II.

Research Aptitude

1. Concept and Type of Research 3 . Research Process, Data, and Sampling

2. Research Report Format

1. Concept and Type of Research

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are
implying that the process;

1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies (approaches);

2. uses procedures, methods, and techniques that have been tested for their validity
and reliability.
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective.

Philosophies mean approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in
which you have been trained.

Validity means that the correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question.

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and
accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn
each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.

(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called
‘research’.

However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline
to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.

The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the
process must meet certain requirements to be called research.

We can identify these requirements by examining some definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. “re” is a prefix meaning again,
a new or over again and “search” is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test
and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles.

Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes an acceptable scientific methodology to solve

problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Research is a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Controlled– in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study
in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is
done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely
difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where
such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control
external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a

certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.

Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used, and the methods employed is crucial to a
research inquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study

2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry Mode employed

1. Application:

From the point of view of the application, there are two broad categories of research:

1. Pure research and

2. Applied research.

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have a practical application at the present
time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add
to the existing body of research methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic
institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an
industrial partner interested in that program.

2. Objectives:

From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as

1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Exploratory

1. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.

2. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/

interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

3. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
4. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study pilot
study).

In practice, most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

3. Inquiry Mode:

From the process adopted to find the answer to research questions – the two approaches are:

1. Structured approach
2. Unstructured approach

Structured approach:

The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research. Everything

that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to
ask of respondents- is pre-determined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a
problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.

e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach:

The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.This approach

allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without

quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.

e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of

different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a
particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine/accommodation available in a city
and the extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of
people who visit a restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that
reflect the extent of popularity.

2. Research Process, Data, and Sampling

RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey.

For a research journey, there are two important decisions to make-

What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to find
answers to;

• How to go about finding their answers.

There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find
answers to your research questions.

The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.

At each operational step in the research process, you are required to choose from a multiplicity
of methods, procedures, and models of research methodology which will help you to best
achieve your objectives.

This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Processing and Analysis of Data
7. Generalisation and Interpretation (Conclusion and Recommendation)

STEP1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process

• Main function is to decide what you want to find out

• The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows.

Sources of research problems

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:

• People- a group of individuals

• Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to
ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• Phenomena- to establish the existence of regularity.

In practice, most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps.

Every research study has two aspects:

1. Study population –

• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities

(They provide you with the information or you collect information about them)

2. Subject area –

• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

• Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfaction, consumers, service
providers, etc.
• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself

(Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)

You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order to
identify anything that looks interesting.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain
motivated.

1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseen problems. One should select a topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the
time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable,
specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have an adequate level of expertise for the task
you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges
current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest
in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical
problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating
stage.

Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject
area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge, it is difficult to
clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.

Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into subareas.

Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.

Step 4 Raise research questions.

Step 5 Formulate objectives.

Step 6 Assess your objectives.

Step 7 Double check.

So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study in
social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the required information
to find answers to your research questions is obtained.

As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who
constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.

STEP 2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE:

• The essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of
knowledge in your area of interest.
• Literature review is an integral part of the entire research process and makes the
valuable contribution to every operational step.
• Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also
rewarding. Its functions are:

1. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 2. Improve your methodology.
3. Broaden your knowledge.
4. Contextualise your findings.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

1. search for existing literature in your area of study

2. review the literature selected
3. develop a theoretical framework
4. develop a conceptual framework.

STEP 3 – THE FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES:

• Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
• They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
• It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

Objectives should be listed under two headings:

1. main objectives (aims);

2. Sub-objectives.

• The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a
statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.
• The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate
within the main framework of your study.
• They should be numerically listed.
• Wording should clearly, completely and specifically communicate to your readers your
intention.
• Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
• Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

Identifying Variables:

In a research study, it is important that the concepts used should be operationalised in

measurable terms so that the extent of variations in respondents’ understanding is reduced if
not eliminated.

Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an
important role in reducing this variability.

Their knowledge, therefore, is important in ‘fine tuning’ your research problem.

For example:

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 • ‘Jet Airways’ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
• Food in this restaurant is
• The middle class in India is getting more

When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in
their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express
that opinion.

These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrants the use
of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about
variables plays an important role.

The definition of a variable:

An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence capable of taking on different
values– is called a variable.

The difference between a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies markedly from
individual to individual.

A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by

crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement.

It is therefore important for the concept to be converted into variables.

Variable
Concept
e.g.
e.g.
gender(male/female)
Excellent
age (x years y months)
High achiever
weight (–kg)
Rich
height (–cms)
Satisfaction
religion (Catholic, Hindu)
Domestic violence
Income (Rs —per year)
Types of DATA (Measurement of Scales)

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
There are four types of data that may be gathered in social research, each one adding more to
the next. Thus, ordinal data is also nominal, and so on. A useful acronym to help remember
this is NOIR (French for ‘black’).

Nominal Scale:

A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into subgroups
based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale
may have one, two or more subcategories depending upon the extent of variation.

For example, ’water’ or ‘tree’ has only one subgroup, whereas the variable “gender” can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female. ‘Hotels’ can be classified into —- sub-
categories.

The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship
among subgroups. Nominal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable
category, such as ’employees’.

Ordinal or Ranking Scale:

Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or property into subgroups on the basis of
a common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain order. They are arranged either in
ascending or descending order according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of
variation in the variable.

For example, ‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and paise) or
qualitatively using subcategories ‘above average’, ‘average’ and ‘below average’. The
‘distance’ between these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of
measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and ‘attitude’ are other variables that can be measured
on an ordinal scale.

Interval Scale:

An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of
measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points.

For example,

Celsius scale: Fahrenheit

scale: 0*Cto100*C 32*F
to212*F

Attitudinal scales:

10-20

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
21-30

31-40 etc

Ratio Scale:

A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property:
the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the
difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can be used for
mathematical operations.

The measurement of variables like income, age, height, and weight are examples of this scale.
A person who is 40 years old is twice as old as one who is 20 years old.

Parametric vs. Non-parametric

Interval and ratio data are parametric and are used with parametric tools in which distributions
are predictable (and often Normal).

Nominal and ordinal data are non-parametric and do not assume any particular distribution.
They are used with non-parametric tools such as the Histogram.

Continuous and Discrete

Continuous measures are measured along a continuous scale which can be divided into
fractions, such as temperature. Continuous variables allow for infinitely fine sub-division,
which means if you can measure sufficiently accurately, you can compare two items and
determine the difference.

Discrete variables are measured across a set of fixed values, such as age in years (not
microseconds). These are commonly used on arbitrary scales, such as scoring your level of
happiness, although such scales can also be continuous.

STEP 4 – PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following:

1. Objectives of the research study.

2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 3. Source of information—Sample Design
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis– qualitative and quantitative

1. Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research

questions have to be listed making sure that they are:
2. numbered, and
3. the statement begins with an action verb.

2. Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data

primary data — collected for the first time

Secondary Data — those which have already been collected

and analysed by someone else.

METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

OBSERVATION METHOD:

Commonly used in behavioural sciences

It is the gathering of primary data by investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people,
actions and situations without asking from the respondent.

e.g.

• A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
• A food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu
items prices, check portion sizes and consistency and observe point-of-purchase
merchandising.

Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide.

SURVEY METHOD

Survey Method Approach is most suited for gathering descriptive information.

Structured Surveys use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.

Unstructured Surveys let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview
according to their answers.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.

Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts.

e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonalds?

Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?”

From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids
MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

CONTACT METHODS:

Information may be collected by

• Mail
• Telephone
• Personal interview

Mail Questionnaires:

Advantages:

• Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
• Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire.
• No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
• Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time.
• Good way to reach people who often travel.

Limitations:

• not flexible
• take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
• response rate is often very low
• Researcher has no control over who answers.

Telephone Interviewing:

• quick method
• more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
• depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
• allows greater sample control
• response rate tends to be higher than mail

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Drawbacks:

• Cost per respondent higher

• Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
• Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
• Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
• under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing

Personal Interviewing:

It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information. Trained interviewers
are can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult questions. They can
guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires. A personal interview can
be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly. Interviewers can also
show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record their reactions and
behaviour.

This takes two forms-

Individual – Intercept interviewing

Group – Focus Group Interviewing

Intercept interviewing:

• Widely used in tourism research.

• Allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.
• only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown
• Involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.
• interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation
• time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys
compensation may be offered)
• involves the use of judgmental sampling e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom to
“intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60

Drawbacks:

• Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to correctly
judge age, race etc.
• The interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.

Focus Group Interviewing:

It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tools to understand people’s thoughts and
feelings.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained
moderator to talk about a product, service or organization.The meeting is held in a pleasant
place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment.

The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some
understanding of group and consumer behaviour.

The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues, encouraging
open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and thoughts.

At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group
interviewing.

Drawbacks:

• Cost: may cost more than a telephone survey

• Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and cost down,
therefore it may be difficult to generalize from the results.
•

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.

e.g.

• Tenderisers(independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat( dependent

variable).
• The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya
flour to flour for making high protein bread.
• Develop recipes to use products.

DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.

A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population. Ideally, the
sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the
thoughts and behaviour of the larger population.

Designing the sample, calls for three decisions:

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)

• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most
likely to have it.

How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)

• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However, it is not
necessary to sample the entire target population.

How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)

• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population ( probability
sampling)
• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from (
nonprobability sampling)

The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective

Types of Sampling

1. Probability sampling

Simple random sampling: Every member of the population has a known and equal chance of
being selected.

Stratified random sampling: The random sampling, in which the population is divided into
nonoverlapping subpopulations (homogeneous group) called strata. The researcher then
extracts a random sample from each of the subpopulations (stratum). Internally, a stratum
should be relatively homogeneous; externally, strata should contrast with each other.

Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique for creating a random probability

sample in which each piece of data is chosen at a fixed interval for inclusion in the sample.

Cluster (area) sampling: Cluster (or area) sampling involves dividing the population into
nonoverlapping areas, or clusters. However, in contrast to stratified random sampling where
strata are homogeneous within, cluster sampling identifies clusters that tend to be internally
heterogeneous.

2. Non-probability sampling

Convenience sampling: The researcher selects the easiest population members from which to
obtain information.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Judgement sampling: The researcher uses his/her judgment to select population members
who are good prospects for accurate information.

Quota sampling: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each
of several categories.

Snowball Sampling: A strategy used to gather a sample for a research study, in which study
participants give the researcher referrals to other individuals who fit the study criteria.
Snowball samples cannot be generalized to the population because they are not selected
randomly.

TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important of a
research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based on the
type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the
questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- “garbage in
garbage out”- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a
study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent
it.

Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of
instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research Questions for
your study.

Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions That you want
to answer through your study.

Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information Required to
answer it.

Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

Questionnaire:

Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire.

A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. The

respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers
themselves.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary,
explain them) and record the respondent’s reply on the interview schedule.

Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible. A
questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large scale.

There are three basic types of questionnaire:

• Closed-ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both

1. Closed-ended Questionnaire:

• Closed-ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories,

and respondents are asked to choose among them. E.g. multiple choice questions, scale
questions.
• Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
• As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a computer
for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

2. Open-ended Questionnaire:

• Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.

• The questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for
the respondent to write in an answer.
• Whereas closed-ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use
a ser open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a
service.
• As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.
• As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be
distributed.

3. Combination of both:

-This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what they think of the
service in the same form.

-Begins with a series of closed-ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and the
finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.

STEP 5: COLLECTING DATA

Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
and conclusions from your study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence
interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.

STEP 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA

Processing and analysing data involves several closely related operations which are performed
with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they
answer the research questions(objectives)

The Data Processing operations are:

1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and
to correct these when possible.
2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes based on common
characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved.

• Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed based on common

characteristics which can either be

Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or

Numerical such as weight, height, income etc.

• Classification according to class – intervals: is done with data relating to income, age,
weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such quantitative data are known as the
statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class–intervals.

e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one group or class,
those with income within Rs. 4001 to Rs. 6000 can form another group or class and soon.

3. Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same
in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows. Tabulation is essential because:
1. It conserves space and reduces the explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple tabulation
generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic
of data only. Complex tabulation usually results on two-way tables (which give information
about two inter-related characteristics of data), three-way tables or still higher order tables, also
known as manifold tables.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
7. Generalisation and Interpretation (Conclusion and Recommendation)

In this section, the generalisation and interpretation are done on the basis of data which have
been collected from the survey or secondary source.

3. Research Report Format

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions
you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style.
Language should be formal and not journalistic.

Written Research Project Report Format

Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the following format.

Title Page

-Title of the Research Project,

-Name of the researcher,

-Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology, New Delhi
for the degree of PhD in Hospitality and Hotel Administration”

-Date of Publication

Table of Contents

In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings.

List of Tables

This section includes title and page number of all tables

List of Figures

This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc.

Acknowledgements

Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide both research guide
and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Introduction

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It includes a rationale for
the research.

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

In this section is included all your background research which may be obtained from the
literature review. You must indicate from where all the information has come, so remember to
keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of
plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or
journal article, use the Harvard system.

Research design:

This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this, any
interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data
collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data
collection, how the data was analysed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research this
section may be descriptive prose.

Summary and Conclusion:

In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation
to other research or literature.

Recommendation:

If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this
section could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations which
have been developed from the research is included- sometimes this section is included at the
beginning of the report.

Suggestion for Further Research:

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section which shows
how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the
research has thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed. It is useful
to include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are
not trying to cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

List of References/Bibliography:

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 • List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
• A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text, but which are relevant to the
subject. (larger dissertations or thesis)
• Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all the
literature to which you have refer in your report. The popular referencing system
Harvard System lists books and periodicals in the following manner:

FORMAT OF CITATIONS/REFERENCES

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers
and cites sources within the liberal arts and humanities.

Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research Methodology: Methods and

techniques. New Age International, 2004.

Journal – Sherwani, N. U. K., and Anjim Sabiha. “ENTREPRENEURSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN DELHI THROUGH MICROFINANCE.” Asian Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies 3.7 (2015).

APA defined.APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used

to cite sources within the health sciences and social sciences fields.

Book – Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.

Journal – Sherwani, N. U. K., & Sabiha, A. (2015). ENTREPRENEURSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN DELHI THROUGH MICROFINANCE. Asian Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(7).

Chicago Manual of Style, is quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation

Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research Methodology: Methods and

techniques. New Age International, 2004.

Journal – Sherwani, N. U. K., and Anjim Sabiha. “ENTREPRENEURSHIP

DEVELOPMENT IN DELHI THROUGH MICROFINANCE.” Asian Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies 3, no. 7 (2015).

Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, is a citation style in which

partial citations—for example, “(Smith 2010, p. 1)”—are enclosed within parentheses and
embedded in the text, either within or after a sentence.

Book – Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
Journal – Sherwani, N.U.K. and Sabiha, A., 2015. ENTREPRENEURSHIP
DEVELOPMENT IN DELHI THROUGH MICROFINANCE. Asian Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(7).

Standard Format for writing a report

Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)

Size: 8.5inches X 11inches

Margin:

Left – 1.5 inch

Top – 1 inch

Bottom – 1 inch

Right – 1 inch

Font: Times New Roman

Font Size: 12

Spacing: Double

Binding: Black Rexin

Gold Embossing on Cover:

Research Title

Student Name

Name of Institute

Year of Submission

4. Research Ethics

Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues in relation to the
participants and the researcher:

• Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher
become participants of the study.
• Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code
of conduct, is a researcher.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
 1. Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many ethical issues in
relation to participants of a research activity.

Collecting information:

Your request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on a respondent. Is it ethical?

Research is required to improve conditions. Provided any piece of research is likely to help
society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions if you first obtain the respondents’
informed consent.

If you cannot justify the relevance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting your
respondents’ time, which is unethical.

Seeking consent:

In every discipline, it is considered unethical to collect information without the knowledge of

the participant, and their expressed willingness and informed consent. Informed consent
implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information you want from
them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to, how they are expected
to participate in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect them. It is important that
the consent should be voluntary and without the pressure of any kind.

Providing incentives:

Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but because they realize the
importance of the study.

Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondents to share information with you because they
are giving their time?

Giving a present before data collection is unethical.

Seeking sensitive information:

Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people and
thus an invasion of their privacy, asking for such information may upset or embarrass a
respondent.

For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are intrusive.
In collecting data you need to be careful about the sensitivities of your respondents.

It is not unethical to ask such questions provided that you tell your respondents the type of
information you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and give them sufficient time to decide if
they want to participate, without any major inducement.

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
The possibility of causing harm to participant:

When you collect data from respondents or involve subjects in an experiment, you need to
examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm them in any way. Harm includes
l research that might include hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion
of privacy, or demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is likely to, you must make sure
that the risk is minimal i.e. the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater than ordinarily
encountered in daily life. If the way information is sought creates anxiety or harassment, you
need to take steps to prevent this.

Maintaining confidentiality:

Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than research is
unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to put your findings into
context. In such a situation you need to make sure that at least the information provided by
respondents is kept anonymous.

It is unethical to identify an individual’s responses. Therefore you need to ensure that after the
information has been collected, the source cannot be known.

2. Ethical issues relating to the researcher:

Avoiding bias:

Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate attempt to either to hide what
you have found in your study or highlight something disproportionately to its true existence.

Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

Both the provision and deprivation of a treatment/ intervention may pose an ethical dilemma
for you as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a study population with an intervention/ treatment
that has not yet been conclusively proven effective or beneficial? But if you do not test, how
can you prove or disprove its effectiveness or benefits?

There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent, ‘minimum risk’
and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in the study will help to resolve
ethical issues.

Using inappropriate research methodology:

It is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to be inappropriate e.g. selecting a highly
biased sample, using an invalid instrument or draw wrong conclusions.

Incorrect reporting:

https://www.cbsenetonline.in
To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your own or someone else’s
interest is unethical.

Inappropriate use of the information:

The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly adversely affects the respondents is
unethical. If so, the study population needs to be protected.

Sometimes it is possible to harm individuals in the process of achieving benefits for the
organizations. An example would be a study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an
organization. Restructuring may be beneficial to the organization as a whole but may be
harmful to some individuals.

Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to be used against them?

It is ethical to ask questions provided you tell respondents of the potential use of the
information, including the possibility of it being used against

Some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.

********************

https://www.cbsenetonline.in