure that shows this relationship.

6. Can all of the current and historical activity (last 250 years) at Alaska’s volcanoes be
accounted for due to subduction and the generation of the Aleutian Arc? Are there
volcanoes in Alaska that do not lie on the Aleutian Arc? How might they have
formed?

7. What is the cause of the Himalayan Mountains? Why is this zone of convergence
unique on the Earth today? Are there Alaskan analogs to this kind of plate boundary?

16
 Plate Tectonics Q&A Key
1. What type of boundary exists in Southern Alaska between the Pacific and North
American Plates?

Subduction, a combination of ocean-ocean and continental-oceanic

collision/convergence

2. Why is the boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates different in
Alaska than it is in California? Why might that give us a clue as to why Alaska has so
many volcanoes?

The direction of Pacific Plate movement is toward the northwest relative to the North
American Plate. In Alaska, subduction is the dominant boundary process; however,
along California’s southern and central coast, the relative plate motion is transform,
with the Pacific Plate scraping along the edge of the North American Plate. Without a
subducting slab to contribute to the generation of molten material, there is no source
for the production of volcanism. Subduction off the coast of northern California,
Oregon, and Washington, is the primary source of magma for the Cascade volcanoes.

3. What happens when the plates move apart at the mid-ocean ridges? Note Iceland, an
area of active volcanism, located along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Although the predominant plate motion is divergence, separate ridge segments are
offset by transform faults. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge shows a number of great examples
of divergence.

4. What direction do you think that the Pacific Plate is moving? How do you know?

The Pacific Plate is moving northwestward (white arrows point in that direction). In
addition, the map shows a northwestward appearance of the Hawaiian Islands, which
are produced as a mostly stationary hot spot form volcanic features on the overriding
plate over time as it moves. Alternately, there is scientific discussion concerning the
movement of the hotspot that may be associated with the current thinking concerning
a change in direction of the movement of the Pacific Plate (see section in the activity
on “hot spots”).

17
5. How does the plate boundary between the Pacific and North American Plates account
for or contribute to volcanism in Alaska? Draw one or more figures that illustrate
these relations.

Subduction processes during plate convergence result in the formation of volcanoes.

When the convergence is under the ocean, over millions of years, the erupted lava and
volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea
level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes typically are strung out in chains
called island arcs, such as the Aleutian Arc (and associated Aleutian Trench). As the
name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely parallel the trenches, generally are
curved. The trenches are the key to understanding how island arcs such as the
Marianas and the Aleutian Islands have formed and why they experience numerous
strong earthquakes. Magmas that form island arcs are produced by the partial melting
of the descending plate and (or) the overlying oceanic lithosphere. The descending
plate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact, leading to frequent
moderate to strong earthquakes. Associated figures are provided below.

From Kious and Tilling, 1996 http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html

Oceanic
Crust

Continental
Crust
Alaska

ench
ianTr
Aleut
Oceanic
Crust

From Alaska Earthquake Information Center

18
6. Can all of the current and historic activity (last 250 years) at Alaska’s volcanoes be
accounted for due to subduction and the generation of the Aleutian Arc? Are there
volcanoes in Alaska that do not lie on the Aleutian Arc? How might they have
formed?

For the most part the process of subduction contributes to the historic activity of
Alaska’s volcanoes. This includes Mt. Wrangell and mud volcanoes near the difficult
but accomplished subduction of the Yakutat block (or terrane) which was carried to
the region on the Pacific Plate.

7. What is the cause of the Himalayan Mountains? Why is this zone of convergence
unique on the Earth today? Are there Alaskan analogs to this kind of plate boundary?

Continent to continent collision or convergence is the type of plate motion that

continues to cause rise of the Himalayas. Rocks within the Indian and Asian
continents are of similar rock density. Because the one plate does not subduct beneath
the other, pressure of the colliding plates is relieved by upward thrusting, and
formation of the Himalayas. Mt. Everest, in the Himalayas, is the world’s tallest peak
on land at 29,035 ft (~8,850 m) high. The same mechanism applies to the
development of the St. Elias Range in Alaska. The St. Elias Range is rising rapidly
today because of the collision of the Yakutat block (or terrane), which does not easily
subduct and thus causes mountain building.

19
Activity II. Earthquake Mapping

Grade Level 6―11

Setting Classroom

Time 50 minutes

Vocabulary (see Glossary)

latitude, longitude, plate boundary, seismicity, subduction zone, tectonic

Correlations to Alaska State Department of Education (2006) Performance

Standards (Grade Level Expectations)
D1—Concepts of Earth Science
SD[6-11] Students develop an understanding of the concepts, processes, theories,
models, evidence, and systems of Earth and space science.
SD2[6-11] Students develop an understanding of the origins, ongoing processes, and
forces that shape the structure, composition, and physical history of the
Earth.
SD2.2[7] The student demonstrates an understanding of the forces that shape Earth
by describing how the movement of the tectonic plates results in both slow
changes (e.g., formation of mountains, ocean floors, and basins) and short
–term events (e.g., volcanic eruptions, seismic waves, and earthquakes) on
the surface.
SD2.2[9-11] Students demonstrate an understanding of the forces that shape Earth by
describing how the theory of Plate tectonics explains the dynamic nature
of its surface

Overview
In addition to the observations of sea floor spreading stripes due to magnetic pole
reversals, the history of determining the location of plate boundaries involves
determining the location and depth of earthquakes. The location of earthquakes tends to
correspond to the location of plate boundaries and the depth of earthquakes corresponds
to the type of process occurring at the plate boundary. In this activity, students will build
an interactive map of earthquakes to illustrate the relation between the location and depth
of earthquake occurrences, and associated plate tectonic boundaries worldwide and
specifically, in Alaska.

Background
Generally, the depth of an earthquake is related to the type of tectonic boundary in which
it occurs. Relatively shallow earthquakes occur at divergent and transform boundaries
and hotspots. Closely spaced earthquakes with a range of depths that deepen in the
direction of plate movement can reflect a subducting plate at a convergent boundary.
Plotting the location and depth of earthquakes in a latitude and longitude area can
illustrate a rough outline of the plate boundaries of the Earth and the type of plate
boundary in which they occur. You can see this relation using the following figures
modified from Lillie, 2005.
20
 S S

i dge
S
S
S S
M

ic R
M S S
M MSS S S SS
S MS S S S
SS S
MM MS S S S
S
S D D MS MM MM SS S S

ant
DM MS SSS S S MM M M S S
S S S
MMS SS SS
S S S S
M S S S S SSSS S S S S SS S
DMS S SS S S S M
MS S
S S S S

-Atl
M S
MMM S D MS S S S SS S
MM D DMS S S SSS S S
S S S
S S S SSS
SS S
SM S D D MS
D MS A Sa S SS
S SS SS S S
S S S S S S S S
S S
S S S SS
D
n S SS S S S S S S

Mid
DMSMS S
Fa dre n
S
SS S S S S S SS SS S S S
SS S S S S MS M S S S S S S MS M
S SS
S S M S D D M S S S S
S M SS SS
S S S S SS DM S
DDMS u as S S S SS M M S S
S
SS S
S

Hawaii lt
MS S SS S
S M S DMS
M S S S
MM MS
MS S S S
SS
S S DSS M SS S S
S
SS M
M S MS SS S
S S S S S
S DM S S S SM S S S S S S SS
S
DMS S S SSM S

South Amer
S
S D MSS S DD D D S S S S S S S S
SS M M
S MM M S M S S S S
S MD M SS S SS S S S S MM S S
S MD SS SS S MM S
S MDM D M M M
DDD S S S S
S S MMM MS S S M
S S S MD S S M SS
S S S S MDD S
M S MM S S
S SM S D
S SM S SS S S MM S
S S S SMM S S S MD S
S M SM S
S S MS SS S MD
SS S MS S D S
MS S D
S
SS SS D S
S SS S SMD S
S S S S S S
M S S SM S
S S S S S S

ica
S S S S
S S S S SS S
S S
S S S
S S S SS S
S
S S S S S S S S
S
S
S S S S S S S
S S S S S S S S
S S S SSS S
SS
S SS
S S
S S
S S SS
S S S S S S
S S
S S
S S S

S = Shallow (< 40 miles) M = Intermediate (40 - 200 miles) D = Deep (> 200 miles)

Eurasian
Eurasian North
American
Plate Plate
Juan de Plate
Fuca Plate
Philippine
Plate
Cocos
Plate African
Pacific Caribbean
Plate
Plate Plate
Nazca South
Indo-Australian Plate
American
Plate Plate

Scotia
Antarctic Plate Plate
"Teeth" on
Divergent Convergent Overriding Plate Transform

Modified from Lillie, 2005

The subducting part of the Pacific Plate generates a significant number of earthquakes.
As the Pacific Plate deepens under the North American Plate, the depth of earthquakes
generated by this subduction also deepens. The depth where the crust is no longer brittle
enough to produce earthquakes is the maximum depth where earthquakes can be used to
identify a subducting plate. The Pacific Plate is subducting under the North American
Plate at an angle that shallows westward, so the region of earthquakes associated with the
subducting plate also shallows westward. This phenomenon in Alaska can be illustrated
by using the next set of figures from the Alaska Earthquake Information Center.

21
 70˚
N
Depth
-10-30 km
30-100 km 65˚
N
100-150 km
150-300 km

60˚
N

55˚
N

50˚
N
180
˚

0 km 500 W
130˚
170˚
W
160˚W 140˚W
150˚W

NW SE

0
20
40
depth in km

60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
distance in km

The above figures show earthquakes in Alaska greater than or equal to M2 (magnitude 2)
recorded between 1970 and 2008. The cross section above is taken across the subduction
zone in south-central Alaska and is represented by the dashed line in the top figure. The
colors of earthquake locations represent the depth of the earthquakes as noted on the map.
Figure modified courtesy of Lea Burris, Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC).

22
Objective
The students will be able to illustrate the connection between plate boundaries, tectonic
activity, and the depth and location of earthquakes (also known as seismic events) with
an emphasis in Alaska.

Materials
 provided continent outline maps (world and Alaska)
 blank, transparent overhead sheets (transparencies)
 fine tipped markers that will work on overheads (transparencies)
 clear tape
 overhead projector and screen or wall on which to project
 Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) list of global earthquakes
from last 30 days available at http://www.iris.edu/seismon/last30.html
 Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC) list of Alaskan earthquakes for a few
days previous available at
http://Earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsus/Maps/special/Alaska.php

Procedure
A. Building an illustrative tectonic map of the world
1. To build an illustrative tectonic map of the world, instruct each group of students to
plot a different set of earthquakes from the IRIS list of global earthquakes from the
last 30 days, which have been downloaded or provided.

2. Direct students to lay an overhead sheet carefully over the world map given using the
lines of latitude and longitude for guidance.

3. Further, instruct students to align the two sheets carefully and then clip or tape
together so they will not move.

4. Assign each group some of the earthquakes and a few volcanoes to map on their
sheet. For this part of the exercise, students plot shallowest earthquakes and a single
color should be used by all groups to identify that these are the shallowest
earthquakes plotted. Many sources are available online for location maps of
volcanoes. One source is the:
• Smithsonian Institution [n.d.], Global volcanism program—Find a Volcano by
Region: Smithsonian Institution web page, accessed June 1, 2010, at
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/find_regions.cfm.

23
5. After the groups have finished this exercise, instruct the students to layer the mapped
overhead sheets (making sure that the orientation is the same for each layer) on top of
each other in a single pile on one desk and view from above. Students also can be
instructed to pile overhead sheets on top of the overhead projector for display on a
screen or wall) and watch as the plotted earthquakes begin to outline the plate
boundaries (as seen in the figure in the Background section).

6. If a rough outline of the plate boundaries cannot be seen, assign the students an
additional set of deeper earthquakes to plot in another color and stack up their results
again. Repeat until the outlines of the plates are apparent.

B. Building an illustrative tectonic map of Alaska

1. To build an illustrative tectonic map of Alaska given, instruct each group of students
to plot a different set of earthquakes from the list downloaded or provided.

2. Direct the students to lay an overhead sheet carefully over the map of Alaska and use
the lines of latitude and longitude as guides.

3. Further, instruct students to align the two sheets carefully and then clip or tape
together so they will not move.

4. Assign each group some of the earthquakes and a few volcanoes to map on their
sheet. It is best if you assign earthquakes in depth ranges to different groups of
students. For instance a shallow set, an intermediate set, and a deep set. The students
should plot these sets with a different color representing each set. Many online
sources are available for location maps of volcanoes. Sources include:
• Alaska Volcano Observatory, [n.d.], Regional map of Alaskan volcanoes: Alaska
Volcano Observatory webpage. (Available at
http://www.avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/.)
• Nye, C.J., McGimsey, R.G., and Power, J., 1998, Volcanoes of Alaska: Alaska
Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys Information Circular 38, 1 sheet
[2 sides], accessed May 27, 2010, at
 PDF Front
http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/webpubs/dggs/ic/oversized/ic038ed1998_sh0
01.PDF and
 PDF Back
http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/webpubs/dggs/ic/oversized/ic038ed1998_sh0
02.PDF
• Schaefer, J., and Nye, C.J., 2002, Historically active volcanoes of the Aleutian
Arc: Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys Miscellaneous
Publication MP 0123, 1 sheet, accessed June 1, 2010, at
http://www.avo.alaska.edu/pdfs/mp123.pdf.
• Smithsonian Institution, [n.d.], Global volcanism program—Volcanoes of Alaska
map: Smithsonian Institution web page, accessed June 1, 2010, at
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=11.

24
5. After the groups have finished, instruct the students to layer the mapped overhead
sheets (making sure that the orientation is the same for each layer) on top of each
other in a single pile on one desk and view from above. Students also can be
instructed to pile sheets on top of the overhead projector for display on a screen or
wall) and watch as the plotted earthquakes begin to outline the subduction zone at this
convergent plate boundary.

6. The compilation of the plots should illustrate a progression of shallow to deep

earthquakes at the Pacific Plate and North American Plate subduction zone.

7. If a rough outline of the subduction zone cannot be seen, assign the students an
additional set of deeper earthquakes to plot in another color and stack up their results
again. Repeat until the outlines of the subduction zone is apparent.

C. Discussion
1. Conduct a class discussion about why earthquakes occur along tectonic plate
boundaries, worldwide, and in Alaska.

2. Use the figures from the Background section (available in the companion digital
presentation) to illustrate the coherence with which thousands of plotted earthquakes
image the plate boundaries worldwide and the subduction zone of southern Alaska.

3. Elaborate on the Pacific Plate and North American Plate subduction zone cross
section including the angle of subduction and its relation to earthquake depth. You
may ask students to draw or describe an additional cross section west of the cross
section shown in the figure.

Extensions
1. Have students plot earthquakes from the same general location vs. depth and
summarize the connections between earthquake depth and plate boundary type.

2. Saltus, R.W., and Barnett, A., 2000, Eastern Aleutian volcanic arc digital model―ver.
1.0: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-365. (Available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/ofr-00-0365/report.htm.)

3. UNAVCO, 2010, Jules Verne Voyager Jr. Map Tool: UNAVCO web page, accessed
June 1, 2010, at http://jules.unavco.org/VoyagerJr/Earth.

4. Van Wagner, Lois, 1991, The great continental drift mystery: Yale—New Haven
Teachers Institute, Global Change, Volume VI, accessed May 27, 2010 at
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/6/91.06.05.x.html.

25
References Cited
Alaska Earthquake Information Center (AEIC), 2010, Patterns of regional seismicity and
major earthquakes: Alaska Earthquake Information center website, accessed May 27,
2010, at http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/vltpage3.html.
Alaska State Department of Education and Early Development, 2006, Standards and
grade level expectations, March 2006: State of Alaska website, accessed October 2009
at http://www.eed.state.ak.us/tls/assessment/GLEHome.html.
Lillie, R.J., 2005, Parks and plates—The geology of our National parks, monuments and
seashores: New York, W.W. Norton and Comdishy, 298 p.
• Chapter 1: Plate tectonics, p. 5–21; figure 1.1, p. 6; figure 1.9, p. 10.
• Chapter 5: Subduction zones, southern Alaska subduction zone, p. 119-120.
• Chapter 11: Accreted terranes, Alaska: A glimpse of continental growth in action,
p. 241-245.

Modified from
Atwater, Tanya, 2008, World tectonics map exercise—World earthquake and volcanoes
map exercise: Santa Barbara, University of California website, accessed June 1, 2010,
at http://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/download/worldtectonicsmap.php.
Driedger, C.L., Doherty, Anne, and Dixon, Cheryll, 2005, Living with a volcano in your
backyard—An educator's guide with emphasis on Mount Rainier: U.S. Geological
Survey General Interest Product 19; produced in cooperation with the National Park
Service, available at
• Chapter 1: What the past tells us—Surrounded by volcanoes:
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/Publications/GIP19/framework.html and
• http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/Publications/GIP19/chapter_one_surrounded_b
y_volcanoes.pdf (6.9 MB)

Glossary
Latitude–The angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface north or south or the
equator, measured along a meridian.

Longitude–The angular distance between the meridian of a given place and the prime
meridian of Greenwich, England, measured east or west to a maximum value of 180
degrees.

Plate boundary–An area on the margins of tectonic plates where seismic, volcanic, and
tectonic activity takes place because of the relative motion of the plates.

Seismicity–The distribution and frequency of seismic events such as earthquakes or fault

movement.

Subduction Zone–The zone of convergence of two tectonic plates, one of which usually
overrides the subducting plate.

26
Tectonic–Refers to earthquakes generated by faulting rather than by volcanic activity.
Latitude: an imaginary line joining points on Earth's surface that are all of equal distance
north or south of the equator.

Sources of Glossary Definitions

Bates, R.K., and Jackson, J.A., eds., 1987, Glossary of Geology (3rd ed.): Falls Church,
Va., American Geological Institute, 571 p.
Kious, W.J., and Tilling, R.I., 1996. This dynamic Earth—The story of plate tectonics:
U.S. Geological Survey General Information Product. (Also available at
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html.)

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