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GROUPS OF ORDER 4 AND 6
KEITH CONRAD
1. Introduction
Here are several groups of order 4:
Z/(4), Z/(2) × Z/(2), (Z/(5))× , (Z/(8))× , (Z/(12))× .
Here are several groups of order 6:
Z/(6), Z/(2) × Z/(3), (Z/(7))× , S3 , D3 , GL2 (Z/(2)).
The groups of order 4 exhibit two types of structure: cyclic (Z/(4) and (Z/(5))× ) or built
out of two commuting1 elements of order 2 ((1, 0) and (0, 1) in Z/(2) × Z/(2), 3 and 5 in
(Z/(8))× , 5 and 7 in (Z/(12))× ). Among the groups of order 6, the abelian ones are cyclic
and the nonabelian ones can each be interpreted as the group of all permutations of a set
of size 3 (the set is {1,
2, 3} for S3 , the 3 vertices of an equilateral triangle for D3 , and the
mod 2 vectors 10 , 01 , and 11 for GL2 (Z/(2))).
We will show that the examples above exhibit the general situation insofar as groups
of order 4 and 6 are concerned: isomorphic to Z/(4) or Z/(2) × Z/(2) for order 4, and
isomorphic to Z/(6) or S3 for order 6. That means there are essentially only two types of
4-fold symmetries and essentially only two types of 6-fold symmetries.
2. Groups of Order 4
Theorem 2.1. Any group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z/(4) or Z/(2) × Z/(2).
Proof. Let G have order 4. Any element of G has order 1, 2, or 4. If G has an element of
order 4 then G is cyclic, so G ∼
= Z/(4) since cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic.
(Explicitly, if G = hgi then an isomorphism Z/(4) → G is a mod 4 7→ g a .)
Assume G is not cyclic. Then every nonidentity element of G has order 2, so g 2 = e for
every g ∈ G. Pick two nonidentity elements x and y in G, so x2 = e, y 2 = e, and (xy)2 = e.
That implies xy = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = yx, so x and y commute. This argument shows that
any group in which all nonidentity elements have order 2 is abelian.
The roles of x and y in G resemble (1, 0) and (0, 1) in Z/(2) × Z/(2), suggesting the
function f : Z/(2) × Z/(2) → G where f (a mod 2, b mod 2) = xa y b . Explicitly, this function
is
(2.1) (0, 0) 7→ 1, (1, 0) 7→ x, (0, 1) 7→ y, (1, 1) 7→ xy.
To see that f is a homomorphism, we compute
f (a, b)f (c, d) = (xa y b )(xc y d ) = xa (y b xc )y d = xa xc y b y d = xa+c y b+d = f (a + c, b + d).
The function f is a bijection by (2.1), so f is an isomorphism.
1There is an infinite group generated by two elements of order 2 that do not commute.
1
2 KEITH CONRAD
3. Groups of Order 6
To describe groups of order 6, we begin with a lemma about elements of order 2.
Lemma 3.1. If a group has even order then it contains an element of order 2.
Proof. Call the group G. Let us pair together each g ∈ G with its inverse g −1 . The set
{g, g −1 } has two elements unless g = g −1 , meaning g 2 = e. Therefore
|G| = 2|{pairs {g, g −1 } : g 6= g −1 }| + |{g ∈ G : g = g −1 }|.
The left side is even by hypothesis, and the first term on the right side is even from the
factor of 2. Therefore |{g ∈ G : g 2 = e}| is even. This count is positive, since g = e is one
possibility where g 2 = e. Since this count is even, there must be at least one more g, so
some g 6= e in G satisfies g 2 = e, which implies g has order 2.
Theorem 3.2. A group of order 6 is isomorphic to Z/(6) or to S3 .
Proof. Let |G| = 6 have order 6. By Lemma 3.1, G contains an element x of order 2.
Case 1: G is abelian.
Suppose all nonidentity elements have order 2. Choose y other than x and e, so y 2 = e.
Since G is abelian, {e, x, y, xy} is a subgroup of G, but this violates Lagrange’s theorem
since 4 doesn’t divide 6. Therefore some element of G has order 3 or 6.
If G has an element of order 6 then G is cyclic and G ∼ = Z/(6). If some z ∈ G has order
3 then xz has order 6 since (xz)6 = e, (xz)2 = x2 z 2 = z 2 6= e, and (xz)3 = x3 z 3 = x 6= e.
Thus again G is cyclic, so G ∼ = Z/(6).
Case 2: G is nonabelian.
Step 1: G has an element of order 2 and an element of order 3.
No element has order 6, so orders of elements are 1, 2, or 3. If every nonidentity element
had order 2, G would be abelian (see pf. of Theorem 2.1), so G has an element of order 3.
Step 2: Make G look like S3 .
By Step 1, in G there are elements x of order 2 and y of order 3. Let H = hxi = {e, x},
so H has 3 left cosets. Since y 6∈ H and y 2 6∈ H, the left cosets of H are H, yH, and y 2 H.
For each g ∈ G, let `g : {H, yH, y 2 H} → {H, yH, y 2 H} by `g (cH) = gcH for left cosets
cH. Each `g is a permutation since it has inverse `g−1 . Labeling H, yH, and y 2 H as 1,2,3,
the permutations of {H, yH, y 2 H} are placed inside S3 , and thus we can view `g in S3 .2
The function G → S3 where g 7→ `g is a homomorphism, because multiplication in G
goes over to composition of permutations: `g ◦ `g0 = `gg0 since for any left coset cH
(`g ◦ `g0 )(cH) = g(g 0 cH) = gg 0 cH = (gg 0 )cH = `gg0 (cH).
The homomorphism G → S3 by g 7→ `g is between finite groups of equal size, so to prove
it’s an isomorphism it suffices to show it’s injective or surjective. We’ll prove it’s surjective.
The permutation `y cyclically permutes H, yH, and y 2 H: H to yH, yH to y 2 H, and
y H to y 3 H = H, so the image of G → S3 contains a 3-cycle. Let’s check `x transposes
2
yH and y 2 H. Since x ∈ H, `x (H) = xH = H. Since `x is a permutation, if `x (yH) 6= y 2 H

then `x (yH) = yH, so xyH = yH: {xy, xyx} = {y, yx}. Thus xy is y or yx. If xy = y
then x = e (false) and if xy = yx then x and y commute, so xy has order 6 (false: G is
nonabelian). Thus `x (yH) = y 2 H and `x (y 2 H) = yH: `x is a transposition in S3 . The
image of G → S3 is a subgroup of S3 containing a transposition and element of order 3, so
it has order 6 by Lagrange. Thus G ∼ = S3 .
2The specific way we view ` in S depends on the way we label the left cosets of H as 1, 2, and 3.
g 3
GROUPS OF ORDER 4 AND 6 3
The fact that, up to isomorphism, there are two groups of order 4 and two groups of order
6, goes back to Cayley’s 1854 paper on groups [1], which was the first work on abstract
groups; previously groups had been considered only as groups of permutations. Almost 25
years later, Cayley wrote in [2] “The general problem is to find all the groups of a given
order n,” and then proceeded to claim there are three groups of order 6: see Figure 1. From
Cayley’s examples it appears he thought Z/(6) and Z/(2)×Z/(3) are not isomorphic, which
confused form with structure.
Figure 1. Cayley’s error in [2]: three groups of order 6.
References
[1] A. Cayley, “On the Theory of Groups, as Depending on the Symbolic Equation θn = 1,” pp. 123–130 of
The Collected Papers of Arthur Cayley, Vol. II, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1889.
[2] A. Cayley “Desiderata and Suggestions,” Amer. J. Mathematics 1 (1878), pp. 50-52.

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GROUPS OF ORDER 4 AND 6

yH and y 2 H. Since x ∈ H, `x (H) = xH = H. Since `x is a permutation, if `x (yH) 6= y 2 H

Figure 1. Cayley’s error in [2]: three groups of order 6.

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