Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Interaction With Cells, Cytokine Production, and Enzymatic Degradation

1692_C06.
fm Page 101 Tuesday, October 19, 2004 8:50 AM
6 Solid Lipid
Nanoparticles:
Interaction with Cells,
Cytokine Production,
and Enzymatic
Degradation
Carsten Olbrich, Kerstin Tabatt, Sylvia A. Wissing,
Nadja Schöler, and R.H. Müller
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................102

6.2 Influence of the Particle Size.......................................................................103
6.2.1 On Cytotoxicity................................................................................103
6.2.2 On Biodegradation ...........................................................................105
6.3 Influence of the Matrix Lipid ......................................................................107
6.3.1 On Cytotoxicity................................................................................107
6.3.3 On In Vitro Transfection Efficacy ....................................................110
6.4 Influence of the Surfactant...........................................................................111
6.4.1 On Cytotoxicity................................................................................111
6.4.3 On In Vitro Transfection Efficacy ....................................................118
6.5 Influence of Preservatives on Cytotoxicity..................................................120
6.6 Mechanism of Uptake and Fate in the Cell ................................................120
6.7 Conclusion....................................................................................................122
References..............................................................................................................122
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102 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were introduced as novel drug carriers to the literature
in the 1990s and have since been investigated intensively. Various parameters such as
structure of the particles, physical stability of the dispersions, entrapment efficiency
for different drugs, chemical stabilization of incorporated drugs, sterilization, lyo-
philization, spray drying, in vitro and in vivo release, and penetration have been studied
and reviewed [1–3]. This chapter describes the interaction of SLN with cells — their
effect on cytokine production after parenteral administration as a measure for cyto-
toxicity — and reviews the mechanism of enzymatic degradation found for SLN.
The cytotoxicity of SLN, expressed as viability, was determined using the 3-(4,5-
dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and an enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay for the determination of the amount of interleukin 6
(IL-6) secreted by peritoneal mouse macrophages after incubation with SLN was
used [4]. IL-6 is a proinflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages and granu-
locytes after stimulation and possesses both a local and a systemic effect [5]. Other
members of this group of cytokines are IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-18, and TNF-α
and TNF-β (tumor necrosis factor alpha and beta) [6]. They initiate and support the
acute inflammatory reaction and regulate the lymphocytic immune response. Among
other effects, these cytokines also induce fever as endogenous pyrogenes [7]. The
interplay of all proinflammatory cytokines results in an inflammation reaction. Over-
production of cytokines can lead to exaggerated and detrimental effects in the body,
as described for lipopolysaccharides acting as effectors [8]. The endotoxin-mediated
production of proinflammatory cytokines through macrophages can lead to a detri-
mental reaction, called sepsis with hypotensive shock. This possible toxic reaction
is produced in living beings by foreign material in the bloodstream. Thus, colloidal
drug carriers like SLN, recognized by monocytes and macrophages as foreign to the
human body, can provoke this reaction [9,10]. Depending on the formulation, up to
90% of the injected dose will be taken up by Kupffer cells (macrophages) of the
liver. For SLN, their in vitro phagocytosis by granulocyte-like cells (retinoic acid–dif-
ferentiated human promyelocytic cells [HL-60]) was determined using a luminescent
assay [11]. With this technique, it was shown that the extent of phagocytosis depends
on the particle size and the surfactant used.
The cytotoxic effects of colloidal carriers can take place both on the outside of
the cell or after ingestion in the interior of the cell. Both surfactants on the particle
surface and matrix material can potentially lead to toxic effects. Cytotoxic effects
can be provoked alternatively by degradation products of the carriers, like formalde-
hyde in the case of polycyanoacrylate nanoparticles [12]. Studies using polymethyl-
cyanoacrylate nanoparticles showed that a perforation of the cell membrane has
taken place after incubation of macrophages with the particles [13]. It was shown
that the nanoparticles adhere at the cell membrane and that degradation products
can impair the membrane function, which results in cytotoxic effects. The cytotoxic
effects of polyalkylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles depend mainly on the length of the
aliphatic side chains and are more pronounced for shorter (methyl-) than for longer
(butyl-) chain lengths [13–15]. Further cytotoxic effects may result from the inter-
nalization of the colloidal carriers with the consecutive production of cytotoxic
SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 103
degradation products. It could be demonstrated in hepatocytes that polyalkylcyano-

acrylate nanoparticles are able to provoke cytotoxic effects after internalization, as
well [16]. This kind of cytotoxic effect toward murine peritoneal macrophages could
be reduced by the covalent coupling of polyethylene glycol on the particle surface,
creating “stealth” nanoparticles [17,18]. Nanoparticles from polylactic or polylactic–
polyglycolic acid, biocompatible materials for depot implants (e.g., Zoladex), or
depot microparticles (e.g., Decapeptyl Depot, Parlodel LAR) also showed pro-
nounced cytotoxic effects on the cellular level when formulated as nanoparticles.
The viability of human granulocytes is reduced to 50% after incubation with 0.2%
of these nanoparticles, whereas incubation with 0.5% leads to complete cell death
[19,20]. Because nanoparticles are internalized and microparticles (50 to 100 µm)
and implants are not, and the degradation products cause cytotoxic effects, this effect
is less pronounced in slowly degrading polylactic acid nanoparticles [21,22].
In comparison with the polymeric colloidal carriers mentioned so far, SLN are
much more compatible with phagocytic cells. SLN composed of different lipids and
surfactants do not exert any cytotoxic effects up to concentrations of 2.5% lipid,
and even concentrations up to 10% led to a viability of 80% with human granulocytes
[20]. Similar results were obtained in retinoic acid–differentiated HL-60 cells,
whereas polymethylcyanoacrylate and polyhexylcyanoacrylate nanoparticles at con-
centrations of 0.05% or 0.35% led to complete cell death. In this chapter, the results
of cytotoxicity testing of SLN on freshly isolated peritoneal mouse macrophages
are presented.
Apart from the determination of cytotoxicity, SLN were tested for their degra-
dation behavior. Therefore, SLN were incubated with a mixture of porcine pancreatic
lipase and colipase to mimic the gastrointestinal lipolysis degradation of lipids, and
as a model for lipolytic degradation in general. The degradation products (free fatty
acids) were determined using the Nefa C test kit, a colorimetric test for the assess-
ment of free fatty acids in serum and plasma [11]. Knowledge about the degradation
of lipid nanoparticles is of great importance because of the possible impact on
cytotoxicity and on the release of active ingredients. Therefore, a lipase–colipase
assay was used and the degradation parameters were determined using an enzymatic
test kit from Wako (Nefa C test kit).
6.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PARTICLE SIZE

The size of colloidal carriers may have an impact on both the cytotoxicity and the
biodegradation of colloidal carriers. The cytotoxicity can be caused by ingested
nanoparticles, and their size is one of the factors that determine the cell uptake of
the particles. Larger particles are degraded more slowly, and an incorporated drug
will be released more slowly than from smaller particles if the drug release is guided
by matrix erosion.
6.2.1 ON CYTOTOXICITY
The effect on cytotoxicity and IL-6 production of Dynasan 114 SLN with different
surfactants of different sizes was studied using freshly isolated peritoneal mouse
TABLE 6.1
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy Diameters of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Diameter (µm)
Composition and Size ± Standard Deviation Polydispersity Index
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 188
Small 0.245 ± 0.127 0.196 ± 0.023
Medium 0.523 ± 0.211 0.299 ± 0.054
Large 1.532 ± 0.976 0.456 ± 0.100
Dynasan 114/Polysorbate 80
Small 0.262 ± 0.126 0.107 ± 0.008
Medium 0.705 ± 1.011 0.202 ± 0.012
Large 3.191 ± 2.540 —
Dynasan 114/Lipoid S75
Small 0.218 ± 0.115 0.123 ± 0.013
Medium 0.428 ± 0.283 0.305 ± 0.044
Large 1.430 ± 1.322 0.452 ± 0,117
Dynasan 114/Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC)
Small 0.123 ± 0.058 0.175 ± 0.034
Medium 0.465 ± 0.123 0.199 ± 0.096
Large 2.231 ± 1.121 0.487 ± 0.166
Controls
Soybean oil/MCT (1:1)/Lipoid S75
Small 0.232 ± 0.124 0.118 ± 0.011
Medium 0.530 ± 0.429 0.349 ± 0.166
Large 4.808 ± 1.842 0.523 ± 0.318
Polystyrene beads
Small 0.250 —
Medium 0.512 —
Large 5.100 —
Note: Produced with Dynasan 114 as matrix lipid and different surfactants. From all formulations,
three sizes (small, medium, large) were produced to assess the size effect on cytotoxic effects toward
peritoneal mouse macrophages. Both 10% lipid and 1% surfactant were used.
macrophages. Each of the formulations was produced in three sizes — small,

medium, and large — by varying the production parameters. A soybean oil/medium-
chain triglyceride (MCT) emulsion (parenteral fat emulsion) and nondegradable
polystyrene beads were used as controls (Table 6.1). No statistically significant
changes in viability (Figure 6.1) or cytokine production (Figure 6.2) between the
same SLN of different sizes could be found. Incubation of SLN stabilized with
cetylpyridinium chloride as surfactants led to massive cell death at the 0.1% con-
centration, whereas the poloxamer 188–, Tween 80–, and Lipoid S75–stabilized SLN
led only to minor reductions of the viability and the IL-6 secretion. The IL-6
production decreased with increasing cytotoxicity of the particles, independent of
particle size. The controls did not affect either the cytotoxicity or the IL-6 production
of the cells [5,23].
120
100 small
medi um
bi g
Viabilit y [%] 80
60
40
20
0
SO/ MCT Polystyrene D 114/ D 114/ D 114/ D 114/ CPC
(1:1)/ beads Polo xamer L S75 Tween 80
L S75 188
FIGURE 6.1 Viability (MTT assay) of mouse peritoneal macrophages after 20 h of incubation
with SLN, polystyrene particles, or control emulsion (1:1 mixture of soybean oil and MCT
stabilized with Lipoid S75) of different sizes at a concentration of 0.1% (means ± standard
deviation, n = 3). The viability of untreated cells is 100%, and the IL-6 secretion is 1.0. D 114,
Dynasan 114; L S75, Lipoid S75; CPC, cetylpyridinium chloride; SO, soybean oil.
1.2
1 small
medium
0.8 big
IL-6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
SO/ MCT Polystyrene D 114/ D 114/ L S75 D 114/ D 114/ CPC
(1:1)/ beads Polo xamer Tween 80
L S75 188
FIGURE 6.2 IL-6 secretion of mouse peritoneal macrophages after 20 h of incubation with
SLN, polystyrene particles, or control emulsion (1:1 mixture of soybean oil and MCT stabi-
lized with Lipoid S75) of different sizes at a concentration of 0.1% (means ± standard
deviation, n = 3). The viability of untreated cells is 100%, and the IL-6 secretion is 1.0.
6.2.2 ON BIODEGRADATION
To determine the effect of the particle size on the biodegradation of Dynasan 114
SLN, stabilized with sodium cholate, a degradation-enhancing surfactant and polox-
amer 407 (a surfactant that hinders the enzymatic biodegradation [11]) were used
to produce SLN of different sizes (Table 6.2). Sodium cholate–stabilized SLN are
in the size range of 182 to 304 nm and do not show any differences in their
TABLE 6.2
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy Diameters of Solid
Lipid Nanoparticles
Diameter (µm) Polydispersity
Composition and Size ± Standard Deviation Index
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 407
Small 0.287 ± 0.085 0.202 ± 0.013
Medium 0.344 ± 0.052 0.299 ± 0.054
Large 0.389 ± 0.0031 0.326 ± 0.016
Dynasan 114/Sodium cholate
Small 0.182 ± 0.002 0.171 ± 0.015
Medium 0.304 ± 0.016 0.202 ± 0.012
Large 0.803 ± 0.0075 0.586 ± 0.041
Note: Produced with Dynasan 114 as matrix lipid and poloxamer 407 and
sodium cholate as surfactants. The formulations were produced in three sizes
(small, medium, large) to assess the influence of the size on the degradation
of the nanoparticles. Both 5% lipid and 0.5% surfactant were used.
70
Dynasan1 14/ Sodi um Chol ate (small)

60 Dynasan1 14/ Sodi um Chol ate (medium)
Dynasan1 14/ Sodi um Chol ate (big)
50
Free Fatty Ac id s [%]
40
30
20
10
0
0 min 5 min 20 min 60 min 120 min
FIGURE 6.3 Degradation profile of sodium cholate–stabilized Dynasan 114 SLN of different
sizes. The percentage of free fatty acids after complete hydrolysis is 66%.
degradation behavior, but the degradation velocity is decreased drastically when

SLN of 803 nm were used. Not only is the percentage of free fatty acids per time
lower than for the smaller particles but also the overall extent of the free fatty acids
after 120 min is significantly lower (Figure 6.3). For poloxamer 407–stabilized SLN,
the overall extent of biodegradation is reduced compared with the sodium cho-
late–stabilized particles. Particles of 344 and 389 nm possess similar degradation
characteristics, whereas the small particles (287 nm) are degraded significantly faster,
and to a greater extent, after 120 min (Figure 6.4). Sodium cholate influences the
degradation to a lower extent when particle sizes different than poloxamer 407 are

70
Dynasan 114/ Polo xamer 407 (small)

60 Dynasan 114/ Polo xamer 407 (medium)
Dynasan 114/ Polo xamer 407 (big )
50
Free Fatty Ac id s [%]
40
30
20
10
0
0 mi n 5 min 20 min 60 mi n 120 min
FIGURE 6.4 Degradation profile of poloxamer 407–stabilized Dynasan 114 SLN of different
sizes. The percentage of free fatty acids after complete hydrolysis is 66%.
used; small differences in the particle sizes lead to differences in the degradation
behavior.
6.3 INFLUENCE OF THE MATRIX LIPID

The influence of the matrix lipid on cytotoxicity depends on the cell line used. With
HL-60 cells, no cytotoxic effect of the matrix lipid could be found [24]. Up to
concentrations of 1.5%, SLN made from Dynasan 114 (triglyceride of myristic acid),
Compritol ATO 888 (glycerol behenate), or the wax cetyl palmitate, all stabilized
with Lipoid S75 (soy lecithin), did not show any reduction in viability [24,25]. On
murine peritoneal macrophages, additional matrix lipids were tested [23]. Formula-
tions with 10% lipid and 1% poloxamer 188 as surfactant were used. In addition to
the very good tolerability of Compritol ATO 888, Dynasan 114, and paraffin, the
matrix lipids Dynasan 118 and cetyl palmitate showed slight concentration-dependent
effects and stearic acid showed strong cytotoxic effects (Table 6.3 and Figure 6.5).
Because Dynasan 118 is a triglyceride of stearic acid, the reduced viability at the
highest concentration (0.1%) can be explained by the enzymatic degradation of the
lipids within the cells, leading to fast release of free fatty acids. Solid paraffin, which
is not biodegradable, shows a good tolerability, but at the 0.1% concentration, there
is a reduction of the viability to about 60%, as well. The parenteral lipid emulsion
Lipofundin does not show any reductions, indicating the good tolerability of this
formulation. The determination of IL-6, secreted in the cell supernatants of SLN-
treated cells showed a reduction in a concentration-dependent manner only for the
Dynasan 118– and stearic acid–treated cells, whereas the supernatants of all other
formulations did not show reduced amounts of IL-6 (Figure 6.6). Stearic acid
formulated as nanoparticles is not cytotoxic to these cells when used in a 0.001%
TABLE 6.3
Lipid Nanoparticles Produced with Different Matrix
Lipids (10% Lipid, 1% Poloxamer 188) to Assess the
Influence of the Matrix Lipid on the Cytotoxicity
toward Peritoneal Mouse Macrophages
Diameter (nm)
Composition ± Standard Deviation Polydispersity Index
Compritol 888 314 ± 3 0.38 ± 0.03
Dynasan 114 232 ± 1 0.13 ± 0.03
Dynasan 118 274 ± 3 0.10 ± 0.05
Cetyl Palmitate 360 ± 2 0.13 ± 0.03
Solid Paraffin 234 ± 1 0.14 ± 0.01
Stearic Acid 360 ± 2 0.13 ± 0.03
120
0.001% S L N C onc . 0.01% S L N C onc . 0.1% S L N C onc .
100
80
V iability [%]
60
40
20
0
4
88
in
id
te
11
11
ffi
Ac
nd
ita
l8
ra
an
an
lm
fu
i to
r ic
Pa
po
as
as
Pa
pr
ea
lid
yn
yn
Li
om
St
yl
So
et
D
FIGURE 6.5 Viability of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incubation with
SLN (different lipid matrices and poloxamer 188) or Lipofundin MCT in different concen-
trations (means ± standard deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have a viability of 100%).
concentration, whereas higher concentrations lead to a massive reduction of the

viability (0.01% lipid) or to complete cell death. The complete cell death of the highest
concentrations is represented by the absence of detectable IL-6 after the incubation
with the stearic acid nanoparticles.
To study the effect of different lipid matrices SLN of cetyl palmitate, Dynasan 116
(glycerol tripalmitate) and Dynasan 118 (glycerol tristearate) were used (Table 6.4).
The amounts of free fatty acids produced after 120 min incubation as a measure of
the degradation are shown (Figure 6.7). SLN made from cetyl palmitate showed the
lowest degradation. Because cetyl palmitate is a wax and therefore not an optimal
1.4
0.001% S L N C onc . 0.01% S L N C onc . 0.1% S L N C onc .
1.2
IL -6 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
te
4
88
in
id
11
11
ffi
ita
Ac
nd
l8
ra
an
an
fu
i to
r ic
Pa
al
po
as
as
pr
ea
lP
lid
yn
yn
Li
om
St
ty
So
D
Ce
C
FIGURE 6.6 IL-6 production of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incubation
with SLN (different lipid matrices and poloxamer 188) or Lipofundin MCT in different
concentrations (means ± standard deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have a IL-6 secretion of 1).
TABLE 6.4
Lipid Nanoparticles Produced with Different Lipids
and Surfactants (5% Lipid, 0.5% Surfactant) to Assess
the Influence of the Matrix Lipid on the Biodegradation
of the Corresponding Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Diameter (nm) Polydispersity
Lipid and Surfactant ± Standard Deviation (%) Index
Cetyl Palmitate
Sodium Cholate 170 (2.31) 0.166
Lipoid E 80 431 (2.00) 0.273
Poloxamer 407 303 (3.02) 0.200
Tween 80 543 (2.52) 0.220
Dynasan 116
Lipoid E 80 350 (1.03) 0.235
Poloxamer 407 388 (7.21) 0.298
Tween 80 315 (1.53) 0.223
Dynasan 118
Lipoid E 80 385 (2.14) 0.232
Poloxamer 407 422 (6.43) 0.321
Tween 80 314 (4.23) 0.245
substrate for the lipase/colipase, the reduced degradation can be explained. However,
even with this matrix material, the degradation is modulated by the surfactants used.
Poloxamer 407 leads to the most pronounced reduction as a result of a possible
100
90
80
Free Fatty Acids [%]

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
Tw 07
7
Tw 07
H
80
11 80
80
0
0
aC
aC
40
E8
aC
E8
4
E
n
n
n
N
N
6
P
8
ee
ee
N
ee
P
8
11
11
C
8
11
11
C
P
Tw
11
D
D
C
D
D
D
6
P
8
11
11
C
D
FIGURE 6.7 Lipase/colipase degradation of SLN with different matrix lipids: CP, cetyl
palmitate; D116, Dynasan 116; D118, Dynasan 118; NaCh, sodium cholate; E80, Lipoid E80;
407, poloxamer 407; Tween 80, polysorbate 80. The lipid concentration was 5% and the
surfactant concentration 0.5%. The values for free fatty acids after 120 min of incubation are
given.
hindrance of the enzymes anchoring to the particle surface because of the steric
stabilization of the polyethylene oxide chains of the poloxamer. Even when sodium
cholate, a degradation-promoting surfactant, was used, only about 30% free fatty
acids could be found. Lipoid E80, a phospholipid and natural ingredient of food,
leads to a slightly reduced degradation, and the results for Tween 80 were compa-
rable. SLN made from Dynasan 116 show significantly higher extents of degradation
compared with cetyl palmitate because this is an optimal substrate for the enzymes.
The tendency of the influence of the different surfactants is the same as that described
for cetyl palmitate, and the same tendency is valid for the Dynasan 118 SLN, whereas
the degradation of these surfactants is significantly reduced compared with the
Dynasan 116 SLN. The reason for this is that the enzymatic degradation of fatty
acids in triglycerides is slower for longer fatty acid chains than for shorter chains
[11].
6.3.3 ON IN VITRO TRANSFECTION EFFICACY

Recent studies revealed the good in vitro transfection efficacy of cationic SLN
[26,27]. These cationic SLN are formulated from a matrix lipid: surfactants to
stabilize the formulation and cationic lipids to charge the SLN surface positively.
The cationic lipids employed are the same used in cationic liposomes for transfection
[28]. Formulation optimization studies revealed that both the cationic lipid and the
matrix lipid influence transfection activity [27]. Comparable results were found for
the oil component in cationic nanoemulsions for transfection [29]. Several formulations
made from different cationic lipids and matrix lipids were tested for in vitro transfection
efficiency (Figure 6.8). The SLN Cp DOTAP made from the wax cetyl palmitate
and the cationic lipid N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium
2.0E+08
1.8E+08
1.6E+08
RLU/mg Protein 1.4E+08
1.2E+08
1.0E+08
8.0E+07
6.0E+07
4.0E+07
2.0E+07
0.0E+00
Co DDAB Co EQ1 Co DOTAP Cp DDAB Cp E Q Cp DOTAP DNA alone
FIGURE 6.8 Transfection efficiency (quantified as “relative light units” [RLU]/mg protein)
of six different SLN formulations (Co DDAB: 4% Compritol ATO 888, 1% dimethyldiocta-
decylammonium bromide = DDAB; Co EQ: 4% Compritol, 1% N,N-di-(β-stearoylethyl)-
N,N-dimethyl-ammonium chloride = EQ; Co DOTAP: 4% Compritol, 1% N-[1-(2,3-dioleoy-
loxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium chloride = DOTAP; Cp DDAB: 4% cetyl palmitate,
1% DDAB; Cp EQ: 4% cetyl palmitate, 1% EQ; Cp DOTAP: 4% cetyl palmitate, 1% DOTAP);
all formulations were stabilized with 2% [7:3] Tween 80; Span 85). The experiments were
performed on Cos-1 cells (African green monkey kidney). The transfection efficiency of naked
plasmid (DNA alone) served as control. All tested SLN–DNA complexes showed a statistically
significant increase of transfection activity compared to naked plasmid. Cp DOTAP was 10
times more potent then the other formulations.
chloride (DOTAP) showed 10 times higher activities than that SLN also made from
DOTAP but containing the matrix lipid Compritol ATO 888 (tribehenate). The
superiority of cetyl palmitate SLN appeared only in combination with the cationic
lipid DOTAP and not with the other tested cationic lipids. Therefore, for formulation
of cationic SLN for transfection, the choice of the matrix lipid in combination with
the cationic lipid is a very important factor.
6.4 INFLUENCE OF THE SURFACTANT

Influencing the cytotoxic potential of SLN surfactants can be considered an important
factor. To assess this factor, SLN from Dynasan 114 (glycerol trimyristate) were
produced using different surfactants (Table 6.5). Nonionic surfactants, poloxamer
188, poloxamer 407, and poloxamine 908; anionic surfactants sodium dodecyl sul-
phate and sodium cholate; and cationic agent CPC (cetylpyridinium chloride) were
employed. The nonionic and anionic surfactants are generally well tolerated and
show no or only slight cytotoxic effects when incorporated in SLN in concentrations
up to 0.01% (total surfactant concentration in the incubation medium). Only the
cationic CPC leads to massively reduced viabilities of the macrophages even at the
TABLE 6.5
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy Diameters of Dynasan 114
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles with Different Surfactants (10% Lipid,
1% Surfactant) to Assess the Influence of Different Surfactants
on the Cytotoxicity toward Peritoneal Mouse Macrophages
Composition ± Standard Deviation Index
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 407 252 ± 4 0.21 ± 0.02
Dynasan 114/Sodium cholate 254 ± 2 0.19 ± 0.03
Dynasan 114/poloxamine 908 253 ± 1 0.14 ± 0.03
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 188 181 ± 1 0.18 ± 0.01
Dynasan 114/sodium dodecyl sulfate 167 ± 3 0.19 ± 0.01
Dynasan 114/CPC 160 ± 1 0.19 ± 0.01
100
90
Dynasan 114/
80 Poloxamer 407
70 Dynasan 114/
Sodium Cholate
Viability [%]
60 Dynasan 114/
Poloxamine 908
50
Dynasan 114/
40 Poloxamer 188
Dynasan 114/
30 SDS
20 Dynasan 114/
CPC
10
0
0.001% SLN Conc. 0.01% SLN Conc. 0.1% SLN Conc.
FIGURE 6.9 Viability of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incubation with
SLN (different surfactants and Dynasan 114) in different concentrations (means ± standard
deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have a viability of 100%).
0.01% concentration (SLN concentration, 0.001% surfactant concentration) and to

complete cell death at 0.1% SLN (0.01% surfactant) concentration (Figure 6.9). CPC
at the same concentration, present in the 0.1% SLN dispersion (0.01%), does not
show any cytotoxic effects in the MTT assay when given as a solution (Figure 6.10).
Corresponding results are obtained when the IL-6 secretion is taken into consider-
ation. The secretion is reduced to zero in the case of CPC-SLN when the highest
SLN concentration of CPC-stabilized SLN is used, whereas CPC in solution at
ambient concentrations does not lead to these fatal findings (Figure 6.11 and Figure
6.12). It is likely that the toxicity of CPC is related to the simultaneous administration
of Dynasan 114 nanoparticles. The enrichment of the cationic surfactant on the
particle surface may lead to locally higher concentrations on the cell surface, leading
to membrane damages, or else the cytotoxic effect is affected by the surfactant after
ingestion in the cell. Because the free solution does not show these effects, free CPC
100
90
80
70
Viability [% ] 60 amount of
50 surfactant like
in the 0.1%
40 SLN Conc.
30 (0.01%).
20
10
0
te
8
PC
8
7
90
18
SD
40
la
C
ho
e
er
er
in
C
m
m
um
xa
xa
xa
lo
lo
di
lo
Po
Po
So
Po
FIGURE 6.10 Viability of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incubation

with different surfactant solutions (0.01%). This corresponds to the surfactants present in the
0.1% formulation (means ± standard deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have a viability of 100%).
1
0,9
Dynasan 114/
0,8 Poloxamer 407
0,7 Dynasan 114/
Sodium Cholate
0,6 Dynasan 114/
Poloxamine 908
IL-6
0,5
Dynasan 114/
0,4 Poloxamer 188
Dynasan 114/
0,3 SDS
0,2 Dynasan 114/
CPC
0,1
0
0.001% SLN Conc. 0.01% SLN Conc. 0.1% SLN Conc.
FIGURE 6.11 IL-6 production of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incu-
bation with SLN (different surfactants and Dynasan 114) in different concentrations (means ±
standard deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have an IL-6 secretion of 1).
is not cytotoxic toward mouse macrophages up to a concentration of 0.01%. These

findings are important when considering SLN as delivery agents for negatively
charged material like DNA or proteins (antigens). For this purpose, the use of other
cationic surfactants is recommended.
It is important to keep in mind that cytotoxic effects of surfactants differ depend-
ing on the cell line used because of metabolic abilities (e.g., the presence special of
enzymes) and capabilities (e.g., phagocytosis) of the cells [30]. In experiments with
murine peritoneal macrophages the viability was, in comparison with the pure
surfactant solution, slightly reduced when incubated with the SLN [5]. On HL-60,
and human peripheral blood granulocytes, a severe reduction of toxicity of the
surfactants when incorporated in SLN was observed [24]. Here the cytotoxicity of
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
amount of
IL-6
0,5 surfactant like
0,4 in the 0.1%
SLN Conc.
0,3
(0.01%).
0,2
0,1
0
te
7
8
08
PC
S
la
40
18
SD
e9
ho
C
er
er
in
C
am
m
m
um
xa
xa
lox
lo
di
lo
Po
Po
So
Po
FIGURE 6.12 IL-6 production of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incu-
bation with different surfactant solutions (0.01%). This corresponds to the surfactants present
in the 0.1% formulation (means ± standard deviation, n = 3, untreated cells have an IL-6
secretion of 1).
the surfactants was strongly reduced through the incorporation of Tween 80, polox-
amer 184, poloxamer 235, poloxamer 335, and sodium dodecyl sulfate in SLN.
Studies with RAW 264.7 macrophages showed an increase of viability for anionic
surfactants when incorporated in SLN, as well [31] (Figure 6.13).
Although uncharged or anionic surfactants in SLN are well tolerated, cationic
ones might lead to cytotoxicity (Figure 6.13A). That is not so surprising because
even solutions of cationic surfactants induce cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner
(Figure 6.13). For cationic liposomes for transfection, a dose-dependent cytotoxicity
is well known [32,33], and cationic polymer nanoparticles [34] show cytotoxicity
too. Some cationic amphiphiles, like benzalkonium chloride or CPC, are used as
preservatives in concentrations of 0.001 to 0.01% [35]. The proposed mechanisms
of the cytotoxicity are electrostatic interactions of these cationic amphiphile mole-
cules, with the anionic phospholipids of the cell membrane leading to membrane
damage [36,37]. In contrast to uncharged and anionic surfactants, the cytotoxicity
of cationic surfactants in solution is not reduced when incorporated in a SLN
formulation [5,31]. Figure 6.13 shows that the cytotoxicity of cationic surfactants
in SLN is even increased in comparison to the cationic surfactant solutions, which
might be explained by the local increase of concentration on the SLN surface [5].
The extent of cytotoxicity is strongly dependent on the concentration of the
cationic lipid in the cell culture medium and on the molecular structure of the cationic
lipid used. The ratio of cationic lipid to matrix lipid in the SLN formulation has
only a slight effect. On Cos-1 cells (African green monkey kidney cells), SLN made
from cationic surfactants with two lipophilic tails (Figure 6.14, 4–6) show cytotoxic
effects only when the SLN are in very high concentrations (Figure 6.15). They are,
for example, well tolerated in concentrations required for effective transfection
(12.5 to 25 µg/mL in cell culture medium, corresponding to 0.00125 to 0.0025%
surfactant in cell culture medium). SLN formulated from cationic tensides with only

A. SLN
100
% Viability 80
60
S75
NaCh
40 CPC
20
0
MW 0.01 MW 0.001 MW 0.0001
% Surfactant (w /w)
B. Surfactant solutions
100
80
% Viability
60
S75
NaCh
40 CPC
20
0
MW 0.01 MW 0.001 MW 0.0001
% Surfactant (w /w)
FIGURE 6.13 (A) Viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with different SLN formu-
lations compared with cells treated with pure medium (100% viability). Viability is related
to the total surfactant concentration in the cell culture medium and was quantified by an MTT
assay. All SLN contained 10% Dynasan 114 and 1% of different surfactants (the anionic
surfactants sodium cholate [NaCh] or lecithin [S75] or the cationic surfactant cetylpyridinium
chloride [CPC]). (B) Viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with different surfactant
solutions (the anionic surfactants sodium cholate [NaCh] or lecithin [S75] or the cationic
cetylpyridinium chloride [CPC]) compared to cells treated with pure medium (100% viability).
Viability is related to the total surfactant concentration in the cell culture medium and was
quantified by an MTT assay.
one lipophilic tail (Figure 6.14, 1–3) were highly cytotoxic, even in low concentra-
tions. The same observation was made for cationic liposomes [38]. These differences,
depending on the molecular structure, might be explained by different interactions
with the anionic phospholipids of the cell membrane caused by different arrangements
on the SLN surface. When choosing the right two-tailed cationic surfactants and
+ R= C 8 H17 bis C18 H37

N
Cl
1
+
N Br
2
+
N Cl
+
N Br
4
O
O +
N Cl
O
O
5
O
O
+
N Cl
O
O
6
FIGURE 6.14 Organic formulas of the following cationic lipids: (1) benzalkonium chloride
(alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride, BA); (2) cetrimide (tetradecyltrimethylammonium
bromide, CTAB); (3) cetylpyridinium chloride (hexadecylpyridinium chloride, CPC);
(4) dimethyldioctadecylammonium bromide (DDAB); (5) N,N-di-(β-stearoylethyl)-N,N-dim-
ethyl-ammonium chloride (Esterquat 1EQ); (6) N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trime-
thylammonium chloride (DOTAP).
optimizing their concentrations for the required purpose (e.g., electrostatic stabiliza-
tion or transfection), even cationic SLN with good tolerability can be formulated.
The influence of different surfactants on the enzymatic degradation of SLN was
studied using Dynasan 114 SLN made from different surfactants. The compositions
and the sizes are given in Table 6.6. From photon correlation spectroscopy diameters,
it can be assumed that the differences in degradation velocity are related to the
surfactants and not to size effects, because all sizes are almost in the same range of
about 165 to 279 nm. Only the size of the poloxamine formulation is increased
(335 nm). By comparing the degradation data over 120 min, it can clearly be seen
100
80
% Viability Co CPC
60 Co CTAB
Co EQ
40 Co DOTAP
20
0
0.1% 0.01% 0.001%
% Surfactant (w/w)
FIGURE 6.15 Viability of Cos-1 cells (African green monkey kidney) after incubation with
different SLN formulations. All were made from the matrix lipid Compritol ATO 888
(4% w/w), the surfactants Tween 80/Span 85 (7:3, 2% w/w), and 1% of different cationic
lipids. CPC, cetylpyridinium chloride; CTAB, tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide; EQ,
N,N-di-(β-stearoylethyl)-N,N-dimethyl-ammonium chloride; DOTAP, N-[1-(2,3-dioleoy-
loxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium chloride. Cytotoxic effects were determined by
quantifying the lactate dehydrogenase release in the cell culture medium after incubation with
the particles. Lactate dehydrogenase is a intracellular enzyme. The lactate dehydrogenase
amount in the medium correlates with cell membrane damage. As one can see, the two-tailed
cationic lipids DOTAP and EQ are well tolerated, whereas the one-tailed cationic lipids CPC
and CTAB show severe cytotoxicity even in low concentrations.
TABLE 6.6
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy Diameters of Dynasan 114 Solid
Lipid Nanoparticles with Different Surfactants (10% Lipid, 1%
Surfactant) to Assess the Influence of Different Surfactants on the
Enzymatic Degradation (Lipase/Colipase) of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Dynasan 114/Sodium cholate 210 ± 9.9 0.254 ± 0.056
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 188 258 ± 2.3 0.226 ± 0.054
Dynasan 114/poloxamer 407 279 ± 0.71 0.162 ± 0.005
Dynasan 114/poloxamine 908 335 ± 1.84 0.171 ± 0.015
Dynasan 114/Sodium dodecyl sulfate 177 ± 0.71 0.175 ± 0.004
Dynasan 114/CPC 165 ± 1.84 0.263 ± 0.004
that CPC seems to hinder the degradation after 60 min compared with sodium
dodecyl sulfate or poloxamer 188, but after 120 min all three surfactants lead to the
same extent of degradation, with free fatty acids in the range of 62 to 66%, which
means complete degradation to the 2-monoglyceride (Figure 6.16). The degradation
of Dynasan 114 SLN seems to be significantly inhibited by poloxamine 908, but
because of the large nanoparticles in this formulation, the possibility that this is a
90
80
70
Free Fatty Acids [% ] 60
5 min
50
20 min
40 60 min
120 min
30
20
10
0
Plx 188 NaCh Plx 407 SDS CPC P 908
FIGURE 6.16 Degradation of different Dynasan 114 formulations to assess the influence of
different surfactants. Plx 188, poloxamer 188; NaCh, sodium cholate; Plx 407, poloxamer
407; SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate; CPC, cetylpyridinium chloride; P 908, poloxamine 908.
size effect cannot be excluded. Regarding the poloxamer 407 formulation, it is clear
that the inhibition of the degradation is an effect of the surfactant. Poloxamer 407
is reported to be an inhibitor of lipolytic processes, as sodium cholate is a promoter
of enzymatic degradation of finely dispersed triglycerides.
In further experiments, the effect of mixtures of these two surfactants on the
degradation of SLN was studied (Table 6.7). As a measure, the values of degradation
after 120 min were recorded. For this purpose, SLN from Dynasan 114, Dynasan
116, and Dynasan 118 were prepared using different ratios of the two surfactants
(Figure 6.17). When using Dynasan 114 as the matrix lipid, it could be found that
the degradation could not be influenced by the surfactant mixtures, because only the
pure poloxamer 407 led to an inhibited degradation. A totally different result was
obtained studying the Dynasan 116 SLN. With this lipid, it was possible to inhibit
the degradation gradually to obtain a stepwise different degradation after 120 min.
Interestingly, it was necessary to have at least 75% (wt/wt) poloxamer 407 present
in the surfactant mixture to have a significant effect. Whereas the Dynasan 116
formulation was completely degraded after 120 min, Dynasan 118 was not. With
this lipid, the influence of the length of the fatty acid chain in the triglycerides can
be seen because longer chains are more difficult to cleave for the lipase/colipase
complex. With this lipid, there seems to be a threshold of 75% poloxamer 407 to
achieve an inhibition to an extent that cannot be more pronounced even when using
100% poloxamer 407.
6.4.3 ON IN VITRO TRANSFECTION EFFICACY

Transfection efficiency of cationic SLN is strongly dependent on the matrix lipid
and the cationic lipid used [27]. Figure 6.8 shows the transfection efficiencies of six
SLN formulations made from three different cationic lipids and two matrix lipids.
All six formulations increased transfection activity significantly compared with
naked DNA, but only SLN made from the combination of the cationic lipid DOTAP
TABLE 6.7
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy Diameters of Dynasan 114, 116,
and 118 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Stabilized with Mixtures of
Cholic Acid Sodium Salt (NaCh) and poloxamer 407 (5% Lipid,
0.5% Surfactant) to Assess the Influence of Different Surfactant
Mixtures on the Enzymatic Degradation (Lipase/Colipase Assay)
of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Dynasan 114/NaCh 100% 292 ± 8.2 0.231 ± 0.074
Dynasan 114/NaCh 50%/Plx 407 50% 322 ± 7.3 0.163 ± 0.024
Dynasan 114/NaCh 25%/Plx 407 75% 348 ± 5.3 0.182 ± 0.031
Dynasan 114/Plx 407 100% 451 ± 4.3 0.195 ± 0.023
Dynasan 116/NaCh 100% 253 ± 8.0 0.185
Dynasan 116/NaCh 50%/Plx 407 50% 353 ± 19.3 0.211
Dynasan 116/NaCh 25%/Plx 407 75% 364 ± 11.4 0.284
Dynasan 116/Plx 407 100% 388 ± 7.21 0.298
Dynasan 118/NaCh 100% 283 ± 7.2 0.187
Dynasan 118/NaCh 50%/Plx 407 50% 346 ± 2.1 0.220
Dynasan 118/NaCh 25%/Plx 407 75% 368 ± 1.3 0.235
Dynasan 118/Plx 407 100% 422 ± 6.4 0.321
80
70
Free Fatty Acids [%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
aC 0%
0%
/ 4 0%
11 407 %
aC 0%
0%
%
/ 4 0%
0%
/ 4 0%
0%
40 5%
5
75
0
10
0
/7
10
10
5
10
5
/5
7
1
50 h 1
%
07
25 07
/
07
%
0%
11 407
h
7
h
25
aC
0
11 6/ 5
5
%
4/
/N
/N
x
x
x
4/
Pl
Pl
Pl
11
25
6/
11
11
8
4
6/
4/
8/
11
6/
8/
8/
D
D
11
11
11
11
11
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
FIGURE 6.17 Degradation of different lipids with mixtures of sodium cholate (NaCh) and
poloxamer 407 (Plx 407). D 114, Dynasan 114; D 116, Dynasan 116; D 118, Dynasan 118.
and the matrix lipid cetyl palmitate showed 10 times higher efficiencies. Neither the
other SLN, made from the same matrix lipid but from other cationic lipids, nor the
SLN, made from the same cationic lipid but from a different matrix lipid, were as
effective. For high in vitro transfection activities, good combinations of cationic
lipids and matrix lipids are required. With these optimized SLN formulations, trans-
fection activities comparable to cationic liposomes are obtained [39].
6.5 INFLUENCE OF PRESERVATIVES ON CYTOTOXICITY

SLN might be produced aseptically with or without a final sterilization step [40,41].
If no sterilization follows the aseptic production, the addition of a preservative is
required because the aqueous continuous phase is susceptible to microbial contam-
ination. For biological stabilization of SLN, thiomersal has been used so far [4]. To
determine whether the addition of thiomersal to SLN induces cytotoxicity, three
different SLN formulations were stabilized with 0.002% (w/w) thiomersal and tested
in different concentrations for their tolerability on murine peritoneal macrophages.
The same formulations without thiomersal were taken as control. In comparison to
the SLN without thiomersal, no increase in cytotoxicity could be detected.
6.6 MECHANISM OF UPTAKE AND FATE IN THE CELL

There are two main ways SLN might be taken up in cells: phagocytosis and endocy-
tosis. Which way dominates is highly dependent on the type of cells used. For cells
that are able to perform phagocytosis, this will surely be the main uptake mechanism,
but in mammals, the phagocytotic cells are only macrophages, neutrophile leuko-
cytes, monocytes, and microglia cells.
The particles internalized by phagocytosis may be almost as large as the phago-
cytotic cell [42]. First the particle becomes opsonized through serum proteins. This
opsonization facilitates the binding of the phagocyte to the particles through special
membrane receptors. This is the stimulus for the phagocyte to develop pseudopodia
that surround the particle. Then it will be internalized in an intracellular phagosome.
This phagosome fuses rapidly with lysosomes, which contain enzymes for degrada-
tion [42]. In regard to parenteral application, phagocytosis is the most limiting factor
for site-specific delivery. After intravenous application, non-surface-modified SLN
are mostly internalized by phagocytes of the mononuclear phagocytic system, which
mainly means the Kupffer cells in the liver [11]. Thus, targeting of SLN to non-
mononuclear phagocytic system cells requires special tricks [43]. By coating with
hydrophilic, high–molecular weight polymers such as, for example, poloxamine 908
or poloxamer 407, the surface becomes hydrophilic and low charged, which mini-
mizes serum protein adsorption [44]. The uptake of such surface-modified SLN by
human granulocytes and HL-60 is reduced to approximately 8 to 15% compared
with the phagocytosis of hydrophobic polystyrene particles [43].
Nonphagocytic cells might take up particles by clathrin-dependent (ligand-medi-
ated) or by clathrin-independent endocytosis. For liposomes, a direct membrane
fusion is also discussed, but surely not the main entrance mechanism [45]. The size
limit below which particles can be engulfed by nonphagocytotic cells in vitro is
approximately 150 nm, though some authors claim it can be up to 1 µm [46–48].
Figure 6.18 describes the proposed mechanism of non–ligand mediated endocytosis
for cationic solid lipid nanoparticles [31]. The contact of the particle to the cell

FIGURE 6.18 Proposed cell uptake mechanism for cationic solid lipid nanoparticles. (1) The
slightly cationic complex of SLN and DNA interacts electrostatically with the anionic cell
surface and is internalized by endocytosis; (2) the complex is localized in the endosome;
(3) after fusion of the endosome with lysosomes, the complex is within a endolysosome,
which contains nucleases; (4) through inhibition of endolysosomal nucleases (rising of the
pH by chloroquine) or rising of the osmotic pressure, the complex is released to the cytoplasm
(“endosomal escape”); (5) by electrostatic interactions with cytoplasmatic proteins, the plas-
mid is released from the complex; (6) the plasmid enters the nucleus through core pores —
this step might be facilitated by nuclear localization signals.
surface is mediated by unspecific electrostatic interactions (cationic SLN) or simply

sedimentation (in cell culture). The cell internalizes the particle in an endosome,
which fuses rapidly with enzyme-containing lysosomes [49]. Transfection experiments
with cationic SLN showed that for cationic SLN, endocytosis might be the mecha-
nism of uptake [27,39]. Here, the addition of chloroquine phosphate, which is taken
up in lysosomes, becomes protonated, raises the intralysosomal pH, and thus inhibits
the pH-dependent nucleases and enhances the transfection efficiency that is depen-
dent on the formulation 10- to 30-fold (Figure 6.19). These nucleases are not present
in the cytoplasm but in the endolysosomes. Thus, if SLN were taken up by direct
fusion with the cell membrane, the inhibition of endolysosomal nucleases would not
have any effect on transfection efficiency, but the addition of chloroquine had a
strong effect. Thereofore, at least for the slightly cationic complexes of SLN and
DNA, endocytosis is proposed to be the main entrance mechanism. For cationic
liposomes and complexes of cationic polymers with DNA (polyplexes), which are
not taken up as receptor-mediated, endocytosis is also thought to be the main uptake
mechanism [50–52].
Further enhancement of transfection efficiency may be achieved by combination
of cationic SLN with nuclear localization signals like the arginine-rich motive of
the HIV-1 TAT protein (TAT2) [39]. The small cationic peptide facilitates nuclear
DNA uptake through binding to a special core transporter and through mediation of

2.0E+09
Medium
1.8E+09 Med. + 100 µM QC
1.6E+09
1.4E+09
RLU/mg Protein
1.2E+09
1.0E+09
8.0E+08
6.0E+08
4.0E+08
2.0E+08
0.0E+00
S0.5 S1 S2
SLN formulation
FIGURE 6.19 Transfection efficiency (quantified as “relative light units” [RLU]/mg protein)
of three different SLN formulations (all made from 4% cetyl palmitate, 2% Tween 80/Span
85 [7:3], and 0.5% [S0.5], and 1.0% [S1] or 2.0% [S2] of the cationic lipid DOTAP) without
medium (Medium) and with medium and 100 µM chloroquine phosphate (Med. + 100 µM
QC). The chloroquine addition enhanced transfection activity for all tested SLN in different
extends.
an active import [53]. The entrance of the plasmid into the core is considered to be
one of the most limiting steps for transfection [54,55].
6.7 CONCLUSION
SLN — especially when they are composed of optimized matrix lipid and surfac-
tant/stabilizer — are in general well-tolerated carrier systems. In particular, com-
pared with many polymeric particles, they possess a lower cytotoxicity and their
degradation products are of a physiological nature (fatty acids). Based on these facts,
exploitation of SLN in delivery systems for various routes and entry of products for
the patients is feasible.
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Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Interaction With Cells, Cytokine Production, and Enzymatic Degradation

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1692_C06.

fm Page 101 Tuesday, October 19, 2004 8:50 AM

6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................102

102 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 103

degradation products. It could be demonstrated in hepatocytes that polyalkylcyano-

6.2 INFLUENCE OF THE PARTICLE SIZE

104 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

macrophages. Each of the formulations was produced in three sizes — small,

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 105

106 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

Dynasan1 14/ Sodi um Chol ate (small)

degradation behavior, but the degradation velocity is decreased drastically when

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 107

Dynasan 114/ Polo xamer 407 (small)

6.3 INFLUENCE OF THE MATRIX LIPID

108 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

concentration, whereas higher concentrations lead to a massive reduction of the

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 109

110 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

Free Fatty Acids [%]

6.3.3 ON IN VITRO TRANSFECTION EFFICACY

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 111

RLU/mg Protein 1.4E+08

6.4 INFLUENCE OF THE SURFACTANT

112 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

0.01% concentration (SLN concentration, 0.001% surfactant concentration) and to

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 113

FIGURE 6.10 Viability of peritoneal macrophages of the mouse after 20 h of incubation

is not cytotoxic toward mouse macrophages up to a concentration of 0.01%. These

114 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 115

116 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

+ R= C 8 H17 bis C18 H37

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 117

118 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

6.4.3 ON IN VITRO TRANSFECTION EFFICACY

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 119

120 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

6.5 INFLUENCE OF PRESERVATIVES ON CYTOTOXICITY

6.6 MECHANISM OF UPTAKE AND FATE IN THE CELL

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 121

surface is mediated by unspecific electrostatic interactions (cationic SLN) or simply

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

122 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 123

124 Lipospheres in Drug Targets and Delivery

[28] Felgner, P.L. et al., Lipofection: a highly efficient, lipid-mediated DNA-transfection

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

SLN: Interaction with Cells, Cytokine Production, Enzymatic Degradation 125

© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

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