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IB PPT 11 SL Data PDF

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134 views

IB PPT 11 SL Data PDF

Uploaded by

zarna nirmal rawal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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You are on page 1/ 38

IB CHEMISTRY

Topic 11 Measurement and data


processing
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11.1 Uncertainties and errors in
measurement and results
OBJECTIVES
• Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement.
• Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random
errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times.
• Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result.
• Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a

•
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deviation in a particular direction.
Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors.
• Distinction between random errors and systematic errors.
• Record uncertainties in all measurements as a range (+) to an appropriate precision.
• Discussion of ways to reduce uncertainties in an experiment.
• Propagation of uncertainties in processed data, including the use of percentage uncertainties.
• Discussion of systematic errors in all experimental work, their impact on the results and how they can be
reduced.
• Estimation of whether a particular source of error is likely to have a major or minor effect on the final result.
• Calculation of percentage error when the experimental result can be compared with a theoretical or
accepted result.
• Distinction between accuracy and precision in evaluating results.
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ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES
Key terms
Random error – above and below true value,
usually due to limitations of equipment
Systematic error – in one direction, usually due
to instrument or method error
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Precision – a measure of the certainty (±)
Accuracy – how close the value is to the
accepted value
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Some causes of systematic error
• Physical errors in the measuring
device
Thermometer was dropped and has small
air bubbles in it, leaking gas syringe.

• Improper or sloppy use of measuring


device
You measured the values in Fahrenheit
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instead of Celsius, you didn’t select the
right size/range for/of the instrument, the
instrument wasn’t calibrated or cleaned,
parallax error, chemical splashes (can be
random error too).

• Ambient conditions
The temperature, pressure,
or air currents changed during the
experiment. Evaporation.
How to reduce random uncertainty
• Repetition of at least 3!

• Range of 5 (to determine a relationship)


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Determining uncertainty
UNLESS THE INSTRUMENT TELLS YOU,
UNCERTAINTY IS MEASURED IN ONE OF TWO
WAYS:

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►1. For glassware and similar instruments, the
uncertainty is half the smallest increment of
the instrument.

►2. For digital instruments, the uncertainty is


the smallest digit.
• The volume is
between 17cm3 and
18cm3.
• The uncertainty is
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half the smallest
digit = 1/2 = 0.5
• So the answer is 17.5
± 0.5cm3.

9
1 2 3 4 cm

• We can see the markings between 1.6-1.7cm


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• The uncertainty is half the smallest digit 0.1/2 =
0.05
• We record 1.65 +/- 0.05cm as our
measurement
Example 1

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What is the length of the wooden stick?
1) 4.50 cm ± 0.05cm
2) 4.54 cm ± 0.05cm
3) 4.547 cm ± 0.002cm
Example 2

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What is the mass on the scale?


1) 0.025 ± 0.0005g
2) 0.025 ± 0.005g
3) 0.025 ± 0.001g
Uncertainty – halfway method
If there is one factor with significant uncertainty
that will override all other uncertainties use
the halfway method.
Take the lowest value away from the highest
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value, divide it by two, and that is your
uncertainty
For equipment like a stopwatch, use the halfway
method (estimates on reaction times are 0.1s)
Problem 1: What is the uncertainty for this data?
8.00, 6.00, 10.00, 12.00 (± 0.01 units)
Average = 9
Error = 12-6/2 = 3
Therefore answer is 9 ± 3.
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Rules for significant zeros
• RULE 1. Zeros in the middle of a number are
significant. Eg. 94.072 or 94072
• RULE 2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are
not significant. Eg. 0.0834
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• RULE 3. Zeros at the end of a number and after
the decimal point are significant. Eg. 138.200
• RULE 4. Zeros at the end of a number and before
an implied decimal point may or may not be
significant. Eg. 138200
Practice: Significant zeros
45.8736 •All digits count
.000239 6 •Leading 0’s don’t
.00023900 3 •Trailing 0’s do
48000. 5 •0’s count in decimal form
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48000 •0’s don’t count w/o decimal
5
3.982106 •All digits count
2
1.00040 •0’s between digits count as well
4
as trailing in decimal form
6
Rules for significant figures
(multiplication and division)
RULE 1. In carrying out a multiplication or
division, the answer cannot have more
significant figures than either of the original
numbers.
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Rules for significant figures
(addition and subtraction)
► RULE 2. Your answer should only have the same
number of unit placings as the most imprecise
number.

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Eg. 0.011 + 0.01 = 0.021  0.02
Eg. 90 000 + 900 = 90 900  90 000
Practice: Multiplication and division of
significant figures
32.27  1.54 = 49.6958 49.7
3.68  .07925 = 46.4353312 46.4
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1.750  .0342000 = 0.05985
.05985
3.2650106  4.858 = 1.586137  107 1.586 107
6.0221023  1.66110-24 = 1.000000 1.000
Practice: Addition/Subtraction of
significant figures

25.5 32.72 320


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+34.270 - 0.0049 + 12.5
59.770 32.7151 332.5
59.8 32.72 330
Practice: Addition and Subtraction of
significant figures

.56 + .153 = .713 .71 Look for the


last important
82000 + 5.32 = 82005.32 82000 unit placing
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.1
10.0 - 9.8742 = .12580 Most
10 – 9.8742 = .12580 0 imprecise
number
Key terms
Absolute uncertainty – the ± value in a reading
Percentage uncertainty – the ± value in a
reading divided by the reading
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Absolute error – measured value less accepted
value
Percentage error – measured value less
accepted value all divided by accepted value
Propagation of uncertainty

• For addition and subtraction you add the


uncertainties together
• For division and multiplication you add the
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percentage uncertainties together
• The final uncertainty is a single significant
figure, and the final answer is rounded off to a
similar number of places as the final
uncertainty
Example:
Table 1: Raw data to determine density of water

Trial Mass of Mass of Volume


beaker beaker plus (± 0.5mL)
(± 0.01g) water
(± 0.01g)
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1 20.02 30.05 10.0
2 20.00 30.04 10.0
3 20.01 30.03 10.5
Average 20.01 30.04 10.2
Mass of water
= Mass of beaker plus water – Mass of beaker
= (30.04 ± 0.1) - (20.01 ± 0.01)
= 30.04 -20.01 ± 0.1 + 0.01
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= 10.03 ± 0.11g
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= 0.9833 ± 5.9887%
= 0.9833 ± 0.059887 x 0.9833
= 0.9833 ± 0.058987
= 0.98 ± 0.06g/cm3
Final answer: Density of water is 0.98 ± 0.06g/cm3
Percentage error
Used to determine how accurate you have been
in the final value arrived at in your experiment.
(yes it is similar to percentage uncertainty)
Takes your answer and compares it to the ‘true’
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value.
Percentage error calculation
In an experiment you found the density of a
solution to be 1.017g/cm3. The true value is
1.011g/cm3. What is the percentage error?
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% error = (accepted – measured)/accepted x 100
= (1.011-1.017)/1.011 x 100
= 0.005935 x 100
= 0.5935% (absolute values)
= 0.6% (to one significant figure)
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MEASURING WITH GLASSWARE
Using glassware – graduated or volumetric pipette

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Using glassware – burette

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Using glassware – volumetric flask

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11.2 Graphical techniques
OBJECTIVES
• Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an
independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of
physical quantities.
• Sketched graphs have labelled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative
trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional.
• Drawn graphs have labelled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative
measurements.
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• Drawing graphs of experimental results including the correct choice of axes and
scale.
• Interpretation of graphs in terms of the relationships of dependent and
independent variables.
• Production and interpretation of best-fit lines or curves through data points,
including an assessment of when it can and cannot be considered as a linear
function.
• Calculation of quantities from graphs by measuring slope (gradient) and intercept,
including appropriate units.
Types of graphs
• Directly proportional

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• Inversely proportional

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Manual calculation of slope

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IB graph expectations

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IB graph expectations

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