Steel Structures: General Details

5/16/2020
Steel Structures
Engr. Dr. Muhammad Aslam
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering
(Structural Engineering & Materials)
General Details
• Department of Civil Engineering.
• Course: Steel Structures.
• Instructor: Engr. Dr. Muhammad Aslam.
• Lecture No. 04.
• Week No. 04.
• Class: MSc Civil Engineering (Structural Engineering).
Institute of Southern Punjab (ISP), Multan Prepared by: Engr. Dr. Muhammad Aslam
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Analysis & Design of

Tension Members
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering
(Structural Engineering & Materials)
Steel Structures
Text Books
1. Steel Structures – 3rd Edition. by Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi.
2. LRFD Steel Design Aids – 4th Ed. by Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi.
3. Steel Structures: Design and Behaviour by Charles, G.,
Salmon, J. and Johnson, E.
4. Steel Structures Design and Practice by N. Subramanian.
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Summary of Previous Lectures

1. What is Steel?
2. Mention of Iron in Holy Quran.
3. Steel treatments, making processes affecting steel properties.
4. Structural Steel Types, Built-up Sections, Modern Steels,

Mechanical properties, Advantages & Disadvantages.
5. Types of Loads, Load Combinations.
6. Various Design Methods (LRFD, ASD, Limit States, Plastic

Design).
Contents
1. Introduction about Tension Members.
2. Gross Area of Cross-section.
3. Net Area of Cross-section.
4. Efficiency of a Joint and Shear Lag Factor (U).
5. Fastener Spacing.
6. Additional Area due to Inclined Plane.
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Introduction
• Members subjected to axial tensile forces are called Tension
Members.
• These members tend to elongate on the application of load.
• Bending due to simultaneous transverse loads and buckling are

significantly reduced and an initially non-straight member tends to
straighten up.
• Typical examples are main members of trusses subjected to tension.
• In general the use of single structural shape is more economical

than the built-up section in case of a tension member ---------
Introduction
• However, built-up members may be required in the following situations:
a. The tensile capacity of a single rolled section is not sufficient.
b. The slenderness ratio (KL/r) does not provide sufficient rigidity.
c. The effect of bending combined with the tensile behaviour requires a

larger lateral stiffness.
d. Unusual connection details require a particular cross-section.
e. Aesthetics dictates a particular cross-sectional shape.
Figure 2.1 shows some of the cross-sectional shapes that are commonly used
as tension members. Another shapes such as single angles, W-sections and C-
sections are also quite often used.
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Introduction
Figure 2.1 - Cross-sectional shapes that are commonly used as tension members.
Introduction
Gross Area of Cross-section ( ):
• It is the total area of cross-section present throughout the length of

the member (AISC-B4.3).
• The elements, which are discontinued lengthwise, are not included.
• For example, area of lacing elements and spacer plates is not

included in the gross area.
• The gross area for rolled steel shapes is directly available in the
properties tables.
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Introduction
Net Area of Cross-section ( ):
• When tension members have holes punched in them for rivets or

bolts, the minimum reduced area after the holes are taken out is
called the net area.
• Failure of a tension member always occurs at the weakest section

where area of cross-section is the minimum.
• According to AISC – B4.3, the net area of a member is the sum of

the products of the thickness and the net width of each element.
Introduction
Net Area of Cross-section ( ):
• Failure of a tension member always occurs at the weakest section

where area of cross-section is the minimum.
• According to AISC – B4.3, the net area of a member is the sum of

the products of the thickness and the net width of each element.
• Similarly, at a connection, if one part of the section is connected

while the other is left free, all the forces have to pass only through
the connected part at the joint.
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Introduction
Efficiency of a Joint and Shear Lag Factor ( ):
• Away from the joint, these stresses spread to give a uniform stress
distribution.
• Efficiency of a joint is defined as how well the stresses are

distributed to transfer the applied forces.
• If the joint is not fully efficient, premature failure can occur

reaching the member strength.
Introduction
• This expected reduction is usually applied on the area of cross-

section to get effective net area used to calculate the reduced
member strength.
• Shear lag factor (U) is the factor by which net area of a section is
reduced for shear lag, stress concentrations and eccentricity at the
joints.
• Mathematically it may be written as the ratio of the effective net

area to the net area .
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Introduction
• Mathematically it may be written as the ratio of the effective net

area to the net area .
• However, this expression is used in the order: = meaning

that and are found first to calculate .
• The approximate values for the Shear Lag Factor (U) can be
reproduced as:
Introduction
reproduced as:
1. When tension load is transmitted through each of the cross-

sectional elements by fasteners or welds, U = 1.0.
2. The preferable expression for U for all tension members, except

plates and Hollow Structural Sections (HSS), where load is not
transferred by all elements of the section, is as follows:
=1−
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Introduction
reproduced as:
2. Preferable expression for U for all tension members, where load is

not transferred by all elements of the section, is as follows:
=1−
x is the distance from centroid of element being connected

eccentrically to plane of load transfer, called connection eccentricity.
l is length of connection, c.c of outer rivet holes / actual weld length.
Introduction
• The approximate values for the U can be reproduced as:
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Introduction
2. Alternatively, options 5 to 8 may be used for I-shaped & angle

Sections.
3. When tension load is transferred by transverse welds,

=
Where:
= Area of directly connected elements, and U = 1.0.
Introduction
• The approximate values for the shear lag factor (U) can be
reproduced as:
4. When two separate plates are connected by longitudinal welds,
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Introduction
5. For W, M, S, HP or Tees with flange connected with 3 or more

fasteners per line in the direction of loading or by weld, the
following two values may approximately be considered:
≥ = 0.90
< = 0.85
Introduction
6. For W, M, S, HP or Tees with web connected with 4 or more

fasteners per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.70.
7. For single and double angle sections (and built-up sections with
unconnected parts) with 4 or more fasteners per line in the
direction of loading, U = 0.80.
8. For single & double angle sections (& built-up sections with
unconnected parts) with 2 or 3 fasteners per line in direction of
loading, U = 0.60.
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Introduction
9. For channels & other hot rolled sections not mentioned above with
3 or more fasteners per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.75.
• For I-shaped sections, usually the shear lag factor, calculated by the given
equation, becomes less than the tabulated U factor if only 3 rivets are used.
Hence it is better to use 4 or more rivets in a line for such sections. For open
cross-sections, the shear lag factor (U) is not taken less than the ratio of area
of connected elements to the member gross area. When connection details are
not available, U = 0.85 may be assumed both for welded & bolted
connections.
Introduction
Effective Net Area of Cross-section ( ):
• The effective net area that can be considered to resist tension at a
section through the holes may be somewhat smaller than the actual
net area because of stress concentrations and other factors and
is defined as under:
=
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Calculation of Net Area

Calculation of Net Area:
1. Reduction in Area for One Fastener:
• In fabricating structural steel, which is to be connected with rivets

or bolts, the holes are usually punched larger than the diameter of
the rivet or bolt.
• Furthermore, the punching of hole is assumed to damage or even

destroy 0.75 mm or more of the surrounding metal beyond the
drilled hole.
• Nominal holes for bolts are given in Table 2.1.

• Nominal Bolt Hole Dimensions (mm) as shown in Table 2.1.

Bolt Diameter (d) Standard Hole Diameter ( ) Oversize Diameter
15 17 19
18 20 22
20 22 24
25 28 31
28 31 36
30 33 38
≥ 35 d+3 d+8
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• Diameter of holes considered for strength calculations as:

= ℎ + 1.5 + 1.5
= ℎ , +2
• The diameter of hole for the rivet is + 1.5, whereas another

1.5 is to be added because this extra portion around the hole
may be damaged due to drilling of the hole.
• Area of the hole to be subtracted from width of the cross-section is

rectangular and equals the diameter of the hole times the thickness
of metal.

• Area of the hole to be subtracted from width of the cross-section is

rectangular and equals the diameter of the hole times the thickness
of metal.
• Reduction in area for one Fastener

= +3
= +2 ℎ ( 3−3 )
• Where,
= , = ℎ .
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2. Reduction in Area for More than One Hole:
• Reduction in area
= +3
= +2 ℎ
• Where,
= ℎ ℎ,
= ,
= ℎ
= − +3

2. Reduction in Area for More than One Hole:
= − +3
For vertical failure planes when rivets are used.
• In the above expression, ( + 3) is to be replaced by + 2 for

standard boltholes.
• AISC J4-1b limits to a maximum of 0.85 for splice plates

with holes.
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Example: Determine the net area of a 10*200 mm plate joined with
two 6*200 mm plates as shown in Fig. 2.3. The plates are connected to
each other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.

Example: Determine the net area of a 10*200 mm plate joined with two
6*200 mm plates as shown in Fig. 2.3. The plates are connected to each
other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.
Solution:
Gross Area will be smaller of =

= 10 ∗ 200 = 2000
= 2 ∗ 6 ∗ 200 = 2400
Therefore:
= 2000
The failure plane is vertical having two holes in its path, n = 2,
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Solution:
Gross Area will be smaller of =

= 10 ∗ 200 = 2000
= 2 ∗ 6 ∗ 200 = 2400
Therefore:
= 2000
The failure plane is vertical having two holes in its path, n = 2,

= − +3
= 2000 − 2 20 + 3 ∗ 10
= 1540
Fastener Spacing
1. Pitch of Fasteners
• The centre-to-centre distance of the fasteners along the longitudinal axis

of the member is called pitch and is denoted by p, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
2. Gage Distance of Fasteners
• The centre-to-centre distance between the fasteners along the transverse

direction is called gage denoted by g, as shown in Fig. 2.4. Standard gage
distances for angles and channels are given in Figures 2.5 and 2.6.
3. Stagger of Fasteners
• The longitudinal distance between two nearest rivets lying in two adjacent
layers of rivets is called stagger denoted by s, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
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Fastener Spacing
1. Pitch of Fasteners
2. Gage Distance of Fasteners
3. Stagger of Fasteners
Fastener Spacing
Usual Gages for Angles
Leg Dimension 203 178 152 127 102 89 76 64 51 44 38 35 32 25

(mm)
g 114 102 89 76 64 51 44 35 29 25 22 22 19 16
76 64 57 51
76 76 64 44
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Fastener Spacing
Usual Gages for Channels Actual Depth (mm)
(mm)
Actual flange Width
(mm) (mm) 240-460 64
< 46 25 150-239 57
46-51 29 100-149 51
52-64 33
65-70 38
71-81 44
82-90 51
91-100 57
> 100 64
Additional Area due to Inclined

Failure Plane
• Just like each hole in the path of failure plane reduces net
area, area equal to ∗ is added to the net area for
each inclined line in the assumed failure plane.
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Total Net Area

For Rivets:
= − +3 +
4
Or
For Rivets:
ℎ= ℎ− +3 +
4
Note: This are must be calculated for all the possible critical failure
planes and the least value must be taken.
Total Net Area

• A typical truss connection is shown in Fig. 2.7 to explain the position of
gusset plate and the fasteners. Gusset plate is a plate to which all the truss
members are connected at a joint.
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Total Net Area for Welded

Connections
• In case of welded members, net area and
effective net area are both considered equal to
the gross area with U = 1.
Total Net Area for Welded Connections

Example: Determine the minimum net area of plate (Fig. 2.8), where
the location of 20 mm diameter fasteners is also indicated.
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Solution:
Path AD
= − +3
= 6 305 − 2 20 + 3 6 = 1554
Path ABD
= − +3 +
4

Solution:
Path ABD
= − +3 +
4
54 54
= 6 ∗ 305 − 3 20 + 3 6 + + 6
4 ∗ 65 4 ∗ 100
= 1527
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Solution:
Path ABC
= − +3 +
4
54 48
= 6 ∗ 305 − 3 20 + 3 6 + + 6
4 ∗ 65 4 ∗ 100
= −
Assignment No. 04
1. Explain the Tension Members and Highlight the
structural steel elements which faces the Tensile Stresses.
2. Differentiate the gross area and net area in steel plates.

Also prepare the brief report for whole lecture including
design examples.
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Thank You
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5/16/2020

• Course: Steel Structures.

• Instructor: Engr. Dr. Muhammad Aslam.

• Lecture No. 04.

• Week No. 04.

• Class: MSc Civil Engineering (Structural Engineering).

Analysis & Design of

2. LRFD Steel Design Aids – 4th Ed. by Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi.

3. Steel Structures: Design and Behaviour by Charles, G.,

Salmon, J. and Johnson, E.

4. Steel Structures Design and Practice by N. Subramanian.

Summary of Previous Lectures

2. Mention of Iron in Holy Quran.

3. Steel treatments, making processes affecting steel properties.

4. Structural Steel Types, Built-up Sections, Modern Steels,

5. Types of Loads, Load Combinations.

6. Various Design Methods (LRFD, ASD, Limit States, Plastic

2. Gross Area of Cross-section.

3. Net Area of Cross-section.

4. Efficiency of a Joint and Shear Lag Factor (U).

6. Additional Area due to Inclined Plane.

• These members tend to elongate on the application of load.

• Bending due to simultaneous transverse loads and buckling are

• Typical examples are main members of trusses subjected to tension.

• In general the use of single structural shape is more economical

a. The tensile capacity of a single rolled section is not sufficient.

b. The slenderness ratio (KL/r) does not provide sufficient rigidity.

c. The effect of bending combined with the tensile behaviour requires a

d. Unusual connection details require a particular cross-section.

e. Aesthetics dictates a particular cross-sectional shape.

• It is the total area of cross-section present throughout the length of

• The elements, which are discontinued lengthwise, are not included.

• For example, area of lacing elements and spacer plates is not

• When tension members have holes punched in them for rivets or

• Failure of a tension member always occurs at the weakest section

• According to AISC – B4.3, the net area of a member is the sum of

• Failure of a tension member always occurs at the weakest section

• According to AISC – B4.3, the net area of a member is the sum of

• Similarly, at a connection, if one part of the section is connected

• Efficiency of a joint is defined as how well the stresses are

• If the joint is not fully efficient, premature failure can occur

• This expected reduction is usually applied on the area of cross-

• Mathematically it may be written as the ratio of the effective net

• Mathematically it may be written as the ratio of the effective net

• However, this expression is used in the order: = meaning

1. When tension load is transmitted through each of the cross-

2. The preferable expression for U for all tension members, except

2. Preferable expression for U for all tension members, where load is

x is the distance from centroid of element being connected

l is length of connection, c.c of outer rivet holes / actual weld length.

• The approximate values for the U can be reproduced as:

• The approximate values for the U can be reproduced as:

2. Alternatively, options 5 to 8 may be used for I-shaped & angle

3. When tension load is transferred by transverse welds,

= Area of directly connected elements, and U = 1.0.

4. When two separate plates are connected by longitudinal welds,

• The approximate values for the U can be reproduced as:

5. For W, M, S, HP or Tees with flange connected with 3 or more

6. For W, M, S, HP or Tees with web connected with 4 or more