IV DAM OUTLET WORKS.

4.1. Introduction :- Significance & Types.

Dam Outlet works generally Consist of Spillways & bottom Outlets (laugh – head).
Both serve the purpose of ensuring a safe passage of flood from reservoir in to the d/s
river reach. Spillways are usually situated at the top of the dam except tunnel Spillway.
Bottom Outlets are of small Capacity but Operating under high head.

Most spillway. Components comprise of Entrance channel, Control Structure, discharge

channel, terminal structure & Outlet channel.

Main factors influencing design of spillway are :

- Design flood.
- Type of dam – earth, rock, Concrete.
- Location of dam.
- Reservoir size & operation.
For bottom outlets factors affecting are :
- purpose of the reservoir
- Sediment input & deposition.

Spillway may be classified in several way according to :

1) Function - Emergency
- Service
- Auxiliary.

2) Control - free or uncontrolled

- Controlled or gated.

3) Hydraulic Criteria - Over fall (overflow)

- Siphon
- chute
- Shaft
- Side Channel
- tunnel or orifice.

Apart from economics, main factor influencing the choice of Spillway for a given project
are :
- reliability & accuracy of flood prediction
- Seismility of project site.
- Duration & amount of spillage
- Topography & geology.
- Dame type.

1
4.2. The Design flood & Other Important parameters Design flood

Selection of design flood depend on :

A (m2)
I
- dam location
- dam type
V (m3)
- availability of past records

The flow in the river depends on the rainfall. Rain fall can be transformed in to river
flow through hydrograph procedure depends on Catchments characters tics,
meteorological data etc. P.M.P. is taken for the design of spillway

P.M.P P.M.F. P.M.P UH flood routing PMO.

For establishment of P.M.F there are procedures

P.M.F is multiple of easily graspable return period flood.
Eq. P.M.F = 12 * Q2 or ( 2 years return period flood)
= (3 to 5) Q150 ( 150 “ “ “ )

eg Q150 = QA0.87 F0.23 P1.23 R1.17 (m3/s)

P.M.F should be reviewed periodically because Catchments meteorological

Conditions may Change.

In some cases of dams a cost- benefit analysis and economics evaluation may also be
used as a complementary measures.

lost
dam

spillway

Height

Flood Routing.

To determine the spillway design discharge the inflow hydrograph must be converted to
outflow through flood routing.

Inflow routing Outflow.

Loop iterative method.

F (Spillway size,
2 type, reservoir area).
FLOW CHART

Example from U.K. practice

Is maximum Yes
flood required ?

The process is Simple volumetric balance

 

Can be solved
A 1 ( h)
V  ( h)

dv
2

or V  A.

 
O  F3 ( h)


graphically
F4 (V

dt
numerically etc.
v
I   .
t
v2  v1
 1
I  I2

O
1  O2 
t 2 2
2V2 2V1
 O2  I1  I 2   O1
 t

OR  Other regulated outflows such as bottom outlasts, irrigation outlet, hydroelectric

poser etc.

Free board. Refer chapter 2

Reservoir Sedimentation

Capacity of reservoir is lost as a result of sediment run-off in the river and deposition in
the reservoir. The Space (volume) occupied by deposited Sediment is called dead storage.

Loss of Storage is only one deleterious effect in reservoir Sedimentation, Others are.

- increase flood level u/s

- retrogression of the river bed d/s of the dam.
- Elimination of nutrients Carried by Sediments & other.

Amount of sediment computation detailed Computation requires,

3
- size (sediment)
- reservoir size
- Character of sediment
- Shape.
W L
  k
Wo Yv
W  OutgoingSe dim ent
Wo  inco min g Se dim ent
L  Lengthofre ach
Y  depth.
V  velocity int estrealh
K  Cmst f (tall vel. & reach )

n, trap efficiency curve can also be constructed based on observation in Sedimentation

tank. ( ref. Fig.)
The curve has to be used in steps of years, as reservoir fills no trapping of
sediments.
Half life of the reservoir is the time required to fill half of the reservoir by
sediments.

TRAP EFFICIENCY VS CAPACITY INFLOW RAILO

CAPACITY – INFIOW RATIO, (CAPACITY/VOL. ANNUAL IEPIOW)

FIGURE 1

1. Capacity and volume of annual inflow must be in the same units of measure

2. The upper enveloping curve is to be used when inflowing sediment is highly

flocculated or coarse.

3. The lower enveloping curve is to be used when inflowing sediment is collatdal or

fine.

Various stages of deposition can be shown as follows.

1. deposition of coarse material (in
delta)
2. deposition of fine materials
(uniform)
3. local deposits due to density
4 currents.
4. bottom outlet.
 Reservoir can be reserved by.

- Minimizing Sediment input in to the reservoir.

- Maximizing sediment through flow.
- Recovery of storage.

Example. In flow con Lent ration = 800 ppm

Volume of reservoir = 100 x 106 m3.
Annual flow = 900 x 106 m3 .
determine half life of reservoir.
Assume porosity over this period = 0.4.

 800 
900  106   3 
Annual Sediment discharge
   10  m3 / yr
s
s

s  2650 kg / m3
900  103  800
For b   452830 m3 / yr
2650 (1  0.4 )

For 100/900 = 0.11 ;  = 89 %

1
vol. 50/900 = 0.05 ;  = 71 %  Average  = 80 % trap
2 efficiency.
vol. Settled = 452830  0.8 m3 .

50  106
time =  138 years. Is half life.
45283  0.8
What can you do if you have much sedimentation - ?
- do nothing & account in design or
- apply methods to reserve reservoir.
Cavitations :- phenomenon need to be accounted in large dams. It occurs when the
pressure of the flow of water falls below the saturated water pressure.

 
p pv 
v2
cavitations occurs if  falls below
 pv  10 m of H2o @ 100oc ; 6.5 m @ 90o & 0.5m @ 30oc.
s and  O m @ normal water temp.
 c  f (geometry,....)

5
 avoid P < 7 m vacuum or 3 m absolute.

4.3 . Spillways.

4.3.1. Overflow Spillway. ( Ogee Spillway )

- Mainly used with massive concrete, & if used with earth fill, needs separate
concrete structure.
- The basic shape is derived from the lower envelope of the over tall nappe flowing
over high sharp – crested weir, and fully aerated beneath the nappe & approach
velocity vo  o

(a) P = po H = Hd
(b) P > po H < Hd
(c) p < po H > Hd.

H - actual head
Hd - design need (determining the shape)

Discharge over this shape for width b, head h, & Cd coeff. of discharge of discharge
2  vo2 3 / 2 vo 2 3 / 2 
  29 bcd ' ( h  )  ( ) 
3  29 29 
The shape can be determined by projectile motion equation or According to
SCIEMENI (1937)

For H = 1

Y = k xn with k = 0.5 & n = 1.85

For other values of H

y x
 k ( ) H  y  kx n H 1 n  0.5 x 1.85
H  0.85
H H

if the face formed is according to this equation pressure is atmospheric.

The equation of discharge can be written as :

2
 2 g b cd H 3 / 2 cd  0.75
3
2
  9 b c, H 3 / 2 c1  2 cd
3
2
  c2 b H 3 / 2 c2  2 s cd ( 1 / 2 T 1 / 2
)
3

6
 
There are three possibilities Hd  H

For H = Hd 

cd = 0.745 : P . Po .
For H < Hd  Pspillway > po     0.578 cd  0.745

H/Hd  0.05
For H > Hd P(-ve pr.) < Po  Q   0.745 < cd < 0.825
H  2Hd .
cavitations level for H = 2Hd with cd  0.825.
For safety it is recommended not to exceed H  1.65 Hd with cd = 0.81.
Further details : (USBR 1987, USAWES)

Origin of coordinate

7
For non vertical u/s face.
a b R1 R2
u/s slope crestequat ion.
Hd Hd Hd Hd
1.85
y  x 
OH : 3V 0.175 0.282 0.20 0.50  0.05 
H 
Hd  d 
1.836
y  x 
1H : 3V 0.139 0.237 0.21 0.68  0.516 
H 
Hd  d 
1.810
y  x 
2H : 3V 0.115 0.214 0.22 0.48 Hd = 0.515 
 H 
 d 
3H : 3V 0 0.199  0.45
1.776
 x 
y / H d  0.534  
 Hd 

If the crest requirement obtains a thicker section than needed for stability, the
crest is shaped such that over hang on the u/s (corbel) is formed as follows:

Fig.

M/N k 0.5 otherwise unstable.

For gated spillway the placing of their sill by 0.2H d/s from the crest substantially
reduces the tendency towards negative pressure for underflow for under a partially raised
sills.

Fig.
2
Q  cd 1 29 b H 3 / 2  H1
3
 3/ 2
. 
with cd 1  0.6, or better from
Q  cd 2ba 29 H e ; H e  H . 0.55  cd 2  0.7

width b
beff = b – k,n,H

8
 KL = no of contraction
K = coeff. Of contraction, f (shape)  0 < k < 0.09
b = clear space b/n abutments - 1, + L2 f L3 f L4.
Self aeration of the overfull nappe starts at some distance from the crest.

Fig.
Li  14.7 q 0.53  15 q
 Hickox' s 

4.3.2. Side channel Spillways.

Side channel spillways are mainly used when it is not possible or advisable to use a direct
overfull spillway eg at earth fill or rock fill dams. The side channel spillway combines an
overfill section with a channel parallel to it, which carries the spillway discharge away to
a chute or tunnel.

The side channel should be of adequate capacity so that water levels do not rise so high
as to submerge the weir, even in the maximum flood condition.

Fig.

The problem in the side channel in that of spatially varied non – uniform flow. The
problem is best solved by the application of momentum equation.

Fig.

Momentum equation
dm = p1 - p2 - Ff + wsino
expressing each term & neglecting small terms
dy  2 d 
  So  s f  
ax  9 A2 dx  2 T
1
9 A3
2
So S f  q* d
= 9 A2 where q* = inflow / length
x
1  Fr 2

Critical flow occurs if Fr2 = 1.

9
 2 d d
:- So - Sf - 0 for   q x , q* .
9 A2 x x

s 2 v2 2 2
So = Sf +  
9 A2 x c2 R 9 A2 x

 2TA 9 2 2 TA  2  9 p 2A
=   3 

A2 C 2 R TA 9 9 A2 x TA 9A C  2
Tx 

1/ 3 1/ 3
  2   g 2 x 2T 
but F = 1  A = 
r
2    * 

 g   9 

1/ 3
2  q* T 
2
9p
: So  2    (ii)
C T   9 xc 

2 2
8q* 8 q* 2 8 q*
:  xc   
9 T 2  qpC 2T 
3 3 3
 qp   9p 
 So  2 
2
9Tc 9 Tc 2
 So  2 c  (iii)
 C T  C Tc 

xc is the position of Control point (Critical point) which exists only if X c < L (length of
side channel) For a critical section to exist in Section of length L
1/ 3
9p 2  q*2T 
So >    & the flow is Sub critical u/s of the Control.
C 2T   9L 
 
Equation (i) can be litigated for rectangular section & for So = Sf = o
3
x y  1   y  1
1   g 


y  2 
sFrL   y  2 FrL
  L
giving relation ship b/n x & depth of flow is Channel y. For critical depth yc at x = L

y   y  
2
X
 1.5  0.5   
L yc   yc  

Profile computation can be carried Out for the expression . mimetically

i) Hinds (1926) Li WH 1955 ASCE Vol.120, & also van Tec how 1959
ornentum equation

10
  , (v1  v2 ) v 
y   (   2 )  ( So  S f ) x .......(iv )
9 (1  2 ) 1

For two consecutive section of internal x , equation can be solved by trial & error for
y , with Q1, V1, So, x, Q2 & channel shape known, and an assumed value of y s
( hence v2) which must agree with y  y2  y1 given by equation above (iv) the
solution starts from the control section u/s. Control section is either the out flow from the
channel or inside the channel position dater mined from (iii)
 Re f example 12.4 ven Techow.

ii) Runge kutta 4th order Numerical Integration scheme

dy
 F ( x, y )  from (i )
x
1
yi  1  yi  ( K1  2k1  2k3  k 4 )
6
k1   x F ( x2 , yi )
x k
k 2   x F ( xi  , yi  1
2 2
x k
k3  x F ( xi  , yi  2
2 2
k4  x F ( xi  x , yi  k3 )

iii) Analytical (by approximation)

1 x du v2
Y 
9 3
(v
x
q

) dx

Q = gx
V = axn, a & n are arbitrary constants.
( n  1) x 2 n n 1 v 2
y  a2 or y  equation of flow profile.
2 gn n 2g
nt1 v 2 qx
yb = y + d =  - bottom profile for a rectangular Section.
n 2g Bv

if shape of the channel together with a & n are known, the longitudinal profile of the side
channel can be determined. a series of a & n values give a series of possible profile from
which the most appropriate is chosen.

11
4.3.3 Chute spillways.

4 Chute spillway consists of a steeply sloping channel conveying discharge from low -
overfill, side channel or special shape spillway over the valley side in to the river d/s.
If the slope of the chute is made to confirm the topography to reduce excavation, it
has to be high enough to maintain supercritical flow. where the chute slope changes
vertical curves should be provided to make the change gradually so that flow
separation could be avoided. Also when direction of flow & shape of the chute is
needs to be changed, it has to be gradual. The design of chute spillway involves
handling problems associated with.

1) Determining velocities & depths of free surface flows in a channel, based on

principles of conservation of energy.
2) waves of interference
3) Translators waves
4) self. aeration.

1)

Fig.

  y1  hv1  y2  hv 2   hL.
 S  S2 
 hL  S .  L   1 L s  from manring of chezy ' s
 2 
2) Interference waves ( cross waves, standing waves) are shock waves which occur
whenever the supercritical flow is interfered with, at inlets, changes of section,
direction or slope, bridge pier etc. Their main significance is that they need an
increased free board & higher chute side walls, also create additional difficulties if
they persist so far d/s .

Fig.

3) Translators waves. ( waves of translation, roll waves) originate under certain

conditions from the structure of supercritical flow & move with the flow in to the
stilling basin. they require higher free board, & by imparting unsteady flow in to the
stilling basin may even cause failure. They occur at slopes with 0.02 <5<0.35, but
ever then can be avoided if depth to wetted per miter is greater than 0.1. 4) (self)-
aeration is the most important feature of supercritical flow. Although beneficial for

12
cavitations protection & energy dissipation, requires increase of the depth of side walls
due to the bulking of the flow.

Air can be supplied to spillway surface automatically (self) or artificially (supplied).

Fig.

Does Self aeration occurs..? where ? how much ? location of point of inception is the
length required for growth of boundary layer.

Li = 14.7 (q)0.53  1.5 q

Some protection against Cgrvrotisron starts at beginning of fully aerated flow region.
Assuming Q1 = Q2, interface 2-3 is at 2 Li for preliminary design. However, amount
may not be sufficient to protect cavitations (about 7% in contact is needed, for which 30-
35% concentration of air is required) air concentration
a
C a  air dis ch arg e
  a
  water ch arg e

1   C  1  p1
  a

 ye
1   assuming vn = v water
 t a ya

For quick assessment of C & ya the following two equations may be used.
q2
ya  C1 yc  C1 3 0.32 < <, < 0.37
g
q - discharge /unit width
y a  yc 2 v2
 0 .1 0.2 Fr  1 F 
yo gg o
ya  e1  C.

13
4.3.4 Syphon Spillways

The principle of operation is based on syphonic action. Such a spillway occupies less
space & regulates the reservoir level with in narrow limits.

v  2 gH area of the
Fig. thront ofsyphon
  cd A 2 gH
H is the difference b/n u/s wL& syphon out
let or d/s wL q submerged.

Cd = k1  k 2  k3  k 4
K1, k2, k3 & k4 are head loss coeff. for
entry, bend, exit & friction.

Initially the water depth at the crest of spillway. For any rise in water level a sheet of
water starts traveling over the crest, and syphon action starts when all the entrapped air
csithin the hood is driven out & space is filled with water (Called 'priming') . The action
Continues the water tells below the inlet level, which may result in loss of valuable water.
to Control this effect, an air vent whose inlet level is at MWL is provided.

To initiate syphonic action as early as possible with reservoir water elevation i) joggle or
step & ii) auxiliary or baby syphon can be provided.

Fig.

Shaft Spillways (Morning glory)

Shaft Spillway is provided as separate Structure, hence doesn't need interface protection
when provided with earth fill & rockfill dams. Sometimes if can also provided for
concrete dams in cases of narrow gorges where other types of spillways do not find
adequate space.

The shaft spillway is suitable for stage development and can be combined with draw off
tower in water supply project.

14
 Hs
 0.225
Ds
Free flow: case of
H3

Dc
2
  cd . cd 29  Dc H 3 / 2
3
For high head it can be submerged H' = H + Z
D 2
  cd . 29 ( H  Z ) (submerged flow)
4
Submerged (drowned) Condition Occurs when H/Ds > 0.5.

Fig.

note: tendency of overtopping under sub merged flow condition.

Fig.

The tunnel below shift spill of s can be deigned For four flow regimes. these are shown
diagrammatically as follows.

Fig.

The configuration and flow regime is shown depending on the relative position of the
tuned so fit and down stream water level .

The configuration in figure D) is the most favorable one from the point of view of
stability of flow in the tunnel and precaution of vibration, the aerated transition from. The
shaft bend in to the funnel is an important feature of the design. Its purpose is to establish
a control section for the shaft and send. And at the same time, to stabilize the free or
pressure flow (with a stable jump) in the tanned

4.3.6 Cthar snirways

In the prevents sections major types of spillways and most frequent ones are diseased.
Their combination as well as other types of spillways can also be constructed. If of unseal
type to be adopted their design should be developed with the aid of model studies.

4.4 Bottom outlets

15
Bottom outlets are opening in the dam used to draw down the reservoir level. Depending
on the type of control gate (valves) & the position of the out flow in relation to the fail
water they operate either under pressure or free- flowing over part of their length.

Bottom outlets are also used to allow compensating flow for the d/s reach &to serve to
pass density (sediment laden) contents through the reservoir.

Large bottom openings serve as submerged spillways and their capacities can be used
during the dam construction.

V Energy Dissipation

Energy dissipation at dams & wire is closely associated with spillway design, particularly
with the chosen q & H* (different b/n water level u/s & d/s). The high energy of flowing
water gas to be destroyed, before the water is discharged in to the fail water. :-

- Magnetite + energy
- environmental effect

The passage of water from a reservoir in to the d/s reach such as involves a number of
hydraulic phenomenon. The energy dissipation process can be categorized in five
separate stages.

1. On the spillway surface

2. In a free falling jet
3. at impact in to d/s pool
4. In stilling basin
5. At the outflow in to the river.

5.1 Energy Dissipation On Spillways

Energy loss on spillway surface can be expressed by

v2
  wheel v’ is supercritical velocity @ the end of smelly
28
 Corrales coeff
head loss coeff
2 2
v v

29 25
actualvelocity
y
theoroticalvelocity
Energy, E =
v '2

 29 
   1 
E  v' 2
v '2  
  
 29 29 

16
For a ratio of height of the spillway crest above its ending &the overall head H 1 with S/H
< 30 for smooth spillway
 ,  1  0.0155  / H
For a given  , , decreases as H decreases.
S
For  ,  0.92 relative loss = 15%
H
S
For  25 ,  0.61 relative loss = 62%
H

The value of  could be increased ( &  decreased ) by using a rough spillway or by

putting baffles on the spillway surface. However unless elution is provided cavitations
could occur.

Region 2&3 In many modern spillway design, increased energy dissipation is achieved
by using free falling jet, either at the end of a ‘ski – jump’ or d/s of flip bucket.

Fig.

The lead loss in the jet is only up to 10-12% whether solid or disintegrated. But if jets are
colliding substantial energy will be dissipated. The main benefit from jet spillways is in
the 3rd phase at impact in to the d/s pool.

The combined energy loss in region 1-3 can be studied from model tests.

generally
 S'  S'
,  3  f  , of , seometey 
S  S
S'
Optimum  0.55  0.6
S

17
5.2 Energy Dissipation On Stilling Basins. (Region 4)

The stilling basin is the most common energy dissipater converting the supercritical
flow from the spillway in to sub critical flow compatible with the d/s river

The straight forward & often best –methods of achieving this transition is through
simple submerged jump formed in rectangular X- section stilling basin.

V Energy Dissipation

Energy dissipation at dams & wire is closely associated with spillway design ,
particularly with the chosen q & H * (different b/n water level u/s & d/s ). The high
energy of flowing water gas to be destroyed, before the water is discharged in to the fail
water. :-

- Magnetite + energy
- environmental effect

The passage of water from a reservoir in to the d/s reach such as involves a number of
hydraulic phenomenons. The energy dissipation process can be categorized in five
separate stages.

1. On the spillway surface

2. In a free falling jet
3. at impact in to d/s pool
4. In stilling basin
5. At the outflow in to the river.

5.1 Energy Dissipation On Spillways

Energy loss on spillway surface can be expressed by

 v '2
   where v’ - is supercritical velocity @ the end of spillway
29
 - Corrales Coefficient
 - Head loss Coefficient.

v '2 v '2
Energy , E =  
25 2g

18
 actuel velocity
 
theorstical velocity
1
 1
2
v '2

 29 
 2   1  2
E v' v '2 1

25 25
For a ratio of height S of the spillway crest above its ending &the overall head H1
with S/H < 30 and for smooth spillway

  1  0.0155S / H

For a given S,  , decreases as H decreases

S
 for  5 ,  0.92 relative loss  15%
H
5
for  25 ,  0.61 '' ''  62%
H

The value of  could be increased ( & y decreased ) by using a rough spillway or by

putting baffles on the spillway surface. However, unless aeration is provided at these
profusions, the increased energy dissipation may be achieved only by providing an
opportunity for caritation damage.

Region 2 & 3

In many modern spillway design, increased energy dissipation is achieved by using free
falling jet, either @ the end of a ‘ski – jump’ or d/s of flip bucket .

Fig.

The head loss in the jet is only up to 10 – 12% whether solid or disintegrated. But the jets
are colliding substantial energy will be dissipated. The main benefit from jet spillways in
the 3rd phase at impact in to the d/s pool.

The combined energy loss in region 1-3 can be studied from model tests.

 s' 
Generally  1  3  f  , q, geometry 
s 

A comparison of  1 3 for 3 designs is shown in figure above.

s1
optimum  0.55  0.6.


19
Flip bucket is a revision of ski- jump spillway that is usually used as an end to a chute or
tunnel spillway whenever suitable site is available. At low flow the bucket acts like a
stilling basing & at high discharge it operates with jet.

The key parameters for the flip buckets design are, approach  & y, r , and  The
main concern is to have the impact zone of the jet as far as possible from the bucket to
protect the structure against retrogressive erosion. The jet trajectory is hardly affected by
air resistance for V< 20 m/s but for v of 40 m/s the throw distance can be reduced by as
v2
much as 30 %from the theoretical value given by sin 2B.
g
volume designs available refer Locker &Hsu (1984)

5.3 Energy Dissipation On Stilling Basins.

The stilling basin is the most common energy dissipater converting the supercritical flow
from the spillway in to sub critical flow compatible with the d/s river .

The straight forward & often best –methods of achieving this transition is through simple
submerged jump formed in rectangular X- section stilling basin.

Fig.

 v'
2
v
E  y,    '
25 28
q 2
1
 y'  2 where  1 
 gy, 2 2
1
y'  2 
y2   1  1  8 g  hydraulic jurp equetion
2  S y, 

for submerged jump y2’ > y2 , y2’ =  ' y2  > 1
stilling basin depth
y'  y '  yo   ' y2  yo
choose 1.1    1.25
and length 1 = k (y2 - y1) k is cuff do rived from lab & field data including 0’
4.5 < k < 5.5
For known q & y0 assume E with initial y1 = 0

Compute y1, y2 & y1 from (1) , (2) & (3) for suitable chosen .......... 9terate with new
value of E.

this computation carried for several discharges, and produces five alternatives.

20
 a) y2 > y0 throughout large of q
b) y2 = y0 ,, ,,
c) y2 < y0 ,, ,,
d) y2 > y0 only @ high discharges
e) y2 > y0 only low discharges

case a) provide stilling basin to produce submerged jump

b) ,, ,,
c) no basin but a horizontal approach to protect the river bed d/s
d) & e) stilling basin is required for max. difference in the range of operation,
Q, < Q max.

The energy loss in the 4th & 5th phase of energy dissipation can be expressed as

4,5 
 y2  y1 
3

4 y2 y1

D/s of jump still excess energy left, mainly due to high turbulence of flow.
2
v0
e   '   2  '  5 for 3 c Fr , c 10
28
2
e4 e5 1 0 Fr ,  1
 1  1  4 ( '  1) 3
e4,5 e4 ,5   3  1  8 F 2 
 r,

Indicates efficiency of energy dissipation decreases in the jump with fraud number

The discharge is design discharge for a) b) & d) above. sometimes it may be economical
to take calculated risk say Q10 0 0 design flood than Q10,000 & repair if damage occurs.

The major problems in the spillway stilling basin are abrasion, uplift &carnations

The hydraulic jump entrains a substantial amount of air additional to the incoming any
aerated flow. The main significance of the presence of air in the jump region is the
requirement for higher stilling basin side wall.

The highly turbulent nature of flow in the jump induces pressure fluctuation & is the
cause of cavitations
Fig.
2
where p1 is the deviation of instantaneous
p' pressure from the time averaged pressure.
  1
ev, 2 (refers Norak 1990 Loch or & Hsu 1984)
2 carination occurs if    c

Potential carination damage is not the only danger in the hydraulic jump stilling basin.
The most serious structural is problem is may be due to uplift pressure which is

21
aggravated by micro turbulent pressure fluctuations under lath the jump. Therefore it is
sensible to design the floor slab for the full d/s uplift pressure applied over the whole area
of the floor with the basin empty or for the uplift pressure equal to the r.m.s. value of
v, 2
pressure fluctuations of the order of 0. 12 ( V1is milt super critical velocity )
28
applied under the whole full basin . Furthermore, all construction joints should be sealed,
no drain openings should be provided, and flora slabs should be as large as possible
&connected by dowels & reinforcement (ICOLD 1986)

Abrasion of concrete in the basin could take place if this is also used for bottom
outlets carried abrasive sediment. (Unlikely to hanger for v c 10 m/s ) or from sediment
drawn in to the basin from d/s either by bad design or operation. The basin should be self
cleaning to fusel out any entrapped (trapped) sediment.

Other types of stilling basins & appurtenances

Although the stilling basin based on a simple hydraulic jump works well &relatively
efficiently, in certain conditions other types of stilling basins may produce saving in cost.

Standard basins were developed with appurtenance structures to increase performance of

the basins. These include chutes blocks, baffle piers & special end sills.

The U. S. B. R. has standard stilling basins for different ranges of fraud number by
combining the appurtenances U.S.B.R. type I, II & III basins are shown in figures 55, 56
& 57 in pages 20-51; 52 & 53

The plain &slotted roller bucket dissipater, spatial hydraulic jump basins are some of
stilling basins which are best studied using model for their application.

Erosion down stream of stilling basins & plunge pools.

At the outflow from the basin there remains a certain proportion of energy to be
dissipated . D/s of free falling jets (jet, ski jump, flip buckets) energy dissipation takes
place in stilling basins, or more frequently in plunge pools.

The extent & depth of local scour depends on hydraulic parameters, geology, and basin
geometry. Several methods available for its computation including model studies.

Figure.
  yo 
1/ 3

ys  0.55 ys1  0.55 6 H  q 0.5  
0.25
 yo 
  d 90  

The general form of the scour, ys; oneaswed from the fail- water surface (ys1 = y s + y0))
is

22
 Y
Cq x H * B
s' 
d
C is coeff
B is angle of flip bucket
d is particle is in mm.
Wide range because equation expected to cove wide range
0.56 < C < 4.7
- structures
0.5 < X < 0.67
- degree of air entrainment
0.1 < Y < 0.5
- geologic condition
0 < Z < 0.3
0 < W < 0.1
simplified martin equation (1975) with X =0.6 , Y =0.1 W =Z =0 & C =1.5
Ys '  1.5 q 0.6 H 80.1 Conforming importance of q
Trajmovic (1978) for flip bucket
Ys = 6ycr tan  ,
Ys = ys’ - yo
ycr = critical depth
 , is the u/s angle of the seaer hale which is a
function of the flip bucket exit angle  .
But doesn’t vary widely (14 <  < 24o
for 10o <  < 40o)

5.4 Energy Dissipation @ Bottom Outlets

The flow from outlets occurs most frequently in a concentrated stream of high velocity.
Outlet may terminate below or above fail water level with or with out value.

The design treads are either to artificially disperse & aerate the outflow jets (outflow
above TW with or without control get @ its end) ,or to reduce the specific discharge at
entry in to the stilling basin ( by depressing the sofit @ the same time widening .)

Example.

Design a hydraulic jump stilling basin for the maximum discharge of 25 m 3 / s/m.
flowing from an overfill spillway, with the spillway crest 50m above the d/s gravel river
bed with a slope so = 0.001 and n =0.028. Check the possibility of cavitations in the basin
floor & estimated the depth of plunge pool d/s of a flip bucket.

solution

23
 2 / 3;
 3q 
2  
q  cd 29 H 0
3/ 2
 H  2  for cd  0.75
3  cd 29 
 
 
 25 X 3 
H  
 2 X 0.75 X 19.62 2 / 3  5.032m
 
velocity cuff
S 50
  1  0.0155  1  0.155  0.846
H 5.032
v   c  R 
2 / 3 1/ 2 1/ 6
 1n n So
n 
 
For n  0.028  v  c Rs 
 strickler n  0.04d 1 / 6 d is roughress ise dim ent in m 
.
 
 
0.028
d 1/ 6
  d  0.118m
0.04
For wide channel q = 1 y. y s
n
2/3 1/2
(y  R) when
¾ > 10
3/5
 0.028 x 25 
y    6.416m.
 0.001 
 c  c (s  ) gd ; c  0.04 to 0.06
   9 RS
Threshold shear stress.
9 Rs
if  0.05 say no danger.
c
RS 6.416 X 0.001
  0.035  0.05 ( shields criterion)
d ( s.56  1) 0.118 X 1.56
:- the river bed is stable
with the datum @ the river bed level
 q2
E = y, +
29 2 y , 2
252
bytrial & error
50 + 5.032 = y, + 19.6 x 0.8462 y , 2
y ,  0.907m

q2 252

Fr12 =
Sy ,3 9.81 X 0.9073   85,38 ; Fr ,  9.24
y2 
y, 
2
  1  1  8 Fr ,  

2


0.907
2

1 1  8  85.38  11.40m 
y2 >> y0 stilling basin is required.
  1.2
For y '  y  y  1.2 X 11.40  6.416  7.624m
2 2 o

Assume y’ = 7.50m (  ’ will be reduced by lowering the datum) & repeat

computation.
E = 50 + 5.032 + 7.50 = 62.532
1  0.0155 X 57.5
 =  0.823
5.032

. 252 2
From 62.532 = y,  , y,  0.873m; Fr ,  95.75
19,62 X 0.8232 y, 2

24
& y2 '  11 .65m,  '  1.19 ( satisfactory )

Check the design for smaller discharge ; say 10 m3/s/m

3/5
 0.028 X 10 
yo     3 .7 m
 0.001 
10 X 3
Assume cd = 0.65; thus H = 2.69m &
2 X 0.65 19.62
57.5
  1  (0.0155 x )  0.67
2.69
102
E  57.5  2.69  y,    ,  0.436m
19.6 x 0.67 2 y,2
2
Fr  123
y2  6.62m
7 .5  3 .7
'   1.69 1.19
6.62
The basin desired for max discharge is more than ax equate for lower q stilling basin
length
L  k ( y2  y, )  k (11 .65  0.873)
Fr .  95.75  9.78 ; k  4.5
for L  4.5 X 10.777  48.49m  50m

cavitations.

Assuming the length of the jump to be approximately 6 (y 2 – y1), the hydrostatic pressure
x
@ the point of max. pressure fluctuation, i.e. in free jump @ y ,  12, will be  5
with
y2  y ,
  y,  12 y ,  3 y ,
6( y 2  y , )
For   0.05 , cavitation will occur if
v, 2 p'
po  g 5  0.05 k   pv  0. where k   l (1  k  5)
2 p '2

25
 25
v,   28.63m / s
0.873
y,  0.873m
:-  po 
 5 
k  
pg 

10  3 y, 10.62
 6.04  5
V ,2 0.05 X 28.632
0.05
29
:- No cavitations danger even for max . q. (theoretical)
phage pool
1/ 3
 yo 
 yo 
0.25
ys  0.55(64* q 0.5 
 d 9o 
d90 = 118 mm.
Yo = 6.416m
H* = 55.032 – 6.416 = 48.616
  6.416 
1/ 3

ys  0.55 6 x 48.6160.25 x 25 0.5    6.416  13m.

  118  


But s =50 >> 10 &equation is not applicable, & computed scour depth is too
high. More realistic value is 50%of the above  6.5m &it occurs @ L  6 ys  90m
from the toe of the dam & is thus harmless for the dam, but requires suitable dam
protection.

If a flip bucket is used probable required depth of plurgepoole would be (from

martin’s with 100% error possibility)

0.1
ys '  1.5q 0.6 H *  15.25

Thus ys '  15.25  6.416  9m. below river bed. (This erosion would,
however
very probably be (laser to the toe of the dam unless a chute, diverging the flow from the
dam , were used.)

VI GATES AND VALVES.

Gates & valves are means of regulating dischaye

6.1 Classification of gates.

Gates may be Classified according to

a) position on the dam - crest gates
- high head (submerged) gats & valves.

b) function - Service, regulating maintenance (bulk head) emergency

26
 c) Material - gates made of steel, Al alloys, Rc , wood, ruber, nylon & other
synthetic material.

d) pressure transmission – to piers or abutments, to the gate sill, to the sill & piers &
to the whole structures.

e) Mode of operation - regulating & non regulating. Gates & vanes

f) type of motion - translatory, rotary, rolling , flouting along or across the flow.

g) Moving mechanism - electrically, mechanically, hydraulically, mammals,

automatically,

Requirement for good gate design .

- failure free
- water tight
- spud
- able to install & maintain easily
- rigid, tight, easily moved – min hoist capacity

6.2 Crest gates

The basic feature of the structural design of crest gates is the method used for tram
erring the pressrun acting on them.

To piers & automats - vertical life gates, stop logs, radial gates & rover sets
To the sate sill - sector sates, pivot leaf (flop gates) , inflatable gates,
To both piers & sills - some types of flap gates & floater gates

Flush board, stop logs & needles

These are the simplest & the lades types of movable crest gates.

Flash boards can be temporary & permanent types, the former ones are for heights up to
1.5 – 2.om & consists of wooden panels supported by nautical pins embodied on the
spillway crest. These flashboards one washed out when flood level reaches above certain
height .

27
Fig.

Permanent ones are also consist of wooden panels, can bee lowed or raised by cables.

Stop lugs are horizontal dumber panels spanning the space b/n grooved pairs just saired
by hand or hoist . used for small instillation.

Fig.

Needles consist of slightly inclined now of timbers supported @ the top by beam or
bridge & on the bottom by a key in the spillway crest .

Fig.

Plain sates

Consists of single or double section, & in case of flow aver can be provided with
additional flap gate. The gates can have a slide support, a whorl moving in groove,
carriage morning in grooves,

The gate weight Q, related to its spem, B(m), g the lead, P(KN)
G = K(PB)n
For slide gates with PB > 200 & Nm, K = 0.12 n = 0.71
Wheeled gates & PB > 270 & Nm, K = 0.09 n = 0.73
The usual range for plain gates is 1 < H < 15 m &
of Span 4 < B < 45 m.

Radial gates.

Radial gates become most popular because of their. Smaller hoist, can be raised quickly,
high stiffness, lower piers, absence of slots, better winter performance. However they
need longer & thicker piers & difficult to provide with bulk head installation.

Fig.
0.11 < k < 0.15 n  0.07 for pB > 150
HNm heads & spars are 2 < H < 14 m.
m. 3 < B < 40 (BH)max  300m2 They
may be designed for loads > 20 MN per
bearing.

28
Sector (drum) gates

They may be hinged u/s or d/s, the former one brig the most common, with the hinge
about 0.25H above the d/s gate sill & radius of curvature n  H. The heads can be as
high as 10m & span 65m. Advantages are ease of automation & absence of lifting gear,
fast movement, accuracy of regulation, ease of passing ice & debris, and low priers- But
they are difficult to install, and require careful maintenance

Flap gates

This type of gate is with flat or cured leaf hinged at bearings along its lower edge It can
be used alone or in conjunction with vertical gate. It was developed as a replacement of
wooden flash board.

This type of gate is simple, light, easily reseated & operated type of cheap & easy flu
sling of debris & ice. However, it nudes sap ply of air perfection from freezing & may
transfer vibration from water to structure unless proilected by jet splitters.

When used by its own B < 30 m & H < 6m for large spans several are Connected to each
other

Roller gates

Inflatable rubber or fabric gates can be pressurized by air, water or both. They can be
used to close very large spans over 100m with heads up to 6m .

Their advantages are low cost, lens weight, B ease of installation but they can be easily
damaged & have limited life.
6.3 High head gates & valves

thigh head (fibered) gates & valves transmit the load to the confounding structure either
directly thwngh their support of through their shell .

1) light pressure gates.

i) lift gates are either sliding, wheeled, or moving on rollers or caterpillar.
ln
Can be subjected to very high pressure 3-4,000 2
m
2
A = 100 m , H 200 m.
ii) Radial gates :- are normally hinted d/s & trey have gat good regulation .
2) High head valves.
i) Cone dis perncin (Howell- bumper) verve is probably the most frequently utilized
type for resulting verve installed @ the end of outlets disclaiming in to a tm.

29
This type is easy to operate, light but causes lots of spray, sometimes controlled by d/s
ring.

ii) Needle valve or its valiant the tube move has a bulb shaped fixed steel jacketed with
the valve closing against the casing at the d/s

iii) hollow jet valve

The sill is u/s & advantageous
- closing system is under Patm
- much cheaper
- Outflow is in the form of cylinder

7. River Diversion

Vii Dam Safety.

7.1. Introduction

Reservoirs constitutes a potential hazard to downstream life and property. The flood plain
at risk in the event of Catastrophic breaching may be extensive, densely populated & of
Considerable economic importance, in such cases dam failure can result in unacceptable
loss of life and damage.
Catastrophic failure of a dam, other than as the direct result of an extreme flood event, is
invariably preceded by a period of progressively increasing ; structural’ distress with in
the dam and/or its foundation. Dam Surveillance programmers & instrumentations are
intended to detect. And, where possible, to identify symptoms of distress at the earliest
possible stage.

7.2. Dam Instrumentation

Application & objectives

Monitoring instruments are provided in almost all new dams and basic level of
instrumentation for older dams. In new dams instrumentation data is interpreted to
provide an indication of the validity of design assumption and to determine an initial
datum pattern of performance against which subsequent observations can be assessed.

30
In older & existing dams instruments are installed provide a measure of assurance, to
reared specific parameters which are suspected as design deficiency of behavioral
problem.

Planning & commissioning of instrumentation should be handled by relatively senior &

experienced personnel with in responsible origination. The primary function of
instrumentation may be for.

- Construction Control
- Post - Construction performance
- Serbia performance /Surveillance.
- Research /Development.

Parameters in monitoring dam behaviors

The most significant parameters in monitoring dam behavior are

a) Seepage & Leakage. (quantity, nature & Source)

b) Settlement & freeboard (magnitude, rate)
c) External & internal deformation (magnitude, ratty location)
d) Pore water pressure & uplift. (magnitude, valuation)
e) Internal stress of pressure (magnitude. See table for parameters & instruments
employed.

Instruments design & operating principles

Monitoring instruments are squired to function properly Bfferltiauy for indefinite period
of time. A desirable instrument must be.
- as simple in concept as is insistent with their function,
- robust & reliable.
- Durable under adverse environmental & operating conditions.
- Inexpensive in ‘through – life’ cost (i.e. the sum of purchase installation support &
monitoring cost )
A comprehensive review about the various equipment & operating principles should be
refereed, which can be provided by manufacturers or qualified Society’s/Authors.

Instrumentation planning

The priming & specification of a Comprehensive suite of instruments invokes a logical

sequence of decisions.

a) definition of the purpose & objections

b) definition of observations appropriate to the dam considered;
c) determination of the locations & numbers of measuring points for the desired
observation
d) consideration of the time intervals to be spanned, I e. long or short term monitoring

31
 e) consideration of optimum searing mode in relation to the rapidity of response,
required accruing, etc.)
f) selection of hardware appropriate to the task under a)-e)
it is advisable to consider instrumentation programmers interims of overall ‘system’
required i.e. instruments, installation. Commissioning monitoring and data management
together. The following shows a representation instrumentation profile for embankment
dam.

Fig.

Data acquisition & management

Logical planning data acquisition & processing is essential if the purpose of an

instrumentation programmer is to be fully utilized unless observations all reliable & the
information is interpreted quickly the value of a programmer will be severely diminished

As an example the following shows representative monitoring frequencies

Parameter Frequency
water level daily wherever possible
Sup age deity or weekly
Piezometel once or twice weekly (cons traction) to 3 to
6 monthly (routine)
Settlement /deformation daily (suspected serious step) to 3 to 6
monthly (routine)

32
7.3.. Dam Surveillance

Dams if all types require refuel surrillance if they are to be maintained in a safe &
operationally efficient stile. As with all structure they are subject to a deprecate of long
term but progressive deterioration some of the lather may be superficial in relation to
structural integrity, but the possibility of concealed & serious internal deterioration must
be considered. Older dams will have been designed & constructed to standards may no
longer be considered adequate, e.g. in terms of their spillway discharge. Capacity or
structural stability.

The primary objective of a surrillance programmer is to mammies the possilnlity of

catastuplic falterer of the dam by the timely detection of design inadequacies or
regressive changes in behavioral. A further objective is to assist in the scheduling of
routine maintenance or, when necessary, of major remedial work.

Surrillance embraces the regular & frequent observation and recording of all aspects of
the service performance of a dam & its reservoir. It indudysoutine observation &
inspection, the monitoring & assessment of sup age & instrumentation data, and the
recording of all other relevant information, in duding hydrological records. Less frequent
but more rigorous statutory inspections by specialist engmcers are also caused out as a
part of comprehensive surveillance programmer, & may include a complete investigation
& reappraisal of the dam’s integrity.

7.4. Dam safety legislation

Legislation to cover the construction & safe long. Term operation of dams has assumed
greater importance as the member & size of dams at risk has steadily increased. The
situation is dynamic rather than static, & most commutes have introduced or reviewed
national legislation.

National legislation falls in to two patterns.

1) Legislation is precise & detailed, and is operated through some measure of direct state
control.
2) Legislation – responsibility placed in the hands of nominated individual engineers.

The applicability of any legislation must be clearly defined. This is morally done informs
of a minimum reservoir storage capacity above natural ground level and/or a minimum
height of a dam. Legislation must also adequately prescribe responsibility for the propos
supervision of design, construction and operation, and must detail arguments for
surveillance & periodic inspections.

33