TRANSFORMATI

ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

Obj
ect
ivesoft
hecour
se:Theobj
ect
ivesofTGGar
etodomor
ethandescr
ibi
ngol
d
pr
oducedut
ter
ancest
otakei
ntoaccountpossi
blef
utur
eut
ter
ances,t
aki
ngi
nto
accountt
hechar
act
eri
stcofpr
i oduct
ivi
tyorcr
eat
ivi
tywhi
chi
sanabi
li
tyofhuman
bei
ngs.Ther
efor
e,t
hroughoutt
hiscour
se,hel
pbyt
hesy
stemat
icchar
act
eri
sti
cof
l
anguage,we’
l
lfocusont
heor
iest
hatchar
act
eri
zet
heTGG,maki
ngsent
ences
i
nter
pret
ati
onandunder
standi
ngmor
eeasyf
orst sof2nd y
udent ear
.Att
heendof
t
hecour
se,
student
sshoul
dbeatt
hei
reasebef
oreanysent
encest
ruct
ure,
asf
aras
t
heunder
standi
ngoft
hear
ti
cul
ati
onsofsent
encesar
econcer
ned.

Cont
ent
I
- Basi
cconcept
sinTGG

I
I- Fi
rstf
ormul
ati
onoft
heTGGorTheSt
andar
dTheor
y

I
II
- Thenewl
ookGr
ammar

Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

1-Ai
tchi Li
sonJ, ngui
sti
cs,
anI
ntr
oduct
i 10thed.
on, ,Gr
eatBr
it
ain,
1999.

t
2-ChomskyN,hel
ogi
calst
ruct
ureofl
ingui
sti
ctheor
y,,
NY,
1955

3---------------,
onwh-mov
ement
,for
malsynt
ax,
NY,
1977

4---------------,Lect
uresonGover
nmentandbi
ndi
ng,Dor
drecht
:For
is,
1981

5-Duboi
s-Char
li
erF.
,El
ement
sdel
ingui
sti
queangl
aise 
:Sy
ntaxe,Langueet
Langage,
Par
is,
1970

6-Guer
onJ.
,laGr
ammai
regénér
ati
v nl
ei est
héor
iesdel
aGr
ammai
reAngl
aise
enFr
anceedi
tedbyPi
err
eCot
teandal
,Huchet
te,
1993.

7-Guer
onJ.
,Topi
cal
isat
ionst
ruct
uresandconst
rai
ntsoncor
ef ence,Li
er ngua,
1984

Pedagogi
cmet
hod
 Teachi
ngact
ivi
ti
es.
Thecour
sewi
llbegi
veni
naf
orm ofl
ect
ure;
andconcer
nsofst
udent
sshal
lfi
ndt
hei
r

1
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

answer
sdur
ingt
hel
ect
ure.

 Lear
ningact
ivi
ti
es.
Attheendofeachchapter,
aperi
odwi l
lbefoundf
orstudentst
oaskquesti
onsonthe
chapter
.Inaddit
ion,
sui
tabl
eexer
ciseswil
lbeusedtoenforcet
heunder
standi
ngofthe
passageatstake.

 Test
ing.
Att
heendoft hewholecour
se,ahomeworkwil
lbegivent
ost udent
s;beiti
naform of
aquest
ionnai
reorresear
chtopi
c.Andatt
heend,afi
nalexam wi
llbeorgani
zedtoassess
st
udentsunder
standi
ng.

Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

1-Ai
tchi Li
sonJ, ngui
sti
cs,
anI
ntr
oduct
i 10thed.
on, ,Gr
eatBr
it
ain,
1999.

t
2-ChomskyN,hel
ogi
calst
ruct
ureofl
ingui
sti
ctheor
y,,
NY,
1955

3---------------,
onwh-mov
ement
,for
malsynt
ax,
NY,
1977

4---------------,Lect
uresonGover
nmentandbi
ndi
ng,Dor
drecht
:For
is,
1981

5-Duboi
s-Char
li
erF.
,El
ement
sdel
ingui
sti
queangl
aise 
:Sy
ntaxe,Langueet
Langage,
Par
is,
1970

6-Guer
onJ.
,laGr
ammai
regénér
ati
v nl
ei est
héor
iesdel
aGr
ammai
reAngl
aise
enFr
anceedi
tedbyPi
err
eCot
teandal
,Huchet
te,
1993.

7-Guer
onJ.
,Topi
cal
isat
ionst
ruct
uresandconst
rai
ntsoncor
ef ence,Li
er ngua,
1984

2
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Bor
nint
hemi
doft
he20t
iet
hC,
theGGhasf
undament
all
ychangedl
anguagest
udy
.
I
nfact
,wi
tht
hepr
evi
oussy
ntact
icanal
ysi
s,l
anguagewasconsi
der
edasaf
inal
pr
oductwher
eby anal
yses consi
sti
n descr
ibi
ng a cor
pus ofact
ualpr
oduced
ut
ter
ances,l
eav
ingapar
t,t
hechar
act
eri
stcofpr
i oduct
ivi
tyorcr
eat
ivi
tywhi
chi
san
abi
li
tyofhumanbei
ngst
opr
oduceandunder
standani
nfi
nit
enumber
sofnov
el
st
ruct
ures.I
tisont
hebasi
soft
hesel
imi
tsshownbyt
radi
ti
onalsy
ntact
icanal
ysi
s
t
hatanAmer
icanl
ingui
st,namedNoam Av
ram Chomsky
,ini
ti
atedanewt
heor
y,t
he
GG,whi
chshoul
ddomor
ethandescr
ibi
ngol
dpr
oducedut
ter
ancest
otakei
nto
accountpossi
blef
utur
eut
ter
ances.

I
- Basi
cconcept
sinTGG

Theai
m ofGG consi
stsi
nshi
ft
ingat
tent
ionf
rom det
ail
eddescr
ipt
ionof
act
ualut
ter
ances,t
ost
artaski
ngquest
ionsaboutt
henat
ureoft
hesy
stem whi
ch
pr
oducet
heout
put
.Int
hev
iew ofChomsky
,any
onewhoknowsal
anguagemust
hav
eint
ernal
izedasetofr
uleswhi
chspeci
fyt
hesequencesper
mit
tedi
nthei
r
l
anguageandt
het
askoft
hel
ingui
sti
stodi
scov
ert
heser
ules.Ther
efor
e,quest
ions
l
ike:Whatdoweknow whenweknow al
anguage?How doweacqui
rel
anguage?
Howt
heknowl
edgeofl
anguagedoesoper
ate,wer
ecent
rali
nChomsky
’st
heor
y.I
n
answer
ing t
o t
hese quest
ions concept
s such as I
nnat
eness of l
anguage,
compet
enceandper
for
manceoft
hespeakerst
andout
.

1.
1innat
enessofl
anguage

TGGconsi
der
sli
ngui
sti
csasacogni
ti
vesci
encewhi
cht
akesi
ntoaccount
,in
i
tsst
udy
,thepsy
chol
ogyandt
hehumanbi
ology
.Itgoesont
hebasi
sthatgr
ammar
i
sanaut
onomousment
alor
gan.Justl
ikeanyot
herphy
sicalor
gan,gr
ammari
snot
l
ear
nednorev
enacqui
red,buti
tsi
mpl
ydev
elopsandi
ssomehowi
nfl
uencedbyt
he
env
ironment
.Innat
enessoft
hel
anguagei
sther
efor
etheassumpt
ion t
hatour
mot
hert
onguedoesnotcomef
rom t
heout
sidewor
ld,buti
tor
igi
nat
edf
rom i
nsi
de
t
hei
ndi
vidual
.Inconsi
der
ingt
hecompl
exi
tyofhumanl
anguagesandt
hewayt
hey
ar
eeasi
lyacqui
redbyy
oungchi
ldr
encompel
sust
oadmi
tthatnotal
lther
ulest
hey
uset
ospeakcomef
rom t
heout
side.Chomskyf
indst
wot
ypesofev
idencet
oshow

3
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

i
nnat
enessofl
anguages.

1.
1.1-Theposi
ti
veev
idence

Thi
s ev
idence was mot
ivat
ed by whathe cal
led t
he “
weakness oft
he
st
imul
us”al
socal
ledt
he“
plat
onpr
obl
em”
:how t
oexpl
ainweknow somuchbut
wi
thaf
ew i
nst
ruct
ion?Andanyspeakeri
ncl
udi
ngchi
ldr
eni
sendowedwi
tht
he
capaci
tyofpr
oduci
ngsent
encest
heyhav
enev
erhear
d.Andt
oeachsampl
eof
act
ualut
ter
ancescor
respondsagr
eatnumberofgr
ammar
scapabl
eofpr
oduci
ng
sent
encesi
tcont
ains.Someoft
hesegr
ammar
sar
econt
ext
-fr
eewhi
lesomeot
her
s
ar
econt
ext
-dependent
.Al
lthesef
act
sent
ail
sthatchi
ldr
enar
eendowedwi
thabui
lt
-i
nsy
stem ofl
anguageacqui
sit
ion,
cal
ledt
heLanguageAcqui
sit
ionDev
ice(
LAD)
.

1.
1.2-Thenegat
iveev
idence

I
tisbasedont
hef
actt
hati
nthei
rli
ngui
sti
cexposur
e,chi
ldr
enar
eexposedt
oav
ery
l
imi
tedi
nput
,andsomet
imest
oadi
stor
tedi
nput
,whi
chmeanst
hatar
oundt
hem,
adul
tsandpar
ent
swi
llsomet
imesspeakwi
thmi
stakes.But
,chi
ldr
endonotappear
t
orepr
oducet
hesamemi
stakest
hought
heyar
enotnecessar
il
ytaughtal
ltheki
nds
ofmi
stakest
heyshoul
dav
oid.Thi
smeanst
hatt
her
eisanaut
o-r
egul
ati
ngdev
icei
n
t
hei
rmi
ndt
hatdoesnotmakehomef
oranyki
ndofwr
ongcombi
nat
ions.Soi
tisas
i
fthepsy
chol
ogi
calappar
atuswer
eral
lyi
ngoutt
hecombi
nat
ionst
hatdonotf
iti
n
t
hei
rmi
nd.

Al
ongwi
thbot
hthenegat
iveandposi
ti
veev
idences,adv
ocat
orsoft
he
TGGmadet
hehy
pot
hesi
sthatt
her
emi
ghtexi
sti
nlear
ner
sal
anguagef
acul
ty(
the
LAD)al
socal
ledUni
ver
salGr
ammar(
UG)
.

1.
1.3-Uni
ver
salGr
ammar

TheUni
ver
salgr
ammari
sthet
heor
yoft
hei
nit
ialst
ateoft
hel
anguageor
gan
bef
oreanyl
ear
ning oracqui
sit
ion.I
tident
if
iesal
lthel
anguagesaccessi
blet
o
humanbei
ng.Acqui
sit
ionoft
hemot
hert
ongueconsi
stsi
nmov
ingf
rom t
hisi
nit
ial
st
ateofl
anguagel
ear
ningr
epr
esent
edbyt
heUGt
oast
abl
ement
alst
atewhi
chi
s

4
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

t
heknowl
edgeofapar
ti
cul
arl
anguage,
asr
epr
esent
edbyt
heequat
ion:

UG+exper
ience=Language1

TheUGcor
respondatt
hesamet
imet
oal
lpossi
blel
anguagesandt
oanypar
ti
cul
ar
l
anguage.I
tcont
ainssomeopenedpar
amet
ersnextt
otheuni
ver
salpr
inci
ples
common t
o al
lthel
anguages.I
n hear
ing someut
ter
ancesi
n hi
senv
ironment
,
chi
ldr
enwi
llgi
vesomev
aluet
othesepar
amet
ers.Ther
esul
toft
heUG andt
he
v
aluesoft
hesepar
amet
ersmadebyt
hei
rexper
iencei
sapar
ti
cul
arl
anguage1,a
cor
egr
ammar
.Language1i
sther
efor
enotasetofut
ter
ancesbutasetofr
ules
whi
chcanal
socor
respondt
owhatChomskycal
ledt
hecompet
enceoft
hespeaker
.

1.
2-t
hedi
chot
omycompet
ence/
per
for
mance.

TGG i
sint
erest
ednotonut
ter
ancespr
oducedbyspeaker
sbutonment
al
r
epr
esent
ati
onsonwhi
cht
heseut
ter
ancesar
ebased.I
tdoesnotst
udyt
heE-
l
anguage,t
hati
s,t
heext
ernall
anguagebutr
athert
heI
-language,t
hei
nter
nal
l
anguagewhi
chcomesf
rom i
ntui
ti
onofnat
ivespeaker
s.Thi
ssour
cei
sofawi
de
r
ichness.Thi
ssour
ceaccount
sfort
hepossi
bil
it
yoft
hespeakert
odi
sti
ngui
sh
gr
ammat
icalf
rom non-gr
ammat
icalsent
ences.Thi
spossi
bil
it
yiswhatChomsky
cal
lscompet
enceoft
hespeaker
.

1.
2.1-compet
ence

Compet
encei
sthet
aci
tknowl
edgeoft
hel
anguager
ulest
hatt
hespeaker
usest
o,pr
oducecor
rectsent
encesi
nhi
slanguage.Compet
encei
sav
erypower
ful
ski
llandusi
nghi
scompet
encet
hei
dealnat
ivespeakercanpr
oduceandunder
stand
al
lpossi
ble sent
ences ev
en t
hose he has nev
erhear
d bef
ore,t
hati
s nov
el
sent
ences.Speaker
sal
souset
hei
rcompet
encet
omakecor
rectj
udgment
son
sent
ences.Compet
encei
snotonl
yatt
hel
evelofsy
ntax,i
tmani
fest
sit
sel
fatany
l
evelofl
anguagepr
act
ice.I
n pr
act
ice,compet
encei
ssomet
hing compl
exand
nowaday
speopl
edi
sti
ngui
shsev
eralt
ypesofcompet
ence.

 Gr
ammat
icalcompet
ence

Gr
ammat
icalcompet
ence bel
ongs t
olanguage st
ruct
ure.I
tist
he i
ntui
ti
ve
knowl
edgeofl
anguage.I
tref
erst
otheassi
mil
ati
onofgr
ammarr
ules.

5
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

e.
g., tcuthi
Osber msel
f.I
tisourknowl
edgeofEngl
isht
hatshowst
hat“
himsel
f”
r
efer
stoOsber
t.

 Pr
agmat
icCompet
ence

Pr
agmat
iccompet
encecal
lsf
ornon-l
ingui
sti
cinf
ormat
ionf
ort
hepr
oduct
ion
andi
nter
pret
ati
onofsent
ences.Thi
sty
peofcompet
encebel
ongst
olanguageuse.

e.
g.,
thesi
tuat
ionneedsacour
ageousmanl
ikehi
m.

Thi
ssent
encei
sdi
ff
icul
ttoi
nter
pret
,unl
essweknow t
hesi
tuat
ionwear
etal
king
aboutandt
hemanandwhathedi
d.

Thecompet
enceoft
hespeakeri
swhatheusesi
npar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionst
o
communi
cat
e.Andt
hisi
sal
sor
efer
redt
oasper
for
mance.

1.
2.2-per
for
mance

Per
for
mancei
stheact
ualuseort
heexpl
oit
ati
onofcompet
encei
nrealsi
tuat
ionsof
communi
cat
ion.Per
for
mancei
sthent
heext
ernal
izat
ionoft
hei
mpl
ici
trul
esof
compet
ence i
n a par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion.Ver
yof
ten,t
he per
for
mance ofa nat
ive
speakerdoesnotr
efl
ecthi
scompet
ence.Thi
sdependsont
heoccasi
onandon
ext
ernalf
act
orsl
iket
ir
edness,
emot
ion,
emot
ions,
lacksofat
tent
ion,
fear
,age…t
hat
maycauseper
for
mancet
ofai
l

I
I- Fi
rstf
ormul
ati
onoft
heTGGorTheSt
andar
dTheor
y

Thef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
on ofTGG wasdev
eloped byChomskyand hi
sdi
sci
ples
bet
ween1957and1981.Thi
smodelassoci
atest
oeachut
ter
ance,ar
epr
esent
ati
on
t
ovar
iousl
ingui
sti
clev
els;t
hatar
e:t
hephonol
ogi
cal
,mor
phol
ogi
cal
,sy
ntact
icand
i
nter
pret
ati
vel
evel
sasf
oll
ows:

SYNTACTI
CRULES LEXI
CON

Deepst
ruct
ures

TRANSFORMATI
ONS

Sur
facest
ruct
ures

PHONOLOGI
CALFORMS LOGI
CALFORMS

6
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

Phonet
icst
ruct
ures l
ogi
calf
orms

Sy
ntact
icr
ulesgener
atedeepst
ruct
uresi
nwhi
chl
exi
cali
temsar
einser
ted.
Eachl
exi
cali
tem i
ssub-cat
egor
izedal
ongwi
tht
hesy
ntact
iccat
egor
iest
heyar
e
compat
ibl
e(vscat
egsN)
.Deepst
ruct
uresar
esubj
ectt
otr
ansf
ormat
ionswhi
cht
urn
t
hem i
ntosur
facest
ruct
ures.Somet
ransf
ormat
ionsar
eobl
igat
ory(
tensesi
nver
b),
andsomeot
her
sar
eopt
ional(
transff
rom act
ivet
opassi
vef
orm)
.

2.
1-Sy
ntact
icr
ules

Sy
ntact
ic r
ules gener
ate deep st
ruct
ures; t
hey ar
e some ki
nds of
r
epr
esent
ati
onsofsent
enceswi
thsy
ntact
iccat
egor
iesor
gani
zedi
nhi
erar
chyas
f
oll
ows:

1-S-NPVP 3-MN=DET+N 5-MV=V+ NP

Tr
ansf
ormat
ionalr
ulesar
erul
est
hatt
ransf
orm semant
iccomponent
sint
o
phonol
ogi
calcomponent
s.Assucht
ransf
ormat
ionalgr
ammarhasl
ikemostot
her
t
ypesofgr
ammart
hreemaj
orcomponent
s:asy
ntact
iccomponent(
deal
ingwi
th
sy
ntax)
,a phonol
ogi
calcomponent (
deal
ing wi
th sounds) and a semant
ic
component(
deal
ingwi
thmeani
ng)
.Howev
er,i
tdi
ff
ersf
rom ot
hergr
ammar
sint
hat
t
he sy
ntact
ic component i
s spl
iti
ntot
wo component
s:t
he base and t
he
t
ransf
ormat
ionalr
ules

TGGi
sagr
ammarwhi
chnotonl
ygener
ater
ulest
obui
ldsent
ences,butal
so
i
tset
supt
wol
evel
sofst
ruct
ure(
d-st
ruct
ure&t
hes-st
ruct
ure)r
elat
edbymeansof
oper
ati
onsknown ast
ransf
ormat
ions.Such wasnott
hecasei
nthesy
ntact
ic
anal
ysi
swhi
chonl
yhadonest
ruct
ure.WhatChomskywant
edt
ounder
li
nei
sthat
,
onl
ythesy
ntact
icr
ulescannotaccountf
ort
hespeaker
’scompet
encef
ort
hey
cannott
ellwhatki
ndofr
elat
ionsexi
stbet
weendi
sti
nctphr
asessucht
heNandt
he
V.byt
hesamet
oken,t
heycannotest
abl
isht
her
elat
ionbet
weensent
enceswhi
ch
ar
elexi
cal
lyandsemant
ical
lyr
elat
edbutdi
ff
eri
nonl
ythei
rgr
ammat
icalmode

7
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

(
asser
ti
ve,i
nter
rogat
ive,negat
ivepassi
ve…)
.Onl
ytr
ansf
ormat
ionalr
ulesenabl
eto
do t
his.Butt
hey ar
e const
rai
nts on t
ransf
ormat
ionalr
ules.Letconsi
dert
he
f
oll
owi
ngsent
ence:

e.
g.,
Her
ber
tputt
hemangoi
nhi
sbag

Thi
ssent
encecont
ainst
hev
erbputwhi
chhast
obef
oll
owedbyanNPanda
PP.so,
wecannotsay
:

- Her
ber
tputi
nhi
sbagor
- Her
ber
tputt
hemango
Nowl
ookatt
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences:
Whatdi
dHer
ber
tput[]i
nhi
sbag?
Whatdi
dHer
ber
tputt
hepar
roti
n[]
?
Thesesent
encesappeart
ohav
ebr
okent
her
equi
rementt
hatputmustbef
oll
owed
byanNPandaPP.I
nst
ead,whatappear
satt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hesent
ence,and
t
her
eisagapi
nthepl
acewher
eonemi
ghthav
eexpect
edawor
dsuchaspar
rot
,
dr
awert
ooccur
.Iti
sbyt
ransf
ormat
iont
hatwewoul
dhav
e:

Whatdi
dHer
ber
tputi
nthebag?(
Schema)
Whatdi
dHer
ber
tputt
hemangoi
n?(
Schema)
I
II
- Thenewl
ookGr
ammar

Thenewl
ookgr
ammari
nit
iat
edi
n1980’
sisr
adi
cal
lydi
ff
erentf
rom t
hest
andar
d
t
heor
ywhi
chwecal
ledt
hef
ir
stf
ormul
ati
onofTGGi
nanumberofway
s.TheNLGi
s
f
air
ly si
mpl
eini
ts out
li
nes.I
tconsi
sts essent
ial
ly ofa numberofdi
ff
erent
component
sormodul
es,
eachofwhi
chhasaf
air
lyspeci
fi
candst
rai
ght
for
war
dtask
t
ocar
ryouti
nthebui
ldi
ngandi
nter
pret
ati
onofsent
ences.Rul
esandpr
inci
plesi
n
eachcomponentar
esi
mpl
eandaf
ew.Thei
rint
eract
iongi
vesdi
ff
erentsent
encesi
n
l
anguages.Languagef
acul
tyi
sconcei
vedasasy
stem ofcal
cul
ati
onswhi
char
e
f
ir
m andconst
rai
ningbutwhi
chcr
eat
ethr
ought
heagencyoft
hesemodul
esan
i
nfi
nit
enumberofcompl
exsent
ences.Eachmodul
eisassoci
atedt
o al
imi
ted
numberofpar
amet
erswi
thl
imi
tedv
alues.

3.
1-TheTheor
yofsy
ntact
icmov
ement
s/t
races

8
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

Theor
yofsy
ntact
icmov
ement
sisoneoff
ir
stt
ypesoft
ransf
ormat
ionswher
eby
aNPf
orex
ampl
ecanmov
efr
om i
tsor
igi
nalposi
ti
on(
aposi
ti
onofar
gument
)to
anot
herposi
ti
on(
anon-ar
gumentposi
ti
on)i
nthesent
encest
ruct
ure.Thewh-
mov
ement di
spl
aces any maj
or cat
egor
y cont
aini
ng a wh-i
tem. These
t
ransf
ormat
ionsgi
vei
nter
rogat
iveorr
elat
ivesent
ences.Butany
timeani
tem i
s
mov
edf
rom i
tsor
igi
nalposi
ti
oni
tleav
esat
raceasi
n

Johnsawsomeone
Whoidi
djohnseeti
Johnbui
ltt
hishouse
Thi
shouseiwasbui
lttibyj
ohn+
3.
2-t
heGov
ernmentandbi
ndi
ngt
heor
y(t
héor
iedul
iage)

Thet
heor
yofgov
ernmentandbi
ndi
ngpay
spar
ti
cul
arat
tent
iont
otwoaspect
sof
gr
ammarwhi
chwer
evi
rt
ual
lyi
gnor
edi
nthest
andar
dtheor
y:gov
ernmentont
heone
hand,andbi
ndi
ngont
heot
her
.Gov
ernmenti
nvol
vest
henot
ionofaconst
it
uent
hav
ingpoweront
heot
her
s,andbi
ndi
ngdeal
swi
tht
hel
inki
ngorbi
ndi
ngofi
temst
o
oneanot
her
.Thewor
dgov
ernmenti
susual
lyusedi
nconnect
ionwi
thheadsof
phr
aseswhi
chi
nfl
uenceot
her
sint
hei
rimmedi
atel
ocal
it
y,i
nthesenseofr
equi
ri
ng
t
hem t
oexi
stassubsi
diar
iest
othemsel
ves(
inVP,Vgov
ernsNP)
.Howev
er,qui
te
of
ten t
her
eisan i
mpor
tantr
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween wor
dswhi
ch ar
eon di
ff
erent
br
anchesandondi
ff
erentl
evel
s,asi
n

e.
g.Mar
, ryhadadr
eam abouther
sel
f.

I
nar
epr
esent
ati Mar
on, ryandher
sel
far
eondi
ff
erentbr
anches,
anddi
ff
erentl
evel
s,
y
etcl
ear
lyt
heyhav
eani
nti
mat
erel
ati
onshi
p,whi
chneedst
obecl
ear
lyspeci
fy.
Ther
efor
e,i
t’
simpor
tantt
o under
stand t
he r
elat
ionshi
pin or
dert
oint
erpr
et
sent
encespr
oper
ly.Letconsi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences:

- Henr
yreadt
her
epor
taboutSt
ephenst
abbi
nghi
msel
f.
- Henr
yreadt
her
epor
taboutSt
ephenst
abbi
nghi
m.
Under
standi
ngt
her
elat
ionshi
poft
hesesent
enceshel
ptoknow t
hati
nthef
ir
st
sent
ence,i
t’
sSt
ephenwhowasst
abbed,butHenr
yorsomeoneel
sei
nthesecond
one.

9
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

A maj
orpar
tofChomsky
’snew t
heor
yist
otr
yandspeci
fyexact
lywhi
ch
par
tsoft
reesi
nfl
uenceoneanot
her
,andwhi
chcanbel
inkedi
nthei
rint
erpr
etat
ion.
Ther
efor
e,heandhi
sfol
lower
swi
lldr
awupawi
dernot
ionofgov
ernment
,knownas
command.A pr
inci
ple known asc-command (
const
it
uentcommand)speci
fi
es
whi
chconst
it
uent
shav
epowerov
erot
her
sinat
otalt
reest
ruct
ure.Thenot
ionofc-
commandenabl
est
ospeci
fyr
elat
ionshi
psandr
est
ri
cti
onsbet
weendi
ff
erentpar
ts
oft
hesent
ence,
(forexampl
e,nMar
i ryhadadr
eam abouther
sel
f,her
sel
fmustbec
-commandbyt
heper
sonr
efer
redt
o.

Bi
ndi
ngi
sst
rongl
yint
erl
inkedwi
tht
henot
ionofc-command.A bi
ndi
ng
pr
inci
plest
atest
hatwhent
woNPsar
eco-i
ndexed,
thati
s,r
efert
othesameper
son
ort
hing,
theant
ecedentmustc-commandt
heanaphor
.

To summar
ize so f
ar,t
he gov
ernmentand bi
ndi
ng t
heor
yispar
ti
cul
arl
y
concer
nswi
thr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenconst
it
uent
s.I
tspeci
fi
eswhi
chconst
it
uent
s
hav
epowerov
erot
her
s,t
heov
eral
lpur
posebei
ngt
oexpr
esssi
mpl
yandcl
ear
ly
whi
chnodesont
het
reear
eint
erl
inked.Onl
ycer
tai
nli
nksar
epossi
ble,di
scov
eri
ng
and descr
ibi
ng t
hese enabl
es us t
o gr
asp t
he pr
inci
ples under
lyi
ng sent
ence
i
nter
pret
ati
on.

3.
3-TheX-bart
heor
y

Thex-bart
heor
ygoesonpr
inci
plet
hatanyl
exi
cali
tem whi
chi
spr
oject
edi
n
sy
ntaxcanhav
eanobj
ectoraspeci
fi
er.Thehi
erar
chi
cst
ruct
urei
sthenconst
it
uted
i
nwhi
chxi
stheheadoft
hepr
oject
ion.Theuseofbar
shasonef
urt
hermaj
or
adv
ant
age:t
heycanbeusedwi
thadj
ect
ives(
A),v
erbs(
V),andpr
eposi
ti
ons(
P),as
wel
laswi
thnouns(
N).Wi
thbar
s,i
tist
heneasyt
oseesi
mil
ari
ti
esi
nst
ruct
ures
bet
weenNPs,APs,VPsandPPswhi
chwer
enotsoev
identbef
ore.I
ttur
nsoutt
hat
t
hehead(
mai
nwor
d)i
nonet
ypeofphr
asei
sinav
erysi
mil
arposi
ti
ont
otheheadi
n
anot
her
.

e.
g.,
thepi
ctur
eoft
hel
ion

3.
4-Ty
pesofsent
ences

Thenew t
heor
yenabl
est
orepr
esentanyki
ndofsent
encet
hankst
othe
el
abor
ati
onoft
ransf
ormat
ionalr
ulescapabl
eofr
epr
esent
ingdi
ff
erentmodesof

10
TRANSFORMATI
ONALANDGENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

sent
ence.Themodeoft
hesent
enceunder
li
nest
het
ypeofsent
encepr
oduced.Thi
s
t
ypeormodeofsent
encei
srepr
esent
edbyt
hesy
mbol∑→mod+P.

mod→ {
decl
/i
nter
r/i
mp}+(
Emph)+(
Nég)

so∑c-commandsmodandP.

Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

1-Ai
tchi Li
sonJ, ngui
sti
cs,
anI
ntr
oduct
i 10thed.
on, ,Gr
eatBr
it
ain,
1999.
t
2-ChomskyN,hel
ogi
calst
ruct
ureofl
ingui
sti
ctheor
y,,
NY,
1955
3---------------,
onwh-mov
ement
,for
malsynt
ax,
NY,
1977
4---------------,Lect
uresonGover
nmentandbi
ndi
ng,Dor
drecht
:For
is,
1981
5-Dubois-Char
li
erF.,Element
sdel
ingui
sti
queangl
aise 
:Sy
ntaxe,Langueet
Langage,Par
is,1970
6-Guer
onJ.,l
aGr ammai
regénér
ati
v nl
ei esthéor
iesdelaGr
ammai
reAngl
aise
enFr
anceedit
edbyPier
reCott
eandal
,Huchett
e,1993.
7-GueronJ.
,Topi
cal
isat
ionst
ruct
uresandconst
rai
ntsoncor
ef ence,Li
er ngua,
1984.

11