LAB MANUAL FOR

____________________________________
MEHB321 HEAT TRANSFER AND APPLIED
THERMO. LAB

SEMESTER 1 2020 / 2021

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AND REPORTING METHODS

Exp. No. Exp. Title Reporting Method

Vapour-Compression Refrigeration
1. Individual Log Book
Cycle

2. Mechanical Heat Pump Individual Log Book

Thermal Conductivity of Insulating

3. Group Formal Report
Material

4. Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Individual Log Book

Unsteady-state Heat Transfer (Open-

5. Group DOE Report
ended)

6. Crossflow Heat Exchanger Group DOE Report

 EXPERIMENT 1

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Objectives of Experiment

1. To demonstrate the vapour compression refrigeration cycle

2. To investigate the relationship between saturation pressure and temperature in
the condenser
3. To investigate the effect of condensing and evaporating temperatures on the
refrigeration rate and condenser heat output

Theory
A refrigerator is defined as a machine whose prime function is to remove heat from a
low temperature region. Since energy cannot be destroyed, the heat taken in at a low
temperature must be dissipated to the surroundings.

Refrigerators are cyclic devices, and the working fluids used in the refrigeration cycles
are called refrigerants. A refrigerator requires an external energy for it to operate. This
energy input may be in the form of work, or a heat transfer at a high temperature. The
most common type of refrigerator uses a work input and operates on the vapour
compression cycle.

The Vapour Compression Cycle

The vapour compression cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-
conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It is shown schematically below:

Schematic of the vapour compression refrigeration cycle

The simple vapour compression refrigeration cycle has four main components:
i. An evaporator where heat is taken in at a low temperature as a liquid
evaporates at a low pressure.
ii. A compressor which uses a work input to reduce the pressure in the evaporator
and increase the pressure of the vapour being transferred to the condenser.
iii. A condenser where the high pressure vapours condenses, rejecting heat to its
surroundings.
iv. A flow control device which controls the flow of liquid back to the evaporator
and which brings about the pressure reduction.
 Rig Description

Unit Assembly

6
1

7
3
8
4

9
5

Figure 1: Unit construction for Refrigeration Cycle Demonstration Unit (Model:

RF166)

1. Temperature Sensors 6. Pressure Transmitter

2. Pressure Relief Valve 7. Panel
3. Condenser 8. Evaporator
4. Expansion Valve 9. Bench
5. Hermetic Compressor
 Figure 2: Schematic diagram for Refrigeration Cycle Demonstration Unit

2.2 Specifications

a) Compressor
Type : Hermetic
Refrigerant : R-141b
Power : ¼ hp
Power supply : 230VAC, 1 phase

b) Condenser
Type : Water cooled
Capacity : Approximately 1.0 L
Material : Borosilicate Glass

c) Evaporator
Type : Water heated
Capacity : Approximately 1.0 L
Material : Borosilicate Glass

d) Expansion Valve
Type : Float operated

e) Water Flow Meter

Range: 0.1 – 2.5 LPM

FT1 : Condenser water flow rate

 FT2 : Evaporator water flow rate

f) Pressure Transmitter
Range: 0 – 2 bar (abs)

PT1 : Condenser pressure

PT2 : Evaporator pressure

f) Temperature Sensors
Type : RTD sensor Class A

T1 : Condenser temperature

T2 : Condenser water inlet temperature

T3 : Condenser water outlet temperature

T4 : Evaporator temperature

T5 : Evaporator water inlet temperature

T6 : Evaporator water outlet temperature

Procedure
(All objectives can be achieved using the procedure).

1. Ensure that the power supply is connected and then turn on the main
switch.
2. Adjust the control valves, V06 & V07 on the condenser water
flowmeter and evaporator water flowmeter to give approximately 1.5 LPM. Let
the water flow for 5 minutes.
3. Turn on the compressor switch at the main panel.
4. Ensure the unit is air free by venting the air from the condenser. To vent out air
from the unit, wait until the condenser pressure is high and then open the
venting valve, V05 at the top of the condenser until the pressure transmitter is
about to reach 1 bar (abs) and then quickly close the valve.
5. Adjust the condenser cooling water flow to 1.5 LPM.
6. Set the evaporator water flow to approximately 1.5 LPM.
7. Allow the unit to run for approximately 10 minutes for the temperature and
pressure readings to stabilize.
8. Record all the system parameters as in the data sheet.
9. Reduce the condenser cooling water flow rate.
10. Allow the unit to stabilize and again record all the systems parameters.
11. Repeat for increasing condenser pressures to the minimum readable value on
the condenser water flow meter is reached.
 12. Plot the saturation pressure of condenser against the saturation pressure.
13. Plot the heat transfer rate against the condensing temperature of evaporator
and condenser.

Results Sheet

Pressure-temperature relationship
Condenser Water Flow Rate, FT1 (LPM)
Evaporator Water Flow Rate, FT2 (LPM)
Condenser Pressure, PT1 (Bar Abs)
Evaporating Pressure, PT2 (Bar Abs)
Condensing Temperature, TT1 (°C)
Evaporating Temperature, TT4 (°C)

Determine the effect of evaporating and condensing temperatures on the refrigeration

rate and condenser heat output.

Condenser Water Flow Rate FT1 (LPM)

Condenser Water Flow Rate FT1 (kg/s)
Condenser Pressure, PT1 (Abs Bar)
Condenser Temp. TT1 (oC)
Condenser Water Inlet Temp. TT2 (oC)
Condenser Water Outlet Temp. TT3 (oC)

Evaporator Water Flow Rate FT2 (LPM)

Evaporator Water Flow Rate FT2 (kg/s)
Evaporator Pressure, PT2 (Bar Abs)
Evaporator Temp. TT4 (oC)
Evaporator Water Inlet Temp. TT5 (oC)
Evaporator Water Outlet Temp. TT6 (oC)

Evaporator Heat Transfer QE (W)

Condenser Heat Transfer QC (W)
 EXPERIMENT 2

MECHANICAL HEAT PUMP

Objectives of Experiment

1. To determine the heat transfer rate of mechanical heat pumps

2. To determine the heat pump and refrigerator coefficient of performance (COP) when
operating at variable flow rates

Theory
A mechanical heat pump is device which is used to supply the heat to the system, where it is
installed, and maintain its temperature more than of surrounding. Mechanical heat pump
absorbs heat from surrounding (atmosphere). Work input to a heat pump is supplied by
compressor. Refrigerators run based on cycles, and the working fluid used in refrigeration
cycles are called refrigerants. A refrigerator is able to transfer heat from a low temperature
medium to a high temperature medium by means of an input work. Refrigerators and heat
pumps are essentially the same devices; only that refrigerators are used to maintain a space
at low temperature while heat pumps are used to maintain a space at high temperature.
The performance of these devices is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance,
or COP, defined as:
QH QH
COPHP  
QH  QL Wnet,in
QL QL
COPR  
QH  QL Wnet,in

These two equations can be expressed in the rate form by substituting work and heat in
terms of rate. By comparing equations of COPR and COPHP, it is obtain:
QH Q
COPHP  COPR   L
Wnet,in Wnet,in
QH QL
  1
QH  QL QH  QL
 COPHP  COPR  1
Therefore, COPHP will always be greater than 1, since COPR is a positive quantity. This means
that at worst, a heat pump will function as a resistance heater; supplying as much energy as
it consumes. However, as the temperature difference between the inside and outside
increases, a greater pressure difference is required during the compression of the fluid, and
more work input is needed by the compressor. Thus, as with all heat pumps or refrigerators,
the COP decreases with increasing temperature differential. In reality, heat is lost to the
environment through piping and other devices, causing COPHP to drop below unity when the
outside air temperature is too low. When this occurs, it is more efficient to switch over to
fuel or resistance heating. This explains why heat pumps are more favoured in warmer
regions, while it is more efficient to rely on fuel-based or resistance heating in places that
experience frigid winters.
The most efficient heat pump cycle is the reversed Carnot cycle.

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

Schematic and T-s diagram of the reversed Carnot cycle

The Carnot cycle is a completely reversible cycle that comprises of two reversible isothermal
and two isentropic processes. This cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency for given
temperature limits, and is used as a standard for comparison with actual power cycles. Since
the Carnot cycle is completely reversible, all four processes that comprise it can also be
reversed. By reversing the cycle, the directions of heat and work interaction are also
reversed. The result is simply the reversed Carnot cycle, which operates in the counter-
clockwise direction on a T-s diagram. A device which runs on this cycle is called either a
Carnot refrigerator or Carnot heat pump.

Consider a reversed Carnot cycle operating in the saturation dome of a refrigerant. The
refrigerant absorbs heat in the amount of QL at a constant temperature of T L (process 1-2).
The refrigerant then undergoes isentropic compression (2-3), heat rejection in the amount
of QH at a constant temperature TH (3-4) and finally undergoes isentropic expansion back to
state 1. While rejecting heat in the condenser (process 3-4), the refrigerant changes from a
saturated vapor state into a saturated liquid state.

Both the coefficients of performance of Carnot refrigerators and heat pumps can be
expressed in terms of temperature:
1
COPR ,Carnot 
TH
1
TL
1
COPHP ,Carnot 
TL
1
TH
Rig Description

G H I
F

E
A

D B

LEGEND
C

A = Compressor
B = High & Low-Pressure Gauge
C = Condenser Coil
D = Thermocouple
E = Water Control Valve
F = Receiver Tank
G = Filter Drier
H = Sight Glass
I = Pressure Transducer
 H
A

G E

LEGEND

A = Pressure meter
B = Water flow meter
C = Refrigerant flow meter
D = Power meter
E = Main ON/OFF Switch
F = On/Off compressor switch
G = On/Off Evaporator Fan
H = Temperature meter
Procedure
1. First, connect the pipe from the water supply to the inlet of the condenser and then
connect the other pipe from the outlet of the condenser for water to drain off
directly.
2. Next, turn on the main switch and allow the digital display to start up for a few
seconds before carrying out the experiment.
3. Then, open the water supply and let the water flow to circulate within the
condenser. After that, open the drain valve to ensure that the condenser can work
under low water pressure.
4. Adjust the volume flow rate to 2.0 L/m via the flow control valve as displayed by the
digital flow meter. Ensure that all the initial temperature points are the same as the
room temperature.
5. Switch on the compressor when the water temperature T9(inlet) and T10 (outlet) is
almost equal and to allow the system to operate for 1-2 minutes before performing
the experiment
6. Next, on the evaporator fan.
7. Record down all the readings of the water temperature, T9 and T10 from the
temperature indicators after 2 minutes. Tabulate it to the raw data Table 1.
8. Calculate the heat transfer rate (condenser heat load), heat pump coefficient of
performance and refrigerator coefficient of performance.
9. Repeat the experiment with different flow rate (L/min). Try to obtain at least 3
different sets of results.

Results Table
Water flow Mass flow rate Compressor Condenser heat COP COP
rate (l/m) (kg/s) power load (W) (Refrigerator) (Heat Pump)
consumption
(W)
 EXPERIMENT 3

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING MATERIALS

Objectives
1. To investigate the thermal conductivity of Mica, calcium carbonate powder and
Kaolin as an insulating material
2. To observe the temperature gradient within the test module
3. To compare experimental results with the actual material thermo-physical
properties for Mica, calcium carbonate powder and Kaolin

Theory
Thermal conductivity is one of the important thermo-physical properties and its
understanding is required for analyzing conduction heat transfer problems. Physical
meaning of thermal conductivity is how efficient the heat can passes through the given
material. Hence, the determination of thermal conductivity is of considerable engineering
significance. There are a lot of methods to determine the thermal conductivity suitable for
finding out thermal conductivity of materials of the powered form.

Fourier’s Law
The law of heat conduction or better known as Fourier’s law states that the heat conduction
is proportional to rate of change of temperature with respect to distance multiply by a
negative thermal conductivity constant. Heat is always transfers from a high to low
temperature region, hence justifying the negative sign in the equation. The equation below
represents the Fourier’s equation mention above.
dT
q x   kA
dx
A - Area perpendicular to the direction of the heat flow
k - Thermal conductivity of the material

In most cases, the thermal conductivity can be assumed to be constant for a specific
material. However, this is not entirely true because the thermal conductivity of a material is
affected by both pressure and temperature. The importance of Fourier’s law can be outlined
whereby most of the heat conduction calculations are based on it.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Cooling is one of the natural occurrences that occur in our daily lives due to the differences
in temperature gradient though out the various objects. After some considerate
observation, Newton states that the rate of change of temperature with respect to time is
proportional to the net temperature difference of the surrounding temperature and the
initial temperature of the object.
dT
 k (T  T0 )
dt
k - Constant
T - Temperature of the object at time T(t)
T0 - Initial temperature of the object
The equation above can be solved by taking the integral on both sides and the equation is
simplified as below:

Ti  Ts  (T0  Ts )e  kt
By solving this equation in order to find the constant k, it would allow us to determine the
instantaneous temperature of the object just by having the initial temperature of the object,
the surroundings temperature and the time.

Rig Description

G I
H
C
A

F B

LEGEND

A - Digital power meter

B - Heater power controller
C - Digital temperature meter for heater
D - Digital temperature meter for thermocouple
E - Mains switch
F - Thermocouple points
G - Mica test module
H - Magnesium Oxide test module
I - Kaolin test module
J - Cold water inlet

Procedure

1. Connect the water inlet manifold at the front of the unit to a cold water supply.
2. Connect the water outlet manifold at the rear of the unit to a drain.
3. Open the cold water supply and allow water to circulate through the water jackets.
4. Switch on the mains power on the control panel.
5. Compare the readings to ensure that all the readings are uniform. If the readings are not
equal, note down the error.
6. Switch on the heater for all module. Set the heater power to 50 W by adjusting the
heater power regulator and observing the digital power meter.
7. Now, allow the temperature inside the test module to achieve steady-state. Record the
temperature inside the test module for all 6 points for each module.
8. Switch of the heater and let the modules cool down until temperature drop is slow.
9. Repeat steps 6 to 8 for heater power of 75 W and 100 W.
10. Switch off the heater.
11. Tabulate your results in the table below.
12. Plot the temperature profile graph (temperature vs. point) for the 3 sets of readings.
13. Calculate the thermal conductivity of Mica based on the obtained results.

Results Table

Test Material: Mica

P (W)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
k (W/m·K)
Test Material: Calcium Carbonate
P (W)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
k (W/m·K)

Test Material: Kaolin

P (W)
T1 (°C)
T2 (°C)
T3 (°C)
T4 (°C)
T5 (°C)
T6 (°C)
k (W/m·K)
 EXPERIMENT 4

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID

Objectives
1. To investigate the thermal conductivity of water.
2. To observe the temperature gradient within the test module.

Theory
Thermal conductivity is one of the important thermo-physical properties and its
understanding is required for analyzing conduction heat transfer problems. Physical
meaning of thermal conductivity is how efficient the heat can passes through the given
material. Hence, the determination of thermal conductivity is of considerable engineering
significance. There are a lot of methods to determine the thermal conductivity suitable for
finding out thermal conductivity of materials of the powered form.

Fourier’s Law
The law of heat conduction or better known as Fourier’s law states that the heat conduction
is proportional to rate of change of temperature with respect to distance multiply by a
negative thermal conductivity constant. Heat is always transfers from a high to low
temperature region, hence justifying the negative sign in the equation. The equation below
represents the Fourier’s equation mention above.
dT
q x   kA
dx
A - Area perpendicular to the direction of the heat flow
k - Thermal conductivity of the material

In most cases, the thermal conductivity can be assumed to be constant for a specific
material. However, this is not entirely true because the thermal conductivity of a material is
affected by both pressure and temperature. The importance of Fourier’s law can be outlined
whereby most of the heat conduction calculations are based on it.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Cooling is one of the natural occurrences that occur in our daily lives due to the differences
in temperature gradient though out the various objects. After some considerate
observation, Newton states that the rate of change of temperature with respect to time is
proportional to the net temperature difference of the surrounding temperature and the
initial temperature of the object.
dT
 k (T  T0 )
dt
k - Constant
T - Temperature of the object at time T(t)
T0 - Initial temperature of the object
The equation above can be solved by taking the integral on both sides and the equation is
simplified as below:
Ti  Ts  (T0  Ts )e  kt
By solving this equation in order to find the constant k, it would allow us to determine the
instantaneous temperature of the object just by having the initial temperature of the object,
the surroundings temperature and the time.

Rig Description

A
B
C

LEGEND

A - Control Panel
B - Pressure Gauge
C - Charging Gas Valve / Drain Valve
D - Liquid Charging Valve
E - Water Cooling Inlet
F - Water Cooling Outlet

Procedure
1. Connect the water inlet manifold at the front of the unit to a cold water supply.
2. Connect the water outlet manifold at the rear of the unit to a drain.
3. Open the cold water supply valve and allow water to circulate through the water
jackets.
4. Switch on the mains power on the control panel.
5. Compare the readings to ensure that all the readings are uniform. If the readings are
not equal, note down the error to tare zero correction.
6. Set the heater power to 50W by adjusting the heater power regulator and observing
the digital power meter.
7. Now, allow the temperature inside the test module to achieve steady-state. Record
the temperature.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for heater power 75 W and100 W.
9. Switch off the heater.
10. Tabulate your results in the table below.

Results Table

Test Material: Liquid (Water)

P (W) 50 75 100
T101 (°C)
T102 (°C)
T103 (°C)
Tc101 (°C)
K (W/m.K)
 FOR

EXPERIMENT 5

UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER

&

EXPERIMENT 6

CROSSFLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

REFER TO DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT (OPEN-

ENDED LAB) INSTRUCTIONS.