Introduction

Yoga and Modern Philosophy is the title of the Article written by Mircea Eliade. This

Article was published by the Penn State University Press in ‘The Journal of General Education’

Volume 15, No. 2 on the month of July 1963. Looking at the author’s biography, one may see

the credentials and the degrees that he earned that makes him a reliable scholar. He is a

philosopher. He has written many books about philosophy of religion. “He published extensively

in the history of religions and acted as editor-in-chief of Macmillan's Encyclopedia of Religion.”1

What makes him knowledgeable about Indian Philosophy? The answer is still found on

the same source which says, “In 1928 he sailed for Calcutta to study Sanskrit and philosophy

under Surendranath Dasgupta (1885-1952), a Cambridge educated Bengali, professor at the

University of Calcutta, and author of a 5 volume, History of Indian Philosophy (Motilal

Banarsidass 1922-55).” 2

His expertise on yoga was probably because of his Doctoral thesis on Yoga. It is in the

year 1933 that he finished his doctoral thesis at the department of Philosophy. Like the late Prof.

Emerita, he also wrote his dissertation thesis in French. The title of his thesis was Yoga: Essai

sur les origines de la mystique Indienne.”3 His work was revised and republished as Yoga,

Immortality, and Freedom.4

Another person who has interest on the life and works of Eliade was Dennis A. Doeing.

He wrote his doctoral dissertation about Eliade which has become a good source of knowledge in
1
[ CITATION All13 \l 13321 ]

2
Ibid.

3
Ibid.

4
Ibid.
order for a researcher to know more about Eliade’s thoughts and style. The title of his thesis was,

‘A Biography of Mircea Eliade’s Spiritual and Intellectual Development from 1917 to 1940’.

This has been a good source in order to know more not just about Eliade’s contribution in

philosophy of religion, it is also a good source to know Eliade as a person. Eliade’s flow of

thought and way of thinking is a manner of a phenomenologist as what scholars interprets his

works. He is a historian and phenomenologist of religion. 5 Eliade studied under a known teacher

and writer of India’s philosophical history. He studied at the University of Calcutta under

Dasgupta and Stella Kramrish who was an authority on the history of Indian art. 6 Concerning

about his knowledge and background about the Yoga’s philosophy, he was not only learned

about its teachings and concepts, he practiced the discipline of Yoga and tried to be a monk

himself. He has a Guru whose name was Swami Shivananda.7 He has his own hut where he can

practice meditation. Though Eliade practices Yoga, he also find time in reading the Sanskrit text

and his meditation on them. In his reading he also find time writing parts of his dissertation. 8

This dissertation of Eliade regarding Yoga was already mentioned above.

Knowing his background in religious phenomenon and his expertise on Yoga gives a

small space to doubt his credibility to write on the subject. If this paper supposed to give a

critique on his written article, then it is to appraise him for sharing to humanity his intelligence

and knowledge of the topic. However it would be an insult to knowledge and to him if the

discussion will just end with him and that there would be no other seed of knowledge or new

ideas to generate. His work is a contribution to the problems raised by influential thinkers, and

5
[ CITATION Den75 \l 13321 ]

6
Ibid, 67-68.

7
Ibid, 77.

8
Ibid, 78.
questions will not stop from his answers. For the way of philosophizing things is a continuous

journey. New generations are benefitting from the ideas of philosophers. Questions and problems

will continue so that people may think deeper. Somehow, river is like a river that flows, it must

flow so that it will not become stagnant.

In order to understand better the contents of the article there must be questions for the

flow of thought such as: How can yoga give solutions to the problems raised by modern

Philosophy? Is there a connection between Yoga and the Modern Philosophy? How did Eliade

manage to deal with the problem? How necessary yoga philosophy is for the modern world?

Yoga and Modern Philosophy

Following how Eliade discussed the topic in his article, he began first by raising the

questions that the modern thinkers proposed. Though Eliade set the question for his discussion,

the problem of work was he did not mention any name of Modern thinkers. He just simply raised

the center problem of the western thought and that’s it. Another things was there was no

provided bibliography of the sources of the article which makes writing the critique more

challenging. In order to understand Eliade’s about modern the modern thought the researcher

treated the problem in an indirect manner.

Modern philosophy began from the 15 th and 16th century. This time period probably

covers the year 1450 to 1799. This time covers the period of renaissance and enlightenment,

wherein thinkers of this time tries to separate the authority of religious teachings promoting the

use of reason and experience alone.

“The search for truth is centered on man and human reason; human nature
was liberated from nature and faith. It is not an understatement to say that
modern philosophy was characterized by the dominance of reason over faith,
 state over the church, science and philosophy over Theology. Considering all
these, it could be said that the modern period is generally characterized as
empirical, anthropocentric and rationalistic.”9

The problem about time and history was not the problem raised during the modern period

yet Eliade uses the term modern philosophy in his article. If Eliade is pertaining to the problem

issued by his contemporary thinkers then it should be the thinkers of the post-modern period.

Eliade uses the term Western thought. Perhaps one way to know the thinkers that he was

pertaining in the western thought was to look at the timetable. First is by looking at Eliade’s

biography. In his biography, they recorded that Eliade was born on March 9, 1907. 10 He was

born in the 20th century. His contemporary thinkers during this period were none other than

Edmund Husserl, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Bertrand Russell,

Hans-Georg Gadamer, etc.11 and most of the given examples were phenomenologist where

Eliade also belong. However this paper will not anymore discuss the ideas of Eliade’s

contemporary. They were laid as an example in order to understand what influence’ Eliade to

think about the western problem which is about time and history. From his contemporary

thinkers it was perhaps the idea of Martin Heidegger that influenced Eleade. The thoughts and

ideas of Heidegger were written on his books that contains ideas revolving around his discussion

on phenomenology, time, history, and being. The ideas of Heidegger became influential to other

philosophers of the west, one great example was Levinas.12 From this informations the researcher

thinks that Eliade uses the ideas of Heidegger in his exposition of the problem in this article.
9
[ CITATION DrJ17 \l 13321 ]

10
[ CITATION Den75 \l 13321 ] p. X.

11
[ CITATION Lei09 \l 13321 ]

12
[ CITATION Phi11 \l 13321 ]
Because from the beginning of the article he mentioned that “the last discovery of the Western

thought that man is essentially a temporal and historical being, that he is, and can only be, what

History has made him- still dominates European philosophy.”13 Which can also be found in

Heidegger’s book “history of the concept of time” and “Sein und Zeit.”

Modern Philosophy

Eliade did not discuss anymore further about the theses of the western thought, about

temporality and historicity. However even though he is concern and absorbed by the ideas and

problems of the western world, he still entertained Indian’s spirituality and philosophy. For him,

being absorbed by the western thought and trying to contribute some ideas with other post-

modern thinkers prepared his mind to a better understanding of the Indian spirituality.14

The ideas which is set at the table of western thinkers, Eliade took them as the Human

Conditions. He also thought about the temporality of human being which according to Eliade,

constitutes the object of the most recent Western philosophy. Human conditioning and

temporality of human being supports each other. As Eliade mentioned that “it is this temporality

that makes all other ‘conditionings’ possible and that, in the last analysis, makes man a

‘conditioned being.’”15 The idea of conditioning of man which the western thinkers did not

thought much about, constitutes the central problem of Indian thought. For according to Eliade,

“from the Upanisads onward, India has been seriously preoccupied with but one great problem

and that is the structure of the human condition.”16

13
[CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ]

14
Ibid, 125.

15
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 124.

16
Ibid, 125.
Eliade’s Approach

This is now what the western thinkers can learn from India’s spirituality and philosophy

in line with the ideas of human conditions and temporality of human beings. Eliade discusses

three:

1. What India thinks of the multiple “conditionings” of the human being.

2. How it has approached the problem of history, i.e. the problem of the temporality and

historicity of man.

3. What solutions it has found for the anxiety and despair that inevitably follow upon

consciousness of “temporality” the matrix of all “conditionings.”

However, though Eliade proposes Indian thought, the virtue of being open-minded still

manifest in his writing. For he told the readers that he is not for the “Indianization” of the

western thought nor campaign the discipline of Yoga as the solution to the problems.

“to repeat: it is not a matter of purely and simply accepting one of the
solutions proposed by India. A spiritual value is not acquired after the fashion
of a new brand of automobile. Above all it is not a matter of philosophical
syncretism, nor of “indianization,”still less of the detestable “spiritual”
hybridism” inaugurated by the Theosophical Society and continued, in
aggravated forms, by the countless pseudomorphoses of our time. ”17

It is an interesting part of Eliade’s life when he himself practiced the discipline of what he

was studying in India. Though he himself lived as a Yogin monk and meditated attentively to its

teachings, he did not become a Jivanmukta like Ramana Maharshi, somehow equivalent to the

Christian term mystic or saint.18 It may perhaps because the practice of Yoga involves forsaking

17
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 127.

18
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] 136.
the profane world, the family and the society. It is like dying from this world, and it involves the

process of clearing one’s mind as the “first duty of the yogin is to think- that is, not to let himself

think.”19 The idea here is that Eliade did not stay in India as a monk. He returned to his home in

Romania. Yet his practice of the discipline was not in vain. As a phenomenologist, experience is

important for it is a way to be conscious of something. To explain concisely what

phenomenology is to know it etymology, which is a study of what appears in the consciousness.20

It is important in phenomenology to experience the thing as it is in full consciousness in order to

arrive to the true knowledge of the thing itself. This idea of what phenomenology is all about

came from the explanation of Levinas.21

It is disagreeable to say that Eliade’s journey and understanding of India’s thought was a

dilution. The way of his practice and understanding of Indian’s philosophy is phenomenological

and not delusional.

“Eliade himself rejoiced over this reunion and realized then that Romania was
truly his "home". In fact, as he reflected upon his adventure in India, he saw
that his desire to go there and to adopt the Indian way of life had been based
upon a delusion. That is, he interpreted the reason for his attraction to India as
a naive attempt on his part to renounce his Western education in view of
discovering an exotic universe. While it was true that he had learned a great
deal from India, especially from her Eastern modes of education, he knew from
hindsight that he could never renounce his Western education, nor could he
ever forget Romania. He was thoroughly convinced that his return to Romania
had been necessary in order to renew his opportunities for a creative existence
and in order to fulfil the potentials of his spirit”22

19
Ibid, 131.

20
[ CITATION Phi11 \l 13321 ] 30-31.

21
[ CITATION Phi11 \l 13321 ] p. 24.

22
[ CITATION Den75 \l 13321 ] p. 124.
Human Conditioning

Post-modern thinkers usually deals with the idea about man and his conditions. There is

the idea of Levinas about being for other and of Martin Heidegger on his idea of the Dasein. 23

Most of their concern as Eliade mentioned was on the conditions of man and coherent

explanation of man.24 There is indeed the fact about the conditions of man but for Indian

philosophy, most of the philosophers focussed on analyzing the various conditionings of man.

Eliade here differentiated the idea of the conditions of man to the Indian’s idea of conditionings

of the human being. Eliade made an interesting distinction between the two for which the latter is

a way to arrive at the former. However, he only gave a short explanation and few examples

regarding the idea of human condition in the western though or in modern philosophy. He

proceed immediately to the discussion of India’s various conditionings of human beings.

The idea of the unconscious has been tackled in the field of psychology and Sigmund

Freud is influential in the discussion and analysis of the human unconscious. A philosopher of

the 20th century, Erich Fromm have used the ideas of Freud in his psychoanalysis regarding

unconscious for a better understanding of man’s behaviour and psychology. 25 The unconscious is

what Eliade thinks a hindrance or obstacle to a contemplative life. The idea of unconscious was

already discussed even before the time of Freud. Indian’s thought is somehow advance for they

already invented a method to dissolve unconscious in the process of contemplation. It is in the

Indian’s discipline that knowledge of the system of conditioning is only secondary. Knowing

does not matter most in the process but to master them is what matters. 26 It is like saying that
23
[ CITATION Phi11 \l 13321 ]

24
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 125.

25
[ CITATION Fro13 \l 13321 ]
26
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ]
what is the use of studying without practicing what you have learned? All the unconscious in

man as Eliade mentioned must be “burn” because it is a hindrance to a perfect life of

contemplation. This is the first in the conditioning of man in Indian’s thought; to remove all that

is unnecessary that hinders man to his perfect condition. This unnecessary and hindrance is the

unconscious of man. The discipline of yoga tends to purify the unconscious so that one who will

master the path will become one with purusa. The unconscious is the opposite of what is to be a

pure conscious. The notion of the unconscious is reflected upon the yoga-sutra of Pantanjali:

“Residual potencies are two-fold,-those appearing as habits and causing

memories and afflictions; and those appearing as virtue and vice and causing
fruition. These are the unconscious characteristics of the mind-change
(parinarna), activity (chesta) suppression (nirodha), ideation in action (dalrti),
physical life (Jlrana), characterization (dharma), now appearing along with
them as they have been potentialized in the previous births. Samyama over
these has the power of achieving the direct knowledge of the residual
potencies. And their direct 'knowledge is not possible without the knowledge
of space, time and operative cause. Thus is it that a Yogi brings into
consciousness the previous life-states by obtaining direct knowledge of
residual potencies. Similarly is obtained the knowledge of the life-states of
others by obtaining direct knowledge of their residual potencies.”27

Temporality and Historicity

The problem of temporality and historicity is connected as well to the idea of human

condition. Temporality and Historicity is a condition wherein man is into. As Eliade mentioned,

“the problem that is, the temporality and historicity of the human being is at the very center of

Western thought, and the same problem has preoccupied Indian philosophy from its

beginnings.”28 Eliade treated the problem of the two different traditions in its equivalence. India

did not use the terms used by the western thinkers nor the western thinkers using Indian terms in
27
[ CITATION Pat98 \l 13321 ]

28
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 126.
their line of thought. But Eliade looked at the problems that the two traditions are facing as

correlated to each other. Western thinkers can find a connection to Indian thought which would

be beneficial in understanding the problem of their time.

Though there is no exact term in Indian thought which discusses the idea of history and

historicity and very seldom according to Eliade to find the term temporality. 29 Eliade turns to

equivalency of the terms as a means to connect to the Indian thought.

“But what matters is not identity in philosophical terminology; it is

enough if the problems are equivalent. Now, it has long been known that
Indian thought accords considerable importance to the concept of maya, which
has been translated and with good reason as “illusion, cosmic illusion, mirage,
magic, becoming, irreality,” and the like. But looking more closely, we see that
maya is illusion because it does not participate in Being, because it is
“becoming”, “process,” “temporality” cosmic becoming, to be sure, but also
historical process.”30

The above quotation was the given answer of Eliade regarding the second idea that the

western thinkers may consider. Eliade relayed that the Indian thinkers have also touched the

problems of history and historicity and temporality. It just happen that the Indians used different

terminology in discussing the subject.

Yoga

Having learned yoga as a philosophy and after practicing yoga as a religion, Iliade shared

to the rest of humanity the possible solutions that yoga can provide to the concerns and problems

of modern philosophy. In spite of the antiquity of yoga dating around 3rd century CE,31 yoga is
29
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p.

30
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 126.

31
[ CITATION Sue01 \l 13321 ] p. 108.
still alive today though it has already taken many forms. The reason that it is still being practiced

today indicates its importance and validity to the different cultures particularly Indian culture.

“What solution it has found for the anxiety and despair that inevitably follow upon

consciousness of “temporality,” the matrix of all “conditionings.”” 32 Eliade discussed yoga as a

solution for the anxiety and despair that inevitably follow upon consciousness of temporality,

which is the matrix of all conditionings.

“The great discoveries of the Indian thought will in the end be recognized,
under and despite the philosophic jargon. It is impossible, for example, one of
India’s greatest discoveries: that of the consciousness as witness, of
consciousness freed from its psycho-physiological structures and their
temporal conditioning, the consciousness of the “liberated” man, of him, that
is, who has succeeded in emancipating himself from the temporality and there-
after knows the true, inexpressible freedom. The conquest of this absolute
freedom, of perfect spontaneity, is the goal of all Indian philosophies and
mystical techniques; but it is above all through Yoga, through one of the many
forms of Yoga, that India has held that it can be assured.”33

What does yoga mean? Eliade provided the etymological meaning of the word yoga. He

said that it was derived from the root ‘yuj’, which could mean “to bind together,” or hold fast or

literally “yoke.” Looking for the latin equivalent it is jungere or jugum. In a latin dictionary, one

will not find the exact word jungere or jugum because there is no letter J in latin. J is replaced by

letter I which forms the word iungere or iugum which also means yoke. 34 It is not just equivalent

to the word yoke, the latin meaning also provides words such as harness, join or clasp hands.

32
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 125.

33
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 126.

34
[ CITATION Jam08 \l 13321 ]
 Yoga has a deeper meaning aside from its etymology. Eliade explained yoga in general as
35
to designate any ascetic technique and any method of meditation. Yet it doesn’t follow that if

one engages himself to an ascetic technique or any meditation in yoga’s discipline, he can

already be called yogin. There is what Eliade explains as a certain initiation:

“What characterizes Yoga is not only its practical side, but also its initiatory
structure. One does not learn Yoga by oneself; the guidance of a master (guru)
is necessary. The yogin begins by forsaking the profane world (family,
society), and, guided by his guru, dreams of "dying to this world." We witness
a death followed by a rebirth to another mode of being- that represented by
freedom, by the access to a non-profane mode of being, to which the Indian
schools give various names: moksa, nirvana, mukti, asamskrta, etc.”36

The beginning of a yogin of forsaking the profane world and dying to this world has a

similarity to a Christian notion of a hermit or monk whose motto is Fuga Mundi which means

flight from the world. The hermits’ purpose or calling is to live in a solitary way of life in order

to be united to God and for the perfection of charity provided that he is guided by God and

faithful to the teachings of the Church. The value of silence and contemplation is perhaps the

similarity of yoga and Christianity, but they are still very different from each other.

“From the time of the Upanisads India rejects the world as it is and devaluates
life as it reveals itself to the eyes of the sage- ephemeral, painful, illusory. Such
a conception leads neither to nihilism nor to pessimism. This world is rejected,
this life depreciated, because it is known that something else exists, beyond
becoming, beyond temporality, beyond suffering. In religious terms, it could
almost be said that India rejects the profane Cosmos and profane life, because
it thirsts for a sacred world and a sacred mode of being.”37

35
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 128

36
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 128.

37
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 128-129.
 A holy life is the goal of yoga and perhaps the goal of all religions around the world. It is

important in a religion to live a holy life because of the belief of the afterlife. This understanding

of the afterlife and the ability of man to transcend from himself is what religions are trying to

communicate to people. Yoga, being one of a religious belief around the world offers not just its

belief system but also wisdom and knowledge.

Yoga’s thought of the cosmos as something profane that it is the root and cause of pain

and suffering. The Upanisads relayed the idea that we do not belong to the cosmos, as we see it

now.38

“Again and again Indian texts repeat this thesis- that the cause of the soul's
"enslavement" and, consequently, the source of its endless sufferings, lies in
man’s solidarity with the Cosmos, in his participation, active and passive,
direct or indirect, in Nature. Let us translate: solidarity with a de-sacralized
world, participation in a profane Nature. Neti! Neti! cries the sage of the
Upanisads: "No, no! thou art not this; nor art thou that!" In other words: You
do not belong to the fallen Cosmos, as you see it now.”39

The question now is how can one be free from the cosmos which is the source of pain and

suffering? The answer given by Eliade was “the road toward freedom necessarily leads to a de-

solidarization from the Cosmos and profane life.”40

Who among people like suffering? Who loves pain, anguish or anxiety? A Christian saint

or a martyr could be an example. The Christian martyr who suffered death does not mean that

they love suffering. It is rather their love and faith in God that enable them to endure such

inhumane tortures of pain. Their faith in God transcended their feelings that enable them to say

38
Ibid, p. 129.

39
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 129.

40
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 129.
inspiring words in the midst of their martyrdom. It is as if saints of Christianity embraces

suffering to profess their faith and love of God. Jesus, as saviour did not provide a remedy for all

the suffering of this world, instead he told his followers to carry the cross and follow him. This is

somehow contrast to the goal of all Indian Philosophies and all Indian mysticisms, for their goal

is to emancipate oneself from suffering. Perhaps the yoke of Christianity is different from the

yoke of the yogis:

“To "emancipate" oneself from suffering- such is the goal of all Indian
philosophies and all Indian mysticisms. No knowledge has any value if it does
not pursue the "salvation" of man. "Save for that, nothing is worth knowing,"
says the Svetasvatara Up. (I, 12). And Bhoja, one of the commentators of the
Yoga Sutra (IV, 22), declares that any knowledge whose object is not
deliverance is valueless.” 41

The problem that the researcher see to the article of Eliade was Eliade’s lack of

discussion concerning about God in the Yoga’s belief. Eliade focussed on the idea of ontology

and metaphysics of yoga and also psychology and physiology. It is interesting to think that

Eliade being an expert of phenomenon of religion discusses less on the idea about God. What

happens now to the idea of Aum?

“He who utters the single syllable Aum which is Brahman, remembering Me
as he departs, giving up his body—he goes to the highest goal….I am the
father of this world, the mother, the supporter, and the grandsire. I am the
object of knowledge, the purifier. I am the syllable Aum, and I am the rk, the
sama and theyajus as well.”42

Ekagrata, asana, pramayana are the concept that Eleade discussed in this article. He has

chosen three thou there are eight. Ekagrata tends to control the two generators of mental fluidity:

41
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 130.

42
[ CITATION Moo57 \l 13321 ]
sense activity and the activity of the subconscious.43 Asana, gives the body a stable rigidity, at

the same time reducing physical effort to a minimum. 44 Pramayana, is the discipline of

respiration, it begins with making the respiratory rhythm as slow as possible.45

At the end of his discussion, he introduced to his readers the case of Ramana Maharshi.

According to Eliade, Maharshi was the greatest yogin and saint of contemporary India. There are

still videos of Maharshi that can be found in the internet. The case of Maharshi can be compared

with the case of St. Pio. His case like St. Pio was also a wonder of science for it is beyond what

is natural. Maharshi died of cancer but did not suffer cancer. Maharshi did not abolish the pain,

as a miraculous cure or morphine could have done. “He did suffer the flesh, but did not bother

him anymore.”46 He was a Jivanmukta. His case is a concrete example, what it means for India to

discover the self and to take possession of the spirit.

Conclusion

Eliades has no intention of promulgating the practice of yoga to the readers nor inviting

Western scholars to practice yoga. Eliade clarifies that he is not proposing that the various

Western disciplines practice yogic methods or adopt the yogic ideology. Yoga is not the solution

to the problem of modern philosophy nor the way to perfect understanding of the world.

However, yoga can offer a way and discussions regarding the problems of the modern world. If

there is a connection between yoga and modern thought it cannot be noticed in an indirect

manner. Eliade uses his phenomenological approach in order to see the points that both the

43
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 131.

44
Ibid, 132.

45
Ibid.

46
[ CITATION Eli63 \l 13321 ] p. 137.
western and India has or missing. Yoga’s has an abundant contribution to the world of men, in

many aspects and field of thoughts and belief, for even until today Yoga is still resounding and

alive.

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