AE Good Practices Regarding Solid Waste Management Recycling

GOOD PRACTICES REGARDING SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT RECYCLING

Doru Alexandru Pleşea1∗ and Smaranda Vişan 2

1) 2)
The Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Romania

Abstract
Waste is a continually growing problem at global and regional as well as at local levels.
Solid wastes arise from human activities that are normally discarded as useless or
unwanted. As the result of rapid increase in production and consumption, urban society
rejects and generates solid material regularly which leads to considerable increase in the
volume of waste generated from several sources.
Solid wastes have the potential to pollute all the vital components of living environment at
local and at global levels. In these conditions, proper management of solid waste is a central
pillar of far-sighte ]d, sustainable environmental policies. The priority was given to
waste minimization, recycle, and reuse followed by the safe disposal of waste to minimize
pollution.
Inadequate management of municipal waste results in considerable public health hazards
and additional costs in both the short and the long term. Therefore the society appeals to
solid waste management which brings aspects respecting the optimisation of material flows
regarding economic, technical and environmental parameters.
The authors aim to highlight some aspects concerning solid waste typology and
management, European Union’s present policy based on waste hierarchy, Romania’s place
regarding other member states with respect to waste disposal, recycling, recovery and reuse
as well as a good practice set, which may contribute to increasing solid waste recycling
rate.

Keywords: solid waste management, typology of waste, recycling, good practices

JEL Classification: Q53

∗
Corresponding author, Doru Alexandru Pleşea – plesea_doru@hotmail.com

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Introduction
From the early days of civilisation, humans have used the earth’s resources and disposed of
wastes. In ancient times, waste disposal did not pose a significant problem, for the
population was small and land available to receive waste materials was abundant. Waste
related problems commenced to occur from the time when humans began to congregate in
larger communities. The medieval practice of throwing waste into the unpaved streets led to
a fast breeding of rats carrying fleas which acted as vectors for the bubonic plague. As a
consequence, half of the European population was erased in the fourteenth century.
First regulations regarding proper waste collection in Europe date back to the 18th century.
Technical standards became implemented in all major cities during the industrial
revolution. Recovery - at a significant scale and in an organized way - of waste components
suitable for animal feed and further industrial processing (glass, metals, paper, textiles) also
dates back to the 18th century and can be found today throughout Europe at all levels.
Starting from the last century’s mid-eighties, the “3R” Principle: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
became increasingly implemented in many countries. In the decade to follow, this principle
became even more relevant through the strong increase of waste quantities due to the
significant economic growth (higher living standards, more throw-away-products etc.). This
increase leads to a shortage of disposal capacity. This situation was compounded by the rise
of the NIMBY (not in my backyard) syndrome which frequently leads to stiff opposition to
proposed new waste disposal infrastructure. Concurrently, more and more advanced
countries recognised a need to preserve resources and reduce environmental impacts
throughout the life cycle of products. Communities developed a growing awareness that
significant environmental improvements could be achieved by reducing landfill disposal
and recovering resources from ‘waste’ streams.
Nowadays, proper management of solid waste is a central pillar of far-sighted, sustainable
environmental policies. Inadequate management of municipal waste results in considerable
public health hazards and additional costs in both the short and the long term. Having
regards to these facts, the European Union adopted a set of directives including: Directive
2006/12/EC on waste (which consolidates and replaces Directive 75/442/EEC), Directive
91/689/EEC on hazardous waste, Directive 75/439/EEC on waste oils, Directive
86/278/EEC on sewage sludge, Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste,
Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste and Directive 2002/96/EC on waste electrical
and electronic equipment. In 1976, a year after the adoption of Council’s Directive
75/442/EEC on waste the US Congress adopted the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act.

1. Categories of solid waste

Solid wastes are all materials arising from human activities that are normally solid and are
discarded as unwanted. Solid waste can be categorized based on source as shown in table
no. 1.

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AE Good Practices Regarding Solid Waste Management Recycling

Table no. 1: Solid Waste categories based on source

Typical facilities, activities,
Source or locations where wastes Types of solid waste
are generated
Agricultural Field and row crops, Spoiled food wastes, agricultural
orchards, vineyards, farms, wastes, hazardous wastes
etc
Industrial Light and heavy Industrial process wastes, scrap
manufacturing, refineries, materials, ashes, demolition and
chemical plants, power construction wastes, special
plants, construction, wastes and hazardous waste, etc.
demolition, etc.

Commercial Stores, restaurants, markets, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,

and Institutional office buildings, hotels, auto food wastes, glass, metal wastes,
repair shops ashes, special wastes etc.

Municipal solid waste Includes residential, Special waste, rubbish, general

commercial and institutions waste, paper, plastics, metals,
food waste, hazardous waste etc.

Source: Hester, R. E. & Harrison, R. M., Environmental and Health impact of solid waste
management activities, 2002, Royal Society of Chemistry, United Kigdom.
The term municipal solid waste is normally assumed to include all of the waste generated in
a community, with the exception of waste generated by municipal services, treatment plants
and industrial and agricultural processes (Tchnobanoglous, G and Kreith, F.,2002).
In the urban context the term municipal solid wastes is of special importance. The term
refers to all wastes collected and controlled by the municipality and comprises of most
diverse categories of wastes. It comprises wastes from several different sources such as,
residential wastes, commercial wastes, institutional wastes and some industrial wastes.
(Table no. 2)
Table no. 2: The sources of municipal solid waste
Sources Examples
Residential Houses, mansions, apartments
Commercial Office buildings, shopping malls, warehouses, hotels, airports,
restaurants
Institutional Schools, medical facilities, public institutions, prisons
Industrial Packaging of components, office wastes, lunchroom and restroom
wastes (but not industrial process wastes)
Source: Tchnobanoglous, G. & Kreith, F.,. Handbook of Solid Waste Management, 2nd
edition, 2002, McGraw-Hill Handbooks.

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2. Solid Waste Management – definition and concepts

The management of solid waste is associated with the control of generation, storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is
in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation,
aesthetics, and other environmental considerations. In its scope, it includes all
administrative, financial, legal, planning and engineering functions involved in the whole
spectrum of solutions to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the community by its
inhabitants (Tchobanaglous, et al, 1997).
Figure no. 1 gives an indication where solid wastes are generated in our industrialized
society.

Raw materials Residual debris

Residual waste
Manufacturing
material

Processing and
recovery

Consumer

Final disposal

Landfill Incineration

Raw materials, products,

Waste materials
and recovered materials

Figure no. 1: Material flow and solid waste generation in an industrialized society
It is apparent that an optimal approach to reduce the amount of solid wastes requiring
disposal is to limit the consumption of raw materials and to increase the rate of recovery
and reuse of waste materials. Although the concept is simple, effecting this change in our
“modern” society has proved extremely difficult.
Therefore, society does waste management which has to optimize the various mass flows
under consideration of economic, technical, social and environmental parameters.

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AE Good Practices Regarding Solid Waste Management Recycling

There is a number of concepts about waste management which varies in their usage
between countries or regions. Some of the most general, widely-used concepts include:
• Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the “3 Rs”: reduce, reuse and
recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability
in terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy (figure no. 2) remains the
cornerstone of the most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste
hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate
the minimum amount of waste.
Some waste management experts have recently incorporated a “fourth R”: “Re-think”, with
the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a
thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of
looking at waste. Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other
materials by modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in
manufacturing technology, raw material inputs and product formulation.
Most favourable
option

Re-think

Reduce

Reuse

Recycling

Energy recovery

Least favourable Disposal

option

Figure no. 2: Diagram of solid waste hierachy

• Extended producer responsibility - Extended producer responsibility is a strategy
designed to promote the integration of all costs associated with products throughout
their life cycle (including end-of-life disposal costs) into the market price of the
product (OECD, 1999). Extended producer responsibility is meant to impose
accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging introduced to the
market. This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell products are
required to be responsible for the products after their useful life as well as during
manufacture. Extended producer resposability promotes that producers (usually
brand owners) have the greatest control over product design and marketing and
therefore have the greatest ability and responsibility to reduce toxicity and waste.

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This can take the form of a reuse, buy-back (act of rebuying something that one previously
sold), or recycling program, or in energy production. The producer may also choose to
delegate this responsibility to a third party, a so-called producer responsibility organization,
which is paid by the producer for spent-product management. In this way, extended
producer responsibility shifts responsibility for waste from government to private industry,
obliging producers, importers and/or sellers to internalise waste management costs in their
product prices. (Hanisch, 2000).
The term of “producer responsibility” became an integral part of European Union
environment policy, bringing this concept to life, being possible with the help of industry
representatives which have implemented an efficient recovery and recycling packaging
waste system (international recognized): “Der Grüne Punkt System – The Green Dot
System”.
The organisations conducting their activity based on the principles of “Der Grüne Punkt”
system coordinate the collecting, sorting and
recovering of packaging and packaging waste on
behalf of their customers. These organisations
establish partnerships with local authorities, private
or municipal sanitation companies and companies
that will recover or recycle the collected and sorted
packages. ”Der Grüne Punkt” became a European
trademark (figure no. 3), as it is used in 30
countries both in Europe and America, over
130.000 of companies being allied to this system.
• Polluter pays principle. In environmental Figure no. 3: „The Green Dot”
law, the polluter pays principle is enacted trademark
to make the polluting party responsible for
paying for the damage done to the natural environment. It is regarded as a regional
custom because of the strong support it has received in most of the Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and European Community
(EC) countries. In international environmental law it is mentioned in Principle 16
of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. (United Nations, 1992)
Polluter pays is also known as extended polluter responsibility. This is a concept that was
probably first described by the Swedish government in 1975. Extended polluter
responsability seeks to shift the responsibility dealing with waste from governments (and
thus, taxpayers and society at large) to the entities producing it. In effect, it internalises the
cost of waste disposal into the cost of the product, theoretically meaning that the producers
will improve the waste profile of their products, thus decreasing waste and increasing
possibilities for reuse and recycling.
The polluter pays principle underpins environmental policy such as an ecotax, which, if
enacted by government, deters and essentially reduces the emitting of greenhouse gas
emissions.
OECD defines extended polluter responsability as: “a concept where manufacturers and
importers of products should bear a significant degree of responsibility for the
environmental impacts of their products throughout the product life-cycle, including
upstream impacts inherent in the selection of materials for the products, impacts from

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manufacturers’ production process itself, and downstream impacts from the use and
disposal of the products. Producers accept their responsibility when designing their
products to minimise life-cycle environmental impacts, and when accepting legal, physical
or socio-economic responsibility for environmental impacts that cannot be eliminated by
design.” (OECD, 2006)

3. European issues regarding solid waste landfilling, incineration and recycling

At present in the European Union municipal waste is disposed of through landfill (49%),
incineration (18%), recycling and composting (33%). In the new member states, where
major efforts and investments have been made to align with the European Union acquis, the
situation is evolving rapidly but still dominated by landfill. There are wide discrepancies
between member states, ranging from those which recycle least (90% landfill, 10%
recycling and energy recovery) to those which are more environmentally friendly (10%
landfill, 25% energy recovery and 65% recycling).
The current European Union waste policy is based on the waste hierarchy management
concept. As stated above, ideally, waste should be prevented and what cannot be prevented
should be re-used, recycled and recovered as much as feasible, with landfill being used as
little as possible.
Landfill is the worst option for the environment as it signifies a loss of resources and could
turn into a future environmental liability. The waste hierarchy should not be seen as a hard-
and-fast rule, particularly since different waste treatment methods can have different
environmental impact. However, the aim of moving towards a recycling and recovery
society means moving up the hierarchy, away from landfill and more and more to recycling
and recovery.
The legal framework underpinning this strategic approach includes horizontal legislation on
waste management, e.g. the Waste Framework Directive, the Hazardous Waste Directive,
as well as the Waste Shipment Regulation. These are complemented by more detailed
legislation concerning waste treatment and disposal operations, such as the Landfill and
Incineration Directives and legislation to regulate the management of specific waste
streams (waste oils, printed circuit boards and batteries). Recycling and recovery targets
have been set for some key waste flows, i.e. packaging, end-of-life vehicles and waste
electrical and electronic equipment.
Despite the considerable progress which has been made, overall waste volumes are growing
and the absolute amount of waste going into landfill is not decreasing. Between 1990 and
1995 total waste generation in the European Union and European Free Trade Association
increased by 10% whilst GDP increased by 6.5%. Municipal solid waste generation has
been contributing significantly to this increase and is coupled to the level of economic
activity as both municipal solid waste generation and GDP in EU-25 increased by 19%
between 1995 and 2006. Smaller but important waste streams are also growing: hazardous
waste generation increased by 13% between 1998 and 2006 whilst GDP grew by 10%.
With higher levels of economic growth anticipated, overall volume growth is predicted to
continue and will concern most wastes. For example, the European Environment Agency
predicts that paperboard, glass and plastic waste will increase by 40% by 2020 compared to
1990 levels. The OECD predicts that municipal solid waste generation will continue to

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grow until 2020 but at a slightly slower rate. The Joint Research Centre predicts an increase
in municipal solid waste generation of 42,5% by 2020 compared to 1995 levels. Relatively
faster municipal solid waste growth is predicted in the new EU-12 Member States.
While recycling and incineration are increasing, the absolute amounts of waste landfilled
are not decreasing because of the growth in waste generation. For example, the amount of
plastic waste going to landfill increased by 21,7% between 1990 and 2006 yet the
percentage of plastic waste being landfilled dropped from 77% to 62%.
These unsustainable trends are due in part to unsatisfactory implementation of waste laws
which, in turn, is due in part to certain elements of the policy and legal framework that
could be improved.
There are a number of implementation problems, ranging from dumping of waste at
mismanaged landfills to shipments of hazardous waste in violation of international
conventions. Unclear definitions and differing views on how to implement the laws have
not helped to improve implementation and have resulted in litigation. Despite rulings by the
European Court of Justice, certain aspects, such as when waste ceases to be waste, are still
not clear.
Although waste prevention has been the paramount objective of both national and European
Union waste management policies for many years, limited progress has been made so far in
transforming this objective into practical action. Neither the Community nor the national
targets set in the past have been satisfactorily met.
Recycling and recovery are increasing. However, they cover only a limited proportion of
waste. Recycling Directives have so far targeted individual waste streams and have enabled
Community waste policy to reduce environmental impact by promoting source separation
and recycling of waste streams such as batteries, packaging, vehicles and waste electrical
and electronic equipment. These fast-growing waste flows are of particular importance due
to their hazardous nature and complexity. However, they account for only a limited
proportion of all waste generated.
Furthermore, while the amount of waste being recycled is increasing, treatment standards
exist only for landfills and incinerators and, partially, for recycling. This poses an
environmental problem as some recycling facilities can cause pollution if badly operated.
Standards are needed not only for environmental protection but also for business reasons –
to promote a level playing field for recycled material.

4. Romania’s current position regarding high priority directions for waste recycling
and reuse
Romania’s accession to the European Union conducts to the need to evaluate our country
position regarding other member states. This is the first step on the way of settling a
National Action Plan for waste recycling and reuse.
Table no. 3 presents the quantities of municipal waste disposed in 2007 in some European
countries through landfill and through incineration.

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Table no. 3: Municipal waste by type of treatment in some European countries in 2007
Country Landfilled waste Country Incinerated waste
(kg per capita per year) (kg per capita per year)
Germany 3 Bulgaria 0
Netherlands 14 Romania 0
Belgium 21 Poland 1
Sweden 21 Czech Republic 36
Austria 86 Hungary 38
France 185 Great Britain 53
Poland 239 Italy 67
Czech Republic 243 Belgium 162
Romania 284 Austria 180
Italy 286 Germany 192
Great Britain 324 France 194
Hungary 341 Netherlands 200
Bulgaria 388 Sweden 240
Source: Eurostat, 2009 [Online], Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
Although Romania is better placed than other old and new member states like: United
Kingdom, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc. at municipal waste landfilled indicator, our country
main problem is the lack of conformity with the European legal framework for landfills.
Nonetheless that new environmental friendly landfills was opened, the majority of
Romania’s landfills is old, poorly-designated or poorly-managed, with an adverse
environmental impact.
As shown in table no. 3, incineration carried out on a large scale by industry is not seen as a
solution for waste disposal in Romania. This fact could be an advantage because
incineration is a controversial method due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
But then combustion of waste material generates heat, steam and/or electricity and therefore
incineration is the preferred solution by some European Union developed countries like:
Germany, Sweden, Belgium. Central and East European countries stands on a landfill
solution rather than incineration one.
The European Commission has prioritised improvement in recycling and disposal for the
following priority waste streams:
• packaging;
• end of life vehicles;
• batteries;
• waste electrical and electronic equipment.
Table no. 4 presents recycling and recovery rates for packaging waste in 2007. Romania’s
values for this indicator are the worst from all European countries. The lack of national
policies and strategies are the main reason for the poor results to this indicator. Romania’s
recycling rate for 2007 is better than the target for 2001 (25%), but far away from the target
for 2008 (55%). The recovery rate for 2007 is below both from the target for 2001 (50%)
and from the target for 2008 (60%).

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Table no. 4: Recycling and recovery rates for packaging waste in 2007
Country Recycling rate (%) Country Recovery rate (%)
Target for 2001 25,0 Target for 2001 25,0
Target for 2008 55,0 Target for 2008 55,0
Belgium 81,1 Germany 95,4
Austria 68,7 Belgium 95,3
Germany 68,3 Netherlands 92,1
Czech Republic 67,6 Austria 90,3
Netherlands 61,1 Sweden 82,3
Great Britain 60,7 Czech Republic 72,3
Sweden 59,8 France 68,3
France 57,6 Italy 66,5
Italy 57,3 Great Britain 64,3
Bulgaria 55,2 Poland 60,1
Poland 48,5 Bulgaria 55,4
Hungary 48,2 Hungary 54,3
Romania 30,2 Romania 36,7
Source: Eurostat, 2009, [Online], Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu [Accessed 5
September 2009]
Table no. 5 shows the rates for reuse, recovery and recycling of end-of-life vehicles. From
this point of view, Romania is better placed than United Kingdom and than other Central
and Eastern Europe countries like: Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary. A contribution
has “Rabla”- “Jalopy” programme, designated to replace cars older than 10 years.
Table no. 5: Reuse, recovery and recycling of end-of-life vehicles in 2007
Country Reuse and Country Reuse and recovery
recycling rate (%) rate (%)
Bulgaria 89,45 Bulgaria 92,67
Germany 88,1 Germany 90,4
Belgium 87,4 Sweden 90
Romania 83,69 Belgium 89,57
Netherlands 83,1 Austria 86
Sweden 83 Romania 85,69
Italy 82,3 Netherlands 85,3
Hungary 81,6 Czech Republic 85,1
Great Britain 81,82 Italy 83,1
Austria 80 Great Britain 83,08
France 79,8 Hungary 82,8
Czech Republic 79 France 81,5
Poland 72,79 Poland 76,99
Source: Eurostat, 2009, [Online], Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu, [Accessed 5
September 2009]

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Table no. 6 shows the quantity of battery and accumulator wastes collected in 2006. Our
country occupies the penultimate place on this indicator, before Bulgaria.
Table no. 6: Battery and accumulator wastes collected in 2006
Country c, in kg per capita
Belgium 5,94
Sweden 4,96
France 4,07
Germany 3,66
Italy 3,34
Netherlands 3,03
Great Britain 2,81
Austria 2,34
Hungary 2,21
Czech Republic 1,19
Poland 0,26
Romania 0,24
Bulgaria 0,14
Source: Eurostat, 2009, [Online], Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu, [Accessed 5
September 2009]
Table no. 7 shows the quantities of electrical and electronic wastes collected in 2006 in
some member countries. As we can see, this indicator was lately inputted. So, it is
explained the fact that old member countries like Italy and Great Britain could not offer
data. Our country occupies the last place on this indicator.
Table no. 7: Electrical and electronic wastes collected in 2006
Country Collected quantities, in tonnes
Germany 719986
Sweden 121500
Netherlands 87626
Belgium 72472
Austria 59207
Hungary 23297
France 13608
Poland 7459
Romania 891
Bulgaria Date indisponibile
Italy Date indisponibile
Great Britain Date indisponibile
Czech Republic Date indisponibile
Source: Eurostat, 2009, [Online], Disponibil la: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu, [Accessed
5 September 2009]

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5. Good practice rules for waste recycling in Romania

Recycling and developing programs have to take into consideration the markets for
recovered materials, collection infrastructure and overhead.
In most cases, recovered materials are of inferior quality as opposed to the initial ones, so
the market price should be attractive to potential buyers. Starting from the concept of
extended producer responsibility, the activity of collection and recycling of packaging
waste must be financed mainly by manufacturers and / or importers. However, considering
the fact that by recycling some objectives of common interest are met, such as natural
resource conservation, environmental protection and quality of life insurance, recycling
programs must have the economic support of the state.
In some localities sanitation agents selectively collect waste plastic, metal and
paper/cardboard, in particular from the economic agents and less from the population. This
selective collection must be extended to the population level, as a very large amount of
recyclable waste can be recovered from this sector. Educating the population in this regard
can be done through a "bonus-malus" system where those who contribute to selective
collection of waste are rewarded by receiving a discount on their sanitation fee and those
who do not follow the rules of selective collection are penalized.
In the activity of selective waste collection traders must also be involved, both in what
concerns the selective collection of their own packaging waste, but also in the collection
from consumers. Manufacturer – retailer partnerships through which a discount is offered if
at the purchase of a new product the old manufacturer packaging is returned are to be
encouraged.
Development of the collection infrastructure should follow market requirements, so that the
value of recovered materials could cover the costs of processing and transportation. When
establishing the location and size of deposits a primary objective should be the
maximization of the storehouse’s lifetime and the minimization of the quantities stored.
Recycling processing units should place their processing plants in densely populated areas
where large amounts of reusable and recyclable wastes are generated, like: Bucureşti,
Constanţa, Cluj, Iaşi, Timişoara etc. which will become local processing units.
In what concerns the collection of batteries and other electrochemical power sources we
come across two situations. Collection of car accumulators is made according to law by
traders and by specialized centers, the infrastructure being well developed. The
compulsoriness of handing over old car accumulators at the acquisition of new products led
to a high rate of collection of such waste. Instead, the collection of batteries is done
occasionally, very few traders taking initiatives for the purpose of recycling these products.
From this point of view it would be recommended that the law applicable at this time only
to car accumulators be extended to all electrochemical power sources.
In the case of electrical and electronic equipment waste, few companies have organized a
waste reception system of electrical and electronic household waste, and generally, of bulky
equipment. Due to the high content of hazardous material and substances in these types of
waste, the potential for contamination of household waste, and of the storage where they go
if they are collected mixed with domestic waste is high. Therefore, the separate collection
of these types of waste is absolutely necessary and at the same time the creation of a
centralized system for the collection of such waste is indicated.

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Conclusion
The problem of urban waste management is of vital importance for our country’s
sustainable development. Although it constitutes a major objective both at national level
and at the level of the European Union, the progress registered by our country is being far
from satisfactory.
If in certain areas like the recycling of obsolete vehicles there aren’t large discrepancies
from the results obtained by other countries, in the field of packaging, batteries and
electrical and electronic household waste recycling we have serious backlogs to the targets
imposed on a European level.
The set of proposed measures seeks to provide solutions to problems that have generated
these backlogs, but ultimately whatever measures will be adopted, the most important thing
is for each citizen to realize that by respecting a minimal set of rules he can contribute to a
cleaner environment.

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