materials

Article
A Study on Drilling High-Strength CFRP Laminates:
Frictional Heat and Cutting Temperature
Jinyang Xu 1, * , Chao Li 1 , Jiaqiang Dang 1 , Mohamed El Mansori 2,3 and Fei Ren 4
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China;
mrlilynn@sjtu.edu.cn (C.L.); jqdang@sjtu.edu.cn (J.D.)
2 MSMP—EA 7350, Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Châlons-en-Champagne 51006, France;
mohamed.elmansori@ensam.eu
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA
4 Shanghai Aerospace Equipments Manufacturer Co., Ltd., Shanghai 200245, China; renfei_149@163.com
* Correspondence: xujinyang@sjtu.edu.cn




Received: 29 September 2018; Accepted: 23 November 2018; Published: 25 November 2018


Abstract: High-strength carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have become popular
materials to be utilized in the aerospace and automotive industries, due to their unique and
superior mechanical properties. An understanding of cutting temperatures is rather important
when dealing with high-strength CFRPs, since machining defects are likely to occur because of
high temperatures (especially in the semi-closed drilling process). The friction behavior at the flank
tool-workpiece interface when drilling CFRPs plays a vital role in the heat generation, which still
remains poorly understood. The aim of this paper is to address the friction-induced heat based
on two specially-designed tribometers to simulate different sliding velocities, similar to those
occurring along the flank tool-work interface in drilling. The elastic recovery effect during the
drilling process was considered during the tribo-drilling experiments. The drilling temperatures were
calculated by the analytical model and verified by the in-situ experimental results gained using the
embedded thermocouples into the drills. The results indicate that the magnitudes of the interfacial
friction coefficients between the cemented carbide tool and the CFRP specimen are within the range
between 0.135–0.168 under the examined conditions. Additionally, the friction caused by the plastic
deformation and elastic recovery effects plays a dominant role when the sliding velocity increases.
The findings in this paper point out the impact of the friction-induced heat and cutting parameters
on the overall drilling temperature.

Keywords: high-strength CFRP composites; drilling; frictional heat; cutting temperature

1. Introduction
High-strength carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have become one of the most
popular materials in many industries, including aerospace, automobile, etc., due to their excellent
mechanical properties of high specific tensile strength, fracture toughness, modulus and fatigue
strength. Meanwhile, the CFRP materials meet the lightweight requirements for aircraft structures in
order to reduce fuel consumption in regard to economic and environmental reasons while maintaining
durability and safety standards [1,2]. Generally, CFRP components are manufactured by prepregs
utilizing carbon fibers impregnated with thermoset resin. Prepreg sheets are formed by laying up and
heat curing. Even so, a variety of the cured CFRP parts still require a secondary machining to satisfy
the final dimensional accuracy, since the layered prepreg sheets possess a redundant edge. Mechanical
joining is also inevitable for the assembly process of CFRP parts. Compared with the joining of metals
by welding, CFRP composites are often assembled via the use of bolt or rivet connections, requiring

Materials 2018, 11, 2366; doi:10.3390/ma11122366 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2018, 11, 2366 2 of 13

a large number of holes to be drilled in the structural components. Additionally, some composite parts
need drilling operations to accommodate hardware and other fasteners [3].
Regarding the development of materials, as well as the requirement of high efficiency/quality
in drilling process, a large number of novel methods are being employed for the drilling of
high-strength CFRP, such as laser beam drilling [4,5], abrasive water jet drilling [6,7], rotary ultrasonic
drilling [8] and electrical discharge drilling [9,10]. A number of investigations have been conducted
with respect to the involved non-conventional methods. Laser beam drilling is one of the most
important unconventional machining processes that is employed in machining the high-strength
steels, metal alloys, ceramics, composites and superalloys with satisfaction. Abrasive water jet
processing generally induces no thermal damage in the machined surface; however, the machining
cost is relatively high. Additionally, it is of great difficulty of processing where the jet does not
penetrate. Rotary ultrasonic drilling has been widely used in hole-drilling of brittle materials and
composites owing to its advantage of reducing cutting forces and improving machining quality.
The electrical discharge drilling has been proved to be a feasible technology in producing defect-free
holes. Although the non-conventional hole-making technologies have been widely studied in detail,
conventional drilling using the standard drill bits still remains one of the most economical operations
for practical purposes [11].
It is more challenging to drill high-strength CFRP composites reinforced with long fibers compared
with some metal materials. For instance, the presence of uncut polyester fibers often leads to an increase
of machined surface roughness [12]. The chip removal mechanism of the CFRP composite is quite
different from that of metals in view of the fact that CFRP composites are characterized by multi-scale
characteristics in nature and anisotropy in properties [13]. Besides, resins are easier to fracture than
fibers and the adhesive strength between resins and fibers are relatively lower compared with the
fracture strength of the reinforcing fibers [14]. Hence, mechanical defects, such as tearing, spalling,
delamination and fiber pullout are more likely to occur during the drilling process [15]. To address
the aforementioned machining defects, a large number of analytical and numerical models have been
developed by achieving some favorable results. However, to obtain drilled holes with high quality the
machinists should not only deal with the mechanical damage induced in drilling, but also pay more
attention to the issue of the cutting temperature caused by the interaction between the drill bit and the
workpiece, since it greatly affects the machined surface quality and the tool life. For a typical CFRP
material, the glass transition temperature is approximately 180 ◦ C, over which resin degradation occurs
within the subsurface layers. The resin degradation is more likely to induce interlaminar delamination,
fiber/matrix interface debonding and reduce the strength of the material, exacerbating the extents of
the machining defects [16].
A variety of temperature measuring methods utilized to monitor different machining processes,
combining analytical, numerical and experimental techniques, were performed in the open literature.
The method of embedding thermocouples into the drill bit remains the most-used and the earliest
technique to capture the cutting temperatures and thermal gradients of the cutting edges during the
drilling process. Samy et al. [17] analyzed the effects of cutting parameters on the temperature,
thrust force and surface roughness in drilling composites where the methods of embedded
thermocouples and infrared camera were used. The results indicate that a larger point angle at higher
spindle speeds increases the temperature developed in the surface of holes, which is attributed to the
high frictional contact between the tool and the workpiece. Brinksmeier et al. [18] made a comparative
study between the conventional drilling and orbital drilling of aluminum/CFRP/titanium composites
in terms of the cutting temperature measured by the embedded thermocouples into the tool tip.
The authors reported that the orbital drilling induced lower cutting temperatures compared with
the conventional drilling under the conditions of identical cutting speeds and the surface integrity
of boreholes produced by the orbital drilling is much better than the conventional drilling. Another
method is the use of wireless systems to transmit the acquired data from the spindle during
the machining of composites [19,20]. Additionally, a number of non-contact techniques, such as
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 3 of 13

infrared radiation were utilized to measure the temperatures developed in different machining
operations [21,22]. Apart from the above studies, the thermal behavior and heat transfer mechanisms
of fibrous composites were studied by several researchers. Tian and Cole [23] studied the thermal
properties of CFRP composites and concluded that the fibrous composite presented an anisotropic
thermal conductivity varying in the in-plane and through-thickness directions. Merino-Pérez et al. [24]
studied the influence of material properties and cutting speeds on the heat dissipation during drilling
CFRP by adopting both the methods of the embedded thermocouples and the infrared camera.
The results implied that the cross-linking density of the matrix, the crystallinity, as well as the structure
of the reinforcing fibers affect the heat dissipation and the overall temperatures.
However, issues relating to the heat generation in the material removal when drilling the fibrous
composites are still not widely addressed in the literature. Regarding the conventional drilling process,
the input energy is generally dissipated by two parts, namely the chip separation and the friction
at the tool-chip and tool-work interfaces. Since the CFRP chips are separated by brittle fracture
without undergoing elastoplastic deformations, the heat produced by the chip breakage is relatively
low, which can be reasonably neglected. In contrast, a large amount of the cutting heat is dissipated
by the chips. The powder-like composite chips would reduce the contact length of the tool-chip
interaction zone and further suppress the frictional heat generation at the tool-chip interface. However,
the interaction at the tool-work interface plays a vital role in the frictional heat generation because
of the elastic recovery effects. Additionally, the friction-induced heat can easily accumulate at the
tool flank face, which may dissipate into the machined CFRP surface particularly in the semi-closed
drilling operation. The present study is an extension of our previous work [25] aiming to eliminate
the errors induced by the method of designing experiments, which will be discussed in detail in
the following subsections and to address fundamentally the friction-induced heat in drilling CFRP
composites. The drilling temperature and friction-induced temperature were recorded in-situ through
the use of the thermocouples embedded into the drills and pins, respectively. The obtained results
were correlated to the used cutting parameters.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Workpiece Specimens

The composite plates investigated in this work were multilayer high-strength CFRP laminates
fabricated by carbon fibers and epoxy prepregs containing a 65% fiber volume fraction. The matrix is
an X850 epoxy material and the reinforcement is T800 carbon fibers. The physical properties of the
composite specimens are given in Table 1. Two different structures of CFRP specimens were adopted
in the present work consisting of a standard laminate for the drilling tests and a modified laminate
for the pin-on-disc tests that was milled to expose the contact surface according to the tool geometry,
analogous to the flank tool-work interface between the cutting edge and the workpiece. The plate was
cut off to the size of 45 mm × 40 mm × 5 mm, the structure of which is depicted in Figure 1.

Table 1. Physical properties of the studied T800/X850 CFRP composite.

Density Tensile Compressive Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat

Material
(g/cm3 ) Modulus (GPa) Modulus (MPa) (W/(m·K)) Capacity J/(kg·K)
T800/X850 1.6 180 160 ~15.10 × 10−2 0.18
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 4 of 13
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Materials 2018, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 44 of
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Figure 1.
Figure 1. The
1. The specially-designed
Thespecially-designed carbon
specially-designed carbon fiber
carbon fiber reinforced
fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP)
reinforced polymer (CFRP) plate
plate for
for replicating
replicating the local
replicating the local
friction conditions of drilling and the scheme of the pin-on-disc tests.
friction conditions of drilling and the scheme of the pin-on-disc tests.

2.2. Experimental Setup

2.2. Experimental
2.2. Experimental Setup
Setup
The HURCO
The HURCO VMX42
HURCO VMX42vertical
VMX42 verticalmachining
vertical machiningcenter
machining center
center (Hurco,
(Hurco,
(Hurco, Indianapolis,
Indianapolis,
Indianapolis, IN,IN,
IN, USA)
USA)
USA) as used
as used
as used for
for the
for the
the drilling
drilling and
drilling and pin-on-disc
and pin-on-disc experiments,
pin-on-disc experiments,
experiments, as as
as shown
shown inshown in
in Figure Figure
Figure 2, 2,
2, which which
which has has a
has aa maximum maximum
maximum rapid rapid
rapid feed feed
feed rate
rate of
of
rate
30 of
m/min30 m/min
and a and a
positioning positioning
accuracy accuracy
of 0.01 mm.of 0.01
A mm.
6.35-mm A 6.35-mm
diameter
30 m/min and a positioning accuracy of 0.01 mm. A 6.35-mm diameter uncoated carbide twist drill diameter
uncoated uncoated
carbide carbide
twist drill
twist drill (SD203A-02500-091-0315R1-T)
(SD203A-02500-091-0315R1-T)
(SD203A-02500-091-0315R1-T) with two
with with coolant
two inner
inner two inner
coolant coolant
holes
holes holesby
provided
provided provided
by SecobyTools
the Seco
the the Seco
Tools Tools
(Fagersta,
(Fagersta,
(Fagersta,
Sweden) was
Sweden) Sweden)
was utilized, was
utilized, as utilized,
as shown
shown in as shown
in Figure
Figure 2. in
2. The Figure
The drill 2.
drill bit The
bit was drill bit
was characterizedwas
characterized by characterized
by aa point
point angleby
angle of a point
of 140°,
140°,
angle of 140 ◦ , a helix angle of 35◦ , two cutting edges and a chisel edge of 0.12 mm. During the
a helix angle of 35°, two cutting edges and a chisel edge of 0.12 mm. During
a helix angle of 35°, two cutting edges and a chisel edge of 0.12 mm. During the drilling and pin-on- the drilling and pin-on-
drilling
disc and
disc tests,
tests, pin-on-disc
the
the CFRP specimen
CFRP tests, the
specimen CFRP
was
was specimen
clamped
clamped by aawas
by clamped
fixture
fixture by a fixture
mounted
mounted mounted on dynamometer
on aa piezoelectric
on piezoelectric a piezoelectric
dynamometer
dynamometer
(Kistler 9272,
(Kistler (Kistler
9272, Winterthur, 9272, Winterthur,
Winterthur, Switzerland). Switzerland).
Switzerland). Then,Then, the Then,
the recorded the
recorded signals recorded
signals were signals
were amplified were
amplified andandamplified
collectedand
collected via
via
collected
a via
multichannel a multichannel
charge charge
amplifier amplifier
(Kistler 5070A, (Kistler 5070A,
Winterthur, Winterthur,
Switzerland)
a multichannel charge amplifier (Kistler 5070A, Winterthur, Switzerland) and a data acquisition Switzerland)
and a data and a data
acquisition
acquisition
system, system, respectively,
system, respectively,
respectively, at an
at at an acquisition
an acquisition
acquisition frequency of
frequency frequency
of kHz. of
20 kHz.
20 All20the
All kHz.
the All the experiments
experiments
experiments were conducted
were were
conducted
conducted
without without
without coolants
coolants coolants
(dry
(dry (dry conditions).
conditions).
conditions).

Figure 2.
Figure
Figure 2. The
2. experimental setup
The experimental
experimental setup for
setup for the
for the pin-on-disc
the pin-on-disc tests
pin-on-disc tests and
tests and the
and the used
the used pin/twist
used pin/twist drill.
pin/twist drill.

2.3. Temperature Measurement

2.3. Temperature
Temperature Measurement
2.3. Measurement
The thermocouples
The thermocouples
thermocouples werewere embedded
were embeddedinto intothe
thedrill
drillbits
bitsand
andthe
thepins
pinsasas illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 2
The embedded into the drill bits and the pins as illustrated in Figure 22 to
to
to measure
measure the cutting
the cutting
cutting temperature
temperature theat
at the the
tool toolface
flank flank
andface and frictional
frictional heat producedheat produced
produced by the by the
the interaction
interaction
measure the temperature at tool flank face and frictional heat by
interaction
of the
the pin of
pin and the pin
and CFRP and CFRP
CFRP specimen, specimen,
specimen, respectively. respectively.
respectively. This This investigation
This investigation
investigation utilized utilized
utilized the the
the insulated insulated
insulated K-type
K-type
of
K-type thermocouples
thermocouples supplied supplied
supplied by by
by OMEGA OMEGA
OMEGA Engineering, Engineering,
Engineering, which which
which have have a
have aa workingworking
working temperaturetemperature
temperature ranging ranging
ranging from
from
thermocouples ◦ C to +1370 ◦ C
from
−200 −200
°C to +1370 °C and a and a length
length of 15 of 15
cm. The cm. The measuring
measuring accuracyaccuracy
of the of the temperature
temperature system system
is ±0.1
−200 °C to +1370 °C and a length of 15 cm. The measuring accuracy of the temperature system is ±0.1
°C. According to the specifications given by the manufacturer, the
°C. According to the specifications given by the manufacturer, the used thermocouples are used thermocouples are
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 5 of 13

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

is ±0.1 ◦ C. According to the specifications given by the manufacturer, the used thermocouples are
characterized
characterized byby aa response
response time
time of
of 0.22
0.22 ss that
that is
is defined
defined as
as the
the required
required time
time for
for the
the thermocouples
thermocouples
to
to acquire
acquire 63.2%
63.2% ofof the
the final
final temperature
temperature whenwhen thethe bead
bead is is alternately
alternately exposed
exposed in in two
two different
different
temperatures
temperatures [24]. During the drilling and tribological experiments, the temperature data were
[24]. During the drilling and tribological experiments, the temperature data were
recorded
recorded using
using aa micro
micro temperature
temperature storage
storage module,
module, in in which
which the
the temperature
temperature signals
signals were
were not
not
extracted
extracted in-situ. After the completion of the tests, the temperature data were transmitted to the
in-situ. After the completion of the tests, the temperature data were transmitted to the
computer
computer through
through aa micro
micro USB
USB adapter
adapter for
for the
the further post-process analysis.
further post-process The experimental
analysis. The experimental setup
setup
of
of the
the temperature
temperature measuring
measuring device
device is
is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3.3.

Figure 3. Photographs showing the setup of the temperature measuring system.

2.4. Experimental Details

2.4. Experimental Details

2.4.1. Drilling Tests

2.4.1. Drilling Tests
A number of drilling tests were arranged to figure out the correlations between the drilling
A number of drilling tests were arranged to figure out the correlations between the drilling
temperatures and the cutting parameters. Through the literature survey, it is believed that low feed
temperatures and the cutting parameters. Through the literature survey, it is believed that low feed
rates (0.01–0.05 mm/rev) are favorable for the drilling of fibrous composites [26]. Hence, four levels
rates (0.01–0.05 mm/rev) are favorable for the drilling of fibrous composites [26]. Hence, four levels
of low feed rates (f = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04 mm/rev) were adopted in the present work. Meanwhile,
of low feed rates (f = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04 mm/rev) were adopted in the present work. Meanwhile, the
the cutting speeds were carefully selected to meet the conditions of the pin-on-disc tests. Table 2
cutting speeds were carefully selected to meet the conditions of the pin-on-disc tests. Table 2
summarizes the used cutting parameters for the drilling of CFRP laminates. The thrust forces and the
summarizes the used cutting parameters for the drilling of CFRP laminates. The thrust forces and the
drilling temperatures were in-situ measured.
drilling temperatures were in-situ measured.
Table 2. Cutting conditions used in the drilling of CFRP laminates.
Table 2. Cutting conditions used in the drilling of CFRP laminates.
Cutting speed, Vc (m/min)
Cutting speed, Vc (m/min) 15, 20, 2515, 20, 25 and 30
and 30
Feed rate, f (mm/rev) 0.01, 0.02, 0.03 and 0.04
CuttingFeed rate, f (mm/rev)
Environment 0.01, 0.02, 0.03 and 0.04
Dry Conditions
Cutting Environment Dry Conditions
2.4.2. Pin-on-Disc Tests
2.4.2. Pin-on-Disc Tests
To quantitatively evaluate the friction-induced heat, two types of tribometers were designed
To quantitatively evaluate the friction-induced heat, two types of tribometers were designed
which were designated as pin 1 and pin 2. Being as a standard cemented carbide tool, pin 1 was
which were designated as pin 1 and pin 2. Being as a standard cemented carbide tool, pin 1 was
utilized to replicate the frictional heat generated in the tool-work interaction zone during the drilling
utilized to replicate the frictional heat generated in the tool-work interaction zone during the drilling
of CFRP composites. Additionally, pin 2, which was removed one half of its head, was adopted to
of CFRP composites. Additionally, pin 2, which was removed one half of its head, was adopted to
avoid the elastic recovery effects during the drilling of CFRP composites. It is worth noting that the
avoid the elastic recovery effects during the drilling of CFRP composites. It is worth noting that the
contact surfaces of the two pins were polished to guarantee a low surface roughness (Ra < 0.30 µm).
contact surfaces of the two pins were polished to guarantee a low surface roughness (Ra < 0.30 μm).
Then, the surface condition of the pins is similar to that of a finely carbide cutting tool [27]. The main
Then, the surface condition of the pins is similar to that of a finely carbide cutting tool [27]. The main
drawback of our previous work [25] is the reduction of the thrust force caused by the wear
consumption of the specimen surface during the reciprocating circular motion of pins in the
tribological tests. To eliminate the experimental errors of interfacial friction coefficients, the rotary
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 6 of 13

drawback of our previous work [25] is the reduction of the thrust force caused by the wear consumption
of the specimen surface during the reciprocating circular motion of pins in the tribological tests.
To eliminate the experimental errors of interfacial friction coefficients, the rotary movement of the pins
was replaced by the rectilinear motion in the present study as depicted in Figure 1. Meanwhile,
considering the limitation of the rapid feed rate of the machine tool in the X and Y directions,
the maximum sliding velocity was set as 30 m/min.
In general, the pin-on-disc experiments were carried out following several steps to determine the
interfacial friction coefficients while drilling the CFRP composites by referring to the work done by
Mondelin et al. [28]. Firstly, the pin was mounted on the spindle of the CNC machine tool. Then, the pin
moved vertically to touch the designed point of the CFRP specimen. In this step, the dynamometer
signal was carefully observed to match the thrust force value obtained in the previous drilling tests.
After reaching the set-point of the contact load, the pin stops to move. Then, a rectilinear movement
in the Y direction under Please replacerapid
the configured thefeed
Figure
rate is4applied
by thetonewcreateone
a relative motion between
the pin and the CFRP specimen that aims to replicate the contact conditions of the tool-work interface
in the PDFofversion!
of drilling. The images showing the morphologies two used pins are given in Figure 4. The CFRP
specimen is fixed onto a dynamometer to measure the macroscopic normal load (Fn ) and tangential
Please
load (Ft ). The thermocouples replace
were the Figure
embedded 4 bytothe
into the pins newthe
record onetemperature during a test.
A schematic diagram showing the working conditions of the tribometer is given in Figure 5.
in the PDF version!

Please replace the Figure 5 by the new one

in the PDF
Figure 4. Photographs version!
showing the two designed pins.
Please replace the Figure 5 by the new one
in the PDF version!

Figure 5. A schematic illustration of the working conditions for the tribometer [25].
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 7 of 13

2.5. Predictions of the Friction-induced Temperatures

2.5.1. Modeling of Interfacial Friction Coefficients

The ratio of tangential force (Ft ) to normal force (Fn ) was defined as the interfacial friction
coefficient (µapp ), which signifies the macroscopic friction coefficient of the flank tool-work interface as
expressed by the following equation.
Ft
µ app = , (1)
Fn
where Fn denotes the thrust force in the Z-axis direction and Ft represents the force in the X-axis
direction obtained by the dynamometer.
The apparent friction coefficient (experimental value) was calculated based on the microscopic
forces measured by the dynamometer. These forces include on the one hand the adhesive part
influenced by material properties, such as hardness and chemical reactivity, and on the other
hand the plastic deformation of the specimen, which cannot be ignored under the severe contact
conditions [28,29]. The µapp consists of two parts: One is the adhesion part (µadh ) and another is the
plastic deformation part (µdef ). The elastic friction coefficient (µela ) corresponding to the elastic recovery
part was considered in this paper, due to the occurrence of the elastic recovery effects on the machined
surfaces (Equation (2)).
µ app = µ adh + µde f + µela . (2)

Therefore, according to our previous work [25], the interfacial friction coefficient (µ) between the
tool flank surface and the workpiece can be calculated by

µ = µ adh + µela . (3)

2.5.2. Analytical Predictions of the Friction-induced Heat

The prediction model of the frictional heat was established based on the Fourier’s law. The amount
of heat transferred through a unit area per unit time is proportional to the temperature gradient,
which can be expressed as follows:

∆Q dT
q = = −λ · , (4)
A∆t dδ
where q is the heat flux density, ∆Q/∆t is the heat flow rate, A is the contact surface area, λ is the
thermal conductivity coefficient, and dT/dδ is the temperature gradient.
During the machining of CFRPs, the tribological interaction between the tool flank surface and
the machined composite surface plays a vital role in heat generation, due to the elastic recovery effects
arising from the highly abrasive carbon fibers. To evaluate the temperature rise induced from the
drilling operation, a prediction model was established based on the following assumptions with
a reference to formulas describing the average temperature increment of the tool-chip interface:

• The frictional heat model was considered as a plane thermal source case.
• The average velocity of the main cutting edges was used in the model and the chisel edge length
was neglected.
• The fracture-induced heat arising from two main fracture zones and the heat induced by the
friction at the tool-chip contact surface were ignored.

A prediction model of the temperature rise for the composites drilling was derived from [30]
as shown below: s
0.754Rh qh aw Lw
∆T = , (5)
kw Vc
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 8 of 13

where Rh is the percentage of heat transferred to workpiece in this case, qh is the heat flux density of
the flank-workpiece interaction zone, kw is the heat conductivity of work materials, aw is the thermal
diffusivity of work materials, Lw is the length of flank-workpiece interaction zone, and Vc is the average
cutting velocity of the drill lips.
kw
aw = , (6)
ρcw
where ρ and cw are the density and specific heat capacity of the composite, respectively. Assuming that
all the work done by friction is transformed into heat, then

µFN Vc
qh = , (7)
S f lank

where t = D/(2sin(ϕ/2)) is the length of the drill cutting edge; D is the drill diameter; ϕ is the drill
point angle; Fn is the component of the thrust force that is perpendicular to the cutting plane. Taking
the area that is cut across by the drill edges per revolution as the heat source plane, the following
equation can be obtained:
Z l
ϕ
Lw t = 2π · l · sin dl, (8)
0 2
Finally, the temperature localized at the CFRP drilling surface can be estimated by
s
0.754Rh µFN Vc sin ϕ
2 k w Lw
T = + Tr , (9)
k w Lw t ρcw Vc

where the symbol Tr denotes the room temperature.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Interfacial Friction Coefficient Assessment

The correlations between the apparent friction coefficients (µapp ) of two designed pins and the
sliding velocity in the pin-on-disc tests, as well as the elastic friction coefficient (µela ) calculated are
given in Figure 6. It is clear that the magnitudes of the apparent friction coefficients for pin 1 are within
the range of 0.27–0.31 under the examined conditions. Since pin 2 was removed one half of its head,
the effects of the elastic recovery occurring at the tool-work interaction zone were totally eliminated.
As such, magnitudes of the apparent friction coefficients of pin 2 are lower than those gained in the
case of pin 1 as depicted in Figure 6. For a specific contact pressure, the apparent friction coefficients of
two pins present a slightly decreasing trend as the sliding velocity increases. The findings were also
reported in the research work done by Klinkova et al. [27] when investigating the friction properties
between a randomly structured CFRP specimen and a TiN-coated carbide pin. Note that the µapp values
obtained by Klinkova et al. [27] are lower than those developed in the present work under the identical
sliding velocity range. This is attributed to the TiN coating of the pin in the work of Klinkova et al. [27]
which greatly reduces the adhesion part of the apparent friction coefficient. Furthermore, it can be
drawn that the magnitudes of the elastic friction coefficient (µela ) were calculated around 0.04 with
a very slight variation as the sliding velocity increases. Due to the elastic recovery effects between the
machined surface and the tool flank surface, the elastic friction coefficient contributes to the increase of
the frictional heat.
Evolutions of the adhesive friction coefficient, the interfacial friction coefficient of two pins and
the µadh/ µapp vs. the sliding velocity are plotted in Figure 7. The downtrend of µadh /µapp shows that
the friction caused by the plastic deformation and elastic recovery effects plays a dominant role as the
sliding velocity increases. This phenomenon is quite different from that encountered in machining
metals. The adhesive friction coefficient basically does not change as the cutting velocity varies and
usually plays a key role in the metal cutting. Furthermore, both the apparent friction coefficient (µapp )
 0.44
Apparent friction coefficient μapp of pin 1
0.40
Apparent friction coefficient μapp of pin 2
0.36
Elastic friction coefficient μela
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 9 of 13
0.32

Friction coefficient
0.28
and adhesive friction coefficient (µadh ) are found to show a decreasing trend with the elevated sliding
0.24
velocity. This is attributed to the thermal softening effects as the sliding velocity increases during the
drilling of CFRPs. Moreover, 0.20the magnitudes of the frictional temperatures can be calculated according
to 2018,
Materials Equation (9),PEER
11, x FOR which are 0.16
REVIEWdiscussed in the following subsection. 9 of 13

0.44 0.12
Apparent friction coefficient μapp of pin 1
0.40 0.08
Apparent friction coefficient μapp of pin 2
0.36 0.04
Elastic friction coefficient μela
0.32 0.00 15 20 25 30
Friction coefficient

0.28
Sliding velocity, V (m/min)
Figure 6. The apparent
0.24 friction coefficients of the two pins and the elastic friction coefficients vs. the
sliding velocity.
0.20
Evolutions of the0.16adhesive friction coefficient, the interfacial friction coefficient of two pins and
the μadh/μapp vs. the sliding velocity are plotted in Figure 7. The downtrend of μadh/μapp shows that the
0.12
friction caused by the plastic deformation and elastic recovery effects plays a dominant role as the
0.08 This phenomenon is quite different from that encountered in machining
sliding velocity increases.
metals. The adhesive0.04 friction coefficient basically does not change as the cutting velocity varies and
usually plays a key role in the metal cutting. Furthermore, both the apparent friction coefficient (μapp)
0.00
and adhesive friction coefficient15(μadh) are found 20 to show a decreasing
25 trend 30with the elevated sliding
velocity. This is attributed to the thermal Sliding velocity,
softening V (m/min)
effects as the sliding velocity increases during the
drilling
Figure of 6.CFRPs.
Figure
6. The apparentMoreover,
The apparent
friction the
friction magnitudes
coefficients
coefficients of theof
two of
twothe
thepins pinsfrictional
and and
the temperatures
the elastic
elastic friction
friction canvs.be
coefficients
coefficients calculated
thevs. the
according
slidingto Equation
velocity.
sliding velocity. (9), which are discussed in the following subsection.

0.24 50
Evolutions
(a) of the adhesive friction
Adhesive friction μadh of pin
coefficient,
coefficient the1 interfacial friction coefficient of two pins and
(b) Adhesive part μadh/apparent part μapp
Adhesive
the μadh/μapp vs. the sliding friction
velocity plottedμadh
arecoefficient pin 2 7. 45
in ofFigure The downtrend of μadh/μapp shows that the
0.20
Interfacial friction coefficient μ 40
friction caused by the plastic deformation and elastic recovery effects plays a dominant role as the
sliding velocity increases. This phenomenon is quite different 35 from that encountered in machining
Friction coefficient

0.16
metals. The adhesive friction coefficient basically does not30change as the cutting velocity varies and
a%

usually 0.12
plays a key role in the metal cutting. Furthermore, 25 both the apparent friction coefficient (μapp)
and adhesive friction coefficient (μadh) are found to show a decreasing 20
trend with the elevated sliding
velocity.0.08
This is attributed to the thermal softening effects as the sliding velocity increases during the
15
drilling of CFRPs. Moreover, the magnitudes of the frictional temperatures can be calculated
10
according0.04to Equation (9), which are discussed in the following subsection.
5
0.24 50
0.00 Adhesive friction coefficient μadh of pin 1 0
(a) 15 20 25 30 45
(b) 15 Adhesive20 25 part μ 30
part μadh/apparent
Adhesive friction
Sliding coefficient
velocity, μadh of pin 2
V (m/min) Sliding velocity, V (m/min) app
0.20
Interfacial friction coefficient μ 40
Figure 7. (a) The adhesive friction coefficients, the interfacial friction coefficients of the two pins and
35
Friction coefficient

0.16 (b) the µ

μadh /µ
adh/μ app vs.vs.
app thethe sliding
sliding velocity.
velocity.
30
3.2. Analysis of the Friction-induced Heat
a%

0.123.2. Analysis of the Friction-induced Heat 25

Figure 88 shows
Figure shows aa comparison
comparison of of the
the temperatures
temperatures
20 at the
at the tool-work
tool-work interface
interface zonezone gained
gained by by both
both
0.08experimental tests and analytical models. The results indicate that the temperatures developed at
experimental tests and analytical models. The results 15 indicate that the temperatures developed at the
the tool-work
tool-work interface
interface show show a high
a high sensitivity
sensitivity to to
the
10 thesliding
slidingvelocity
velocityandandthethe temperature
temperature increases
increases
0.04
gradually as the sliding velocity is elevated. Meanwhile, the temperatures predicted by the analytical
5
model are basically consistent with the results obtained by the experimental tests. Both the results
0.00 0
indicate
15 that higher
20 temperatures25 are produced
30 particularly15 under a20 higher sliding25 velocity. 30 It is worth
noting that theSliding velocity,
slight V (m/min)
difference between the experimental results Sliding
andvelocity, V (m/min)
analytical results is affected by
some physical
Figure 7. (a) The phenomena
adhesive frictiongenerated in the
coefficients, theactual experimental
interfacial process.ofThe
friction coefficients elevated
the two temperature
pins and
(b) the μadh/μapp vs. the sliding velocity.

3.2. Analysis of the Friction-induced Heat

Figure 8 shows a comparison of the temperatures at the tool-work interface zone gained by both
experimental tests and analytical models. The results indicate that the temperatures developed at the
model are basically consistent with the results obtained by the experimental tests. Both the results
indicate that higher temperatures are produced particularly under a higher sliding velocity. It is
worth noting that the slight difference between the experimental results and analytical results is
affected by some physical phenomena generated in the actual experimental process. The elevated
Materials
temperature is2018, 11, 2366
detrimental to the drilling of CFRP composites, due to the increased10risk of 13 of glass

transition. Also, the high temperature promoted at the tool-work interface as the velocity increases
would cause thermalto softening
is detrimental the drilling of
of the
CFRPcomposites,
composites, due leading
to theto matrixrisk
increased degradation. It could also
of glass transition.
consequently decrease the friction coefficients of μapp and μadh, as discussed earlier incause
Also, the high temperature promoted at the tool-work interface as the velocity increases would Section 3.1.
thermal softening of the composites, leading to matrix degradation. It could also consequently decrease
Moreover, the results given in Figure 8 imply that a low cutting velocity is favorable for the drilling
the friction coefficients of µapp and µadh , as discussed earlier in Section 3.1. Moreover, the results given
of high-strength composites
in Figure 8 imply that a lowincutting
ordervelocity
to minimize
is favorablethe
for detrimental effects caused
the drilling of high-strength by the
composites in cutting
temperature.
order to minimize the detrimental effects caused by the cutting temperature.

320
Temperatures obtained by experimental tests
Temperatures predicted by analytical models
280
Temperature (℃ )

240

200

160

120

15 20 25 30
Sliding velocity, V (m/min)
Figure 8. Comparison of the drilling temperatures of the tool-work interface gained by the experimental
Figure 8. Comparison of the drilling temperatures of the tool-work interface gained by the
tests and analytical models at a constant feed rate (f ) of 0.02 mm/rev.
experimental tests and analytical models at a constant feed rate (f) of 0.02 mm/rev.
3.3. Drilling Temperature
3.3. Drilling Temperature
Figure 9 shows the temperatures measured in both the drilling experiments and the frictional
tests under different cutting conditions. The results indicate that the cutting speed has a positive
Figure 9 shows the temperatures measured in both the drilling experiments and the frictional
impact on the heat generated during the drilling of CFRP composites. This is similar to the cases
tests under different
of cutting cuttingmetals
conventional conditions.
in whichThe resultstemperature
the cutting indicate that becomesthe higher
cuttingwhenspeed has ais positive
the speed
impact on the heat
elevated. generated
Additionally, the during thechanges
temperature drilling of CFRP
marginally composites.
subjected This is
to the varying similar
feed to the
rates, which is cases of
attributed to themetals
cutting conventional fact thatinin which
drilling the
CFRPs, the dominant
cutting source of
temperature heat generation
becomes higheriswhenthe friction
the speed is
arising from the tool-work interaction zone that is more sensitive to the
elevated. Additionally, the temperature changes marginally subjected to the varying feed rates, cutting velocity. Meanwhile,
results of temperatures gained in the drilling and pin-on-disk tests show that the frictional temperature
which is attributed to the fact that in drilling CFRPs, the dominant source of heat generation is the
tends to account for a larger proportion of the overall drilling temperature when the cutting velocity
friction arising
increases.from the tool-work
The highest proportioninteraction
of 71.6% takes zoneplacethat
under is the
more sensitive
conditions of Vto them/min
= 30 cuttingandvelocity.
Meanwhile, results
f = 0.03 mm/rev. of This
temperatures gained
can be explained infact
by the thethat
drilling and pin-on-disk
the tool-work interface, which tests show
features the that the
tribological interaction between the tool flank face and the machined composite
frictional temperature tends to account for a larger proportion of the overall drilling temperature surface, plays a vital
when therole in the velocity
cutting frictional heat generation,
increases. The due to theproportion
highest elastic recovery effectstakes
of 71.6% resulting
placefrom the abrasive
under the conditions
machined carbon fibers.
of V = 30 m/min andf = 0.03 mm/rev. This can be explained by the fact that the tool-work interface,
which features the tribological interaction between the tool flank face and the machined composite
surface, plays a vital role in the frictional heat generation, due to the elastic recovery effects resulting
from the abrasive machined carbon fibers.
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 11 of 13
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13

360 80 360 80
Frictional temperature 78 Frictional temperature 78
320
(a) 320
(b)
Drilling temperature 76 Drilling temperature 76
Frictional temperature/drilling temperature 74 Frictional temperature/drilling temperature 74
280 280
70.5% 72 71.4% 72
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
240 70 240 70
68 68
200 66 200 66

a%

a%
160 64 160 64
62 58.7% 62
56.8%
120 60 120 60
58 58
80 56 80 56
40 54 40 54
52 52
0 50 0 50
15 20 25 30 15 20 25 30
Cutting speed, V (m/min) Cutting speed, V (m/min)
360 80 360 80
Frictional temperature (c) 78 Frictional temperature (d) 78
320 Drilling temperature 76 320 Drilling temperature 76
Frictional temperature/drilling temperature 74 Frictional temperature 71.4% 74
280 71.6% 280
72 /drilling temperature 72
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
240 70 240 70
68 68
200 66 200 66
a%

a%
160 60.3% 64
160
60.8% 64
62 62
120 60 120 60
58 58
80 56 80 56
40 54
40 54
52 52
0 50 0 50
15 20 25 30 15 20 25 30
Cutting speed, V (m/min) Cutting speed, V (m/min)

Temperature variations
Figure 9. Temperature variations during
during the the drilling
drilling andand frictional
frictional tests
tests under
under different cutting
parameters: (a) f ==0.01
0.01mm/rev, (b)f f= =0.02
mm/rev,(b) 0.02mm/rev,
mm/rev, f =f 0.03
(c)(c) = 0.03 mm/rev
mm/rev andand f = f0.04
(d)(d) = 0.04 mm/rev.
mm/rev.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The present
The present paper
paper made
made anan investigation
investigation on
on the
the tribo-drilling
tribo-drilling ofof high-strength
high-strength CFRP
CFRP composites
composites
by addressing the aspects of frictional heat and drilling temperatures. A particular
by addressing the aspects of frictional heat and drilling temperatures. A particular focus was focus was placed on
placed
the the
on predictions of theoffrictional
predictions heat occurring
the frictional at the flank
heat occurring tool-work
at the interface and
flank tool-work on the and
interface quantifying
on the
the contribution of the frictional temperature to the overall drilling temperature
quantifying the contribution of the frictional temperature to the overall drilling temperaturesubjected to varying
cutting conditions.
subjected to varyingAccording
cutting to the results According
conditions. obtained, theto following
the resultskeyobtained,
conclusionsthecan be drawn.
following key
conclusions can be drawn.
• The interfacial friction coefficient shows a high sensitivity to the input drilling variables. Increasing
 the sliding
The velocity
interfacial tendscoefficient
friction to reduce the magnitudes
shows a high of both the µtoappthe
sensitivity andinput
µadh due to thevariables.
drilling effects of
thermal softening.
Increasing the sliding velocity tends to reduce the magnitudes of both the μapp and μadh due to the
• effects of thermal
The established softening.
analytical model can be used to predict the drilling temperatures of the tool-work
 The established
interface under theanalytical model
condition can feed
of low be used to predict
rates. the drillinginvestigation
The experimental temperaturesconfirms
of the tool-
the
work interface
presence of theunder the condition
contribution of theofelastic
low feed rates. The
recovery experimental
phenomenon investigation
to the interfacialconfirms
friction
the presenceand
coefficient, of the
the contribution of the of
dominant source elastic
heat recovery
generation phenomenon
when drilling to the interfacial
CFRP friction
composites is
coefficient,
the friction and
takingtheplace
dominant
at thesource of heat
tool-work generation
interaction when
zone, drilling
which CFRP composites
contributes a percentageis the
of
friction
around taking
71.6% place
to theat the tool-work
overall drilling interaction
temperatures zone, which contributes
particularly under the a percentage of around
cutting conditions of
71.6%
V c = 30tom/min
the overall
and f drilling temperatures
= 0.03 mm/rev. particularly
To reduce under theofcutting
the temperature conditions
the flank tool-work of surface,
Vc = 30
m/min and speeds
low cutting f = 0.03andmm/rev. To reduce
high feed rates, asthe
welltemperature of the
as the efficient flank tool-work
geometry design of surface, low
tools should
cutting speeds
be adopted. and high feed rates, as well as the efficient geometry design of tools should be
adopted.
Author Contributions: J.X. and C.L. conceived and designed the work; J.X. developed the prediction models;
Author Contributions:
C.L. conducted J.X. and
the experiments andC.L. conceived
analyzed and
the data; designed
J.X. the work; J.X.
and J.D. contributed developed
to the writing ofthe
the prediction
manuscript;
models; C.L. the
M.E.M. offered conducted the experiments
idea of designing andtests;
the pin-on-disc analyzed the data;
F.R. provided J.X. and
the technical J.D. contributed
assistance to tests.
to the drilling the
writing of the manuscript; M.E.M. offered the idea of designing the pin-on-disc tests; F.R. provided
the technical assistance to the drilling tests.
Materials 2018, 11, 2366 12 of 13

Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No. 51705319), Shanghai Pujiang Program (Grant No. 17PJ1403800) and Shanghai Academy of
Spaceflight Technology (Grant No. SAST2017-060). The work is also partly sponsored by the Research Project of
State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration (Grant No. MSVZD201704).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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