Chapter 5 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

USING ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

5.1 Introduction: Electrical resistivity method is useful to investigate the

nature of subsurface formations by studying the variations in their
resistance to flow of electrical current and hence determine the occurrence
of groundwater. The objectives of this method in the field of groundwater
exploration are to locate groundwater bearing formations, estimation of
depth to the water table, thickness and lateral extent of aquifers, depth to bed
rock, delineation of weathered zone, structures and stratigraphic conditions
such as fractures, dykes etc., distribution and configuration of
saltwater/fresh water interface, etc. Among the geophysical methods
commonly employed in subsurface investigations, the electrical resistivity
method has particular advantage in hydrogeology as it responds to variations
in conductivity of the groundwater bearing formations. Electrical resistivity
method has gained considerable importance in the field of groundwater
exploration because of its low cost, easy operation and efficacy to detect the
water bearing formations.

Resistivity of geological formations vary significantly between their

dry and saturated states. Resistivity values of rocks are controlled by
chemical composition of the minerals, density, porosity, water content, water
quality and temperature. The value of formation resistivity also depends on
the direction of electrode spread and the nature of the top layer in hard
rock area (Ballukraya et al. 1981).

95
 Resistivity varies to a large extent in different rocks. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks show a range of 10 and 10 Ohm-m. and the
sedimentary rocks show 10° to 105 Ohm-m. However, in the porous
formations such as highly weathered and fractured rocks and
unconsolidated sediments, the resistivity is controlled more by the amount
and quality of water present, than the actual rock resistivity.

5.2 Principle guiding measurement of electrical resistivity: The main aim

of electrical resistivity survey is the measurement of electrical resistivity of
the subsurface formations. In general, four electrodes are required to
measure the resistivity of subsurface formations (Fig.5.1 ). Current T is sent
through the earth formation through one pair of electrodes (A & B or source
and sink) called current electrodes. The potential difference (AV) produced
as a result of current flow is measured across a second pair of electrodes
(M&N) called potential electrodes. The electrical potential (V) can be
expressed as

2m

where 'V' is the electrical potential at a distance ¥ from a single point

electrode placed on the surface of the earth of resistivity 'p\ Potential due to
two sources can be added algebraically. Then potential difference (AV)
developed between the potential electrodes M and N is expressed as

AV =
V'
xk
1
where k = AM 1 1 1 I
BM AN + BN,

where 'k' is known as geometric constant, which depends on the

distance between the electrodes and their arrangements.' p’ is the resistivity
96
 AM ------------------BM -----------------
----------------- A N --------------------BN

FIG.5.1 ELECTRODE ARRANGEMENT FOR RESISTIVITY

DETERMINATION

97
of a homogeneous earth. Since subsurface is heterogeneous under normal
conditions, the measured resistivity is a weighted mean of the resistivity of
all the individual bodies of rock materials which make up the earth and is
termed as "apparent resistivity" ( pa).

True resistivity of a formation is calculated based on a set of apparent

resistivity values, obtained by measuring the current and potential
differences between two electrodes (A&B) driven into the ground. The field
procedure involves sending a known amount of current through two metal
stakes and measuring the potential difference across the inner two potential
electrodes (M & N) which are placed inside the current electrodes. If the
distances between the current electrodes are increased, current penetrates
deeper and deeper into the ground.

By plotting apparent resistivity values as ordinate and electrode

spacing as abscissa on double logarithmic paper, a smooth curve can be
obtained passing through different points. This curve is called vertical
electrical sounding curve or field curve. From these field curves, layer
parameters can be determined and subsurface hydrogeological conditions
can then be interpreted by using any one of the following interpretation
techniques;

a) Use of master curves (Orellana and Mooney, 1966)

b) Interactive computer modeling

c) Automatic computer inversion

d) Inverse slope method (Sankaranarayana and Ramanujachary, 1967)

98
 e) Direct slope technique (Baig, 1980) and

f) Other approximate empirical techniques (Ballukraya et al. 1983).

5.3 Electrode configuration: Several electrode configurations are available

viz., Wenner array, Schlumberger array, tri-electrode array, dipole-dipole
array etc. The Schlumberger and Wenner arrays are used for shallow
investigations. Dipole systems are usually employed for deeper studies.
However, Schlumberger electrode configuration has been employed in the
present investigation because of its advantages over other methods both in
the field survey as well as in the interpretation of data.

5.3.1 Schlumberger configuration: In this array all the four electrodes are
placed along a straight line and the potential gradient is measured at the
mid-point by keeping the potential electrodes close to each other. Four
electrodes are placed along a straight line from a reference point 'O' (Fig.
5.2). Current is sent through the outer current electrodes A and B and the
potential is measured across inner potential electrodes M and N. The
separation between the potential electrodes is kept small compared to the

current electrode separation. For good results it is usually of current

electrode spacing and the errors introduced will be less than 3% (Keller and
Frischknecht, 1966). Bhimasankaram et al. (1969) have demonstrated
certain practical, operational and interpretational advantages of this method
over other methods. The main advantage claimed for the Schlumberger
array is the possibility it provides for removing lateral resistivity effects.
Therefore, Schlumberger electrode arrangement has been employed in the
present investigation.

99
 AB/2

<
O
PQ

s
£

A
MN/2

T
FIG. 5.2 SCHLUMBERGER ELECTRODE ARRANGEMENT

100
5.4 Instrumentation: Direct reading digital D.C. resistivity meter is used
in the present study to make resistivity measurements. The voltage required
to send current into the ground is applied from high voltage power pack
with a number of dry cells connected in series. In this power pack,
intermediate tapping are provided to choose the required voltage. Mild steel
rods are used as current electrodes and porous pots with copper sulphate
solution as potential electrodes.

5.5 Procedure followed for resistivity measurements: There are basically

two approaches for making resistivity measurements viz., horizontal
resistivity profiling and vertical electrical sounding (VES). In profiling, the
electrode arrangement is not altered. Inter-electrode separation is kept
constant and the measurements are made by progressively shifting the entire
arrangement as a whole. This gives the lateral variations of the resistivity of
subsurface formations. This is useful in locating the lateral non-
homogenities like faults, fractures, dykes, narrow buried valleys etc., which
have control over groundwater movement and accumulation. Vertical
electrical sounding is used to study the vertical variations of resistivity and
characters of the ground with depth at a given point. This technique is also
called as 'electrical drilling' or 'depth sounding', because it provides
information about variation of the electrical resistivities with respect to
depth. In this method, the inter electrode distance is increased symmetrically
with respect to the measurement point which is the center of the electrode
system. The data obtained by this method can be quantitatively interpreted
for various geoelectrical parameters like depth, thickness and resistivity.
These geoelectrical layers will be then translated into hydrogeological layers
using the knowledge of groundwater conditions of the area.

101
5.6 Some case studies in the area: The electrical resistivity surveys have
been conducted at a number of selected sites (Fig. 5.3) in the Udupi taluk to
decipher the occurrence of groundwater potential zones in different
geological set up. For this purpose, certain typical sites were considered and
electrical resistivity surveys were conducted which are discussed below.
Schlumberger electrode configuration up to a maximum AB/2 spacing of
100 m. is used to carry out electrical resistivity survey. All the field curves
are interpreted using interaction computer modeling method developed by
H.M. Pars, Amadeus Software (050-145 30) TWO, Institute of Applied
Geosciences, Netherlands, (1986).

5.6.1 Electrical resistivity survey in and around Udupi city: Sixteen

vertical electrical soundings were carried out in and around Udupi city
(Fig.5.4) to delineate the groundwater potential zones. All the sounding
curves (Fig.5.5) have been interpreted by interaction computer modeling
method and results are tabulated in Table 5.1. The sounding curves exhibit a
three to five layered sequences. Geoelectrical sections of different sounding
curves are shown in figure 5.5(b). The details are discussed below.

The top most layer with resistivity values ranging from 10 Ohm-m. to
3100 Ohm-m. and thickness values ranging from 0.5 m. to 3 m. corresponds
to the soil layer. The variation in resistivity is due to the variation in
composition of the surface soil and moisture content. The low resistivity
values at sounding No.s.UM4, UM5 and UM14 are due to the presence of
clay rich soil in the paddy fields. At Adi Udupi (UM3), the soil is rich in
sands and hence the resistivity value is high. Presence of lateritic soil is
observed in UM1, UM2, UM6, UM8, UM9, UM11, UM12, UM13 and
UM15 with resistivity values ranging from 45 Ohm-m to 1900 Ohm-m.

102
Table 5.1: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves in
Udupi city
VES Type of Number Resistivity of layers in Ohm-m Thickness of layers in meters
NO.s curves oflayers 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
UM1 H 3 45 32 OC 1.0 1.5
UM2 H 3 98 48 oc 1.3 3.2
UM3 QH 4 3100 705 160 OC 0.8 1.7 25.5
UM4 KH 4 24 395 4 oc 1.0 1.0 2.0
UM5 KH 4 10 150 10 oc 3.0 4.0 10.0
UM6 QH 4 1900 1000 400 OC 0.5 8.5 41.0
UM7 H 3 390 20 OC • 0.6 19.4
UM8 HKQ 5 1400 850 5000 600 200 1.0 9.0 5.0 45
UM9 KHA 5 1000 1100 500 800 OC 1.0 14.0 15.0
UM10 H 3 570 140 OC 3.0 20.0
UMll HK 4 1700 1100 8000 200 1.0 7.0 32.0
UM12 H 3 1450 1000 1800 1.0 6.0
UM13 H 3 420 330 OC 1.0 9.0
UM14 KHK 5 30 120 30 300 90 l.o : 5.0 10.0 40
UM15 KQH 5 350 3500 850 160 OC 1.0 9.0 12.0 9
UM16 H 3 95 35 ■oc 1.2 8.1

Second layer in the case of UM1, UM2, UM7 and UM16 is sandy
clay. Resistivity of this layer varies from 20 Ohm-m. to 48 Ohm-m.. At Adi
Udupi (UM3) a thin layer of sand of resistivity 705 Ohm- m. with a
thickness of 1.7 m. is observed. This layer is underlain by highly saturated
sandy layer of resistivity 160 Ohm- m. of 25 m. thickness. These layers have
not been observed at other sites. At other sites (UM4, UM5, UM6, UM8,
UM9, UM10, UMll, UM12, UM13, UM14, UM15), the soil layer is
underlain by laterites. Resistivity, thickness, composition and texture of
laterite varies from place to place. Resistivity of laterite ranges from 120
Ohm-m. to 3500 Ohm-m. Low resistivity of laterites at UM4, UM5, UM10

103
 1

Figure 5.3. Locations of electrical resistivity survey at selected places in

Udupi taluk
 i

Figure 5.4 Location map of vertical electrical soundings at Udupi city area

105
 1000Q

UM 11
APPARENT RESISTIVITY IN Ohm-

1 10 100
A B / 2 IN mis

Figure 5.5 (a) Vertical electrical sounding curves obtained at Udupi city area

106
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and UM14 is due to the presence of unleached clay minerals within the
laterites. These laterites are very soft in nature. At UM4, thickness of
laterite is about 1.0 m. At Kinnimulky (UM10), thickness of this layer is
more than 15 m. At TJM4, UM5 and UM14, a layer of lithomargic clay is
observed below the laterite. Resistivity of this lithomargic clay varies
between 4 Ohm-m. to 30 Ohm-m..

Resistivity of hardrock in this region varies from 300 Ohm- m. to

infinity. These rocks are generally not favourable for groundwater storage
and movement. Presence of fractured zones within the hard rocks favours
the groundwater accumulation and then become potential aquifers. Such
fractured zones have been identified at different depths within the gneiss.
Highly fractured zones have been observed at UM8, UM11, UM14 and
UM15. Resistivity of these fractured rocks varies from 90 Ohm-m.. to 200
Ohm-m. Groundwater occurs in these fractures and can be tapped by
borewells. Semi fractured zones have also been observed at UM6, TJM8 and
UM9. Resistivity of these layers varies from 400 Ohm-m. to 600 Ohm-m.
Based on the results of vertical electrical soundings resistivity ranges of
various litho-units of Udupi city have been found and are given in Table
5.2.
Table 5.2: Resistivity ranges of various Utho-units of Udupi city area
Litho-units Resistivity ranges in Ohm-m
Soil 30-3100
Laterite 120-3500
Lithomargic clay 10-48
Fractured gneiss 90-200
Semifractuerd gneiss 400-600
Sand 705
Saturated sand 160
Gneiss 300-oc

108
5.6.1.1 Depth to bed rock: Figure 5.6 shows the depth to bed rock in
Udupi city area. This has been prepared from the data obtained from the
interpretation of sounding curves and field observations. It shows that the
depth to bed rock is not uniform in the Udupi city area. Good exposures of
this hard rock are observed at Ajjarkad, Bailuru, Shiribeedu, Ambalpady and
Bannanje. On the basis of field observations and sounding data, it is found
that depth to bed rock is found to be greater in Adi Udupi (UM3),
Kinnimulky (UM9 & UM10) and Kunjibettu (UM7) region. The bed rock
is at about 28 m. in Adi Udupi region (UM3). These regions are more
suitable for shallow groundwater aquifer development. Depth to bed rock is
about 7 to 10 m. near MGM ground, UMB School, Bailuru, Indrani,
Doddanagudda, Gundibailu, Bidanagudda and Bannanje (UM6, UM8,
UM11, UM12, UM13, UM14, UM15 and UM16). These areas are also
potential for development of shallow aquifers. A large number of open
wells are found in these regions.

5.6.1.2 Iso-resistivity contour maps: Iso-resistivity contour maps of the

region are prepared (Fig. 5.7) by plotting the apparent resistivity values,
AB
corresponding to the electrode spacing (—) of 15 m, 30 m, and 60 m.

These maps are helpful in delineating low apparent resistivity zones. The
15 m. iso- resistivity map shows high values of apparent resistivity near
Kinnimulky, Bailuru, Bidanagudda, Indrani and Doddanagudda areas. This
may be due to the presence of weathered rock, mainly laterite. These
regions are situated on the topographically elevated regions. Low apparent
resistivity values are observed in topographic low region viz., Adi
Udupi, Bannanje, Nittur and Kunjibettu region. Here top soil and
underlying weathered rocks are highly saturated with water. These areas
109
Figure 5.6 Contour map showing depth to bed rock in Udupi city area
112
Figure 5.7 (c) Map showing iso-resistivity contours (AB/2= 60m.)
have a high potential for development of shallow aquifers. A large number
of openwells are distributed in these regions. Low apparent resistivity
values are also observed at Ajjarkad (UM1) and Ambalpady (UM2). This is
due to high moisture content of top soil. Here thickness of overburden is
only a few meters, hence it is not suitable for development of shallow
aquifers. The iso-resistivity contour map of ^=30 m. and ^=60 m.

AB
spacing have similar pattern to that of —= 15 m. The presence of deep

groundwater potential fractures in the gneiss are recognised in the

geoelectric section (UM 8, UM 11 and UM 15).

5.6.1.3 Depth to water level contour map: Groundwater occurs under

water table conditions both in laterite and in alluvial aquifers. About 24
shallow dugwells (depth varying from 2.1 m. to 11.7 in.) were monitored
during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period for the year 1995 and the
fluctuation of water level in the area studied. The depth of water level varies
from 2 m. to 11.75 m. during pre-monsoon period and 0.5 m. to 6.7 m.
during post-monsoon period. The depth to water level contour map is shown
in Figure 5.8. It is observed that depth to water level is more where rock
shows higher apparent resistivity values. It is also observed that the value of
depth to water level contours decrease towards centrally located
topographicply low lying areas.

A groundwater potential zone (Fig. 5.9) of Udupi city has been

delineated based on vertical electrical sounding results, subsurface
lithology, depth to bed rock and thickness of weathered layers.

114
Figure 5.8 Contour map showing depth to water level in Udupi city area
 G OOO

| | m oderate

POOR

Figure 5.9 Groundwater potential map of Udupi city area

5.6.2 Electrical resistivity survey in lateritic terrain:

5.6.2.1 Electrical resistivity survey at Saralabettu: Four vertical electrical

soundings were carried out at Saralabettu in about 578 sq.m, area near
Manipal (Fig.5.3). The area is situated on the Eastern flank of the Manipal
mesas and is covered by laterite and lateritic soil.

The sounding curves obtained in the field (Fig. 5.10) represent 4-

layered QH type curves. After analysing the field curves, the layer
parameters were determined (Table 5.3). The top most layer is lateritic soil
with resistivity values ranging from 4400 Ohm-m. to 5800 Ohm-m. and
thickness 1.1 m. to 1.7 m. The resistivity of second layer varies from 1100
Ohm-m. to 1650 Ohm-m. and thickness 7.6 m. to 8 m. This layer
corresponds to laterite. The third layer is lithomargic clay. This layer has
resistivity values ranging from 80 to 115 Ohm-m with thickness of 7.5 to 9.5
m. The groundwater occurs in this layer. This layer is underlain by gneiss
of high resistivity values. From the field curves, it is inferred that
groundwater bearing fractures are absent in the neiss and hence deeper
zones are not favourable for groundwater extraction. Groundwater from the
shallow aquifer can be tapped.
Table 5.3:Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves from
Saralabettu region
VES Types Resistivties in Ohm-m Thickness in meters
No.s of 1 2 3- 4 1 2 3 4
curves
SB1 QH 4900 1400 80 oc 1.7 7.8 7.5
SB2 QH 4400 1300 82 X 1.4 8 9
SB3 QH 4600 no 88 X 1.1 7.9 8
SB4 QH 5800 1650 115 X 1.4 7.6 9.4

117
 10000
APPARENT RESISTIVITY in Ohm -m

Figure 5.10 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of Saralabetto

118
 Geoelectric section of the area is shown in Figure 5.11. This is
supplemented with a schematic diagram of an existing open well near the
site. Resistivity ranges for various litho-units of Saralabettu site are given
in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Saralabettu region

Litho-units Resistivities in Ohm-m
Soil 4400-5800
Laterite 1100-1300
Lithomargic clay 80-115
Gneiss 2700-oc

S.6.2.2 Vertical electrical soundings in lateritic formations: Vertical

electrical soundings were carried out at different places in lateritic formation
viz., Manipal, Shirva, Kalianapura, Udiyavara, Kukkikatte, Aroor, Alevoor,
Brahmavara and Kaup (Fig. 5.3). The sounding curves obtained in the field
(Fig.5.12) are 3- layered, 4-layered and 5-layered types. After analysing the
field curves, the layer parameters are determined and is given in Table 5.5.

At Manipal (ML), Kalianapura (KP1&KP2) and Brahmavara (B) the

field curves are 3-layered (H-type). Here, the top layer is laterite underlain
by lithomargic clay. This lithomargic clay region is favourable for
accumulation of groundwater. This layer is underlain by gneiss of high
resistivity values. At Kukkikatte, the curve is 3-layered (Q type). Here the
top most layer is soil underlain by laterite of resistivity 3300 Ohm-m.

119
Table 5.5: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves from
differrent localities in lateritic terrain.
Location Type of curves Resistiviets in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Manipal H 1400 68 oc 12 40.8
(ML)
Shirva QH 4100 2500 120 OC 1.1 4.9 34
(SV1)
Shirva QH 1800 1700 180 X 1.1 5.9 39
(SV2)

Kalianpura H 2900 45 OC 5 5
(KP1)

Kalianpura H 430 74 OC 8.5 10.5

(KP2)

Udiyavara QH 5200 2000 190 X 1.5 5.5 7

(UV)

Kukkikatte Q 2000 3300 OC 1.2 8.8

(KK)

Aroor (Al) KH 1600 1880 150 X 0.5 4.5 9.5

Aroor (A2) KHA 420 870 75 102 X 1.3 4.7 7 16

Alevoor KH 1200 1380 410 X 1.2 8.3 14.5

(AL)

Brahmavara H 2200 250 OC 6 49

(B)

Kaup (K) QHK 1700 1300 100 2700 40 2 8 3 15 40

120
FIG. 5.11 GEOELECTRICAL SECTION SHOWING VARIOUS SUB-SURFACE LITHO- UNITS AT SARALABETTU

121
 10000
APPARENT RESISTIVITY in O h m -m

10 100
AB/2 in mts

1400 Ohm-m =r^-j-rr~66 Ohm-ni _~-^rr * * * *at * * x * * ML

2500 Ohm-m SB'A Ac =^-T^L^--T=^rr-120 Ohm-m — *------- X ~ X #*.***'•**
•
SV1
. * J=v xxwx**x
5yprS&700 Ohm-m 160 Ohm- mTEfrEIrf-gr-fd 11 » 5 or * * * * SV2
jfonw',2900 Ohm-m - • 5******“ \ * “ «oc.«;«* , * * * ** KP1
W^n^>430 Ohm-m —lit Ohm-m= * * ***>1* CC*******
■ KP2
3^Q-£7^- 2000 Ohm-m yc?ior^r —190"Ohni-"m- £ * J * * * * * oc * * U **>»**»» UV
300 Ohm-m '#$8^ « 1 * J J » 1
xcc »; * ** * * » \ * \ KK
^^Wr^1880 o—£~^i * ; *. ; * * * OC X “ “ m * * * x *
A1
m*.*. • :-* * s * * - A2
* s» v - AL
—FZ^rEE-r :~=* *> * * OC * * * B
•VsYnVoYr.viTStAj^i^^ 1300 (fe3:^>-Ovv^'^i00=: » J * 5 2700 * S * $ x K

SOIL LATERIT E x x x
x * * * x GNEISS

LITHOMARGIC CLAY FRACTURED GNEISS.

Figure 5.12 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of lateritic terrains
122
 At Shirva (SV1 & SV2) and Udiyavara (UV) curves are 4- layered
(QH type). At Aroor (Al) and Alevoor (AL) curves show KH type. Here,
top layers are lateritie soils underlain by laterite. The third layer is
lithomargic clay favourable for accumulation of groundwater. Lithomargic
clay is underlain by gneiss of high resistivity values.

At Aroor (A2) and Kaup (K) the curves are 5-layered (KHA and
QHA types). The top most layer is soil underlain by laterites. The third
layer is lithomargic clay. At Aroor (A2) a fractured gneissic layer of
resistivity 102 Ohm-m. and of 16 m. thickness has been observed below the
lithomargic clay layer. Fractured zone is also observed at Kaup, at a depth
of 40 m. with a resistivity of 40 Ohm-m.

From the different field curves, it is observed that a thick weathered

zone is present at Manipal (ML), Shirva (SV1 & SV2) and Brahmavara (B).
Thickness of weathered zone is more than 40 m. in these regions.
Weathered layer is comparatively thin at Kalianapura (KP1) and
Kukkikatte (KK). Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in these region
are given in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6: Resistivity ranges of variouslitho-units in different localities in lateritie terrain
Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Soil 420-5200
Laterite 430-3300
Lithomargic clay 45-410
Fractured Gneiss 40-102
Gneiss 2700-oc

S.6.2.3 Electrical resistivity survey at Kondadi: At Kondadi (Fig. 5.3),

near Hiriadka, six vertical electrical soundings were carried out in lateritie
terrain of about 1500 sq.m. Horizontal profiling is also carried out (Fig.

123
 ' *' AR
5.13) by measuring the apparent resistivity values for —=30 m. and
2
AB
— =60 m. Existing open well on the northern side of the site revealed that

the thickness of laterite is about 9 m. Hard rock has not been encountered
in the well up to a depth of 17.5 m. Another open well in the Southern side
of the site reveals the presence of hard rock at a depth of 7 m. from the
ground level.

The sounding curves obtained in the field (Fig. 5.14) represent two
distinct types- 4 layered type (KD1 ,KD2,KD4 and KD6) and 6 layered type
(KD3 and KD5). After analysing the field curves, the layer parameters were
determined (Table 5.7). The top most layer with resistivity values ranging
from 4000 Ohm-m. to 6300 Ohm-m. and an average thickness of 1 m.
corresponds to the soil layer. The resistivity of second layer varies between
1500 Ohm-m. to 6600 Ohm-m. and thickness ranges from 3.7 m. to 5 m.
and this corresponds to laterite. The third layer is highly weathered gneiss
with an average thickness of 7 m. But at KD5, thickness of this layer is
only 2.8 m. The resistivity of this layer varies between 400 Ohm-m. to 850
Ohm-m. This layer is underlain by gneiss exhibiting high resistivity values.
From the curve interpretation, it is observed that hard rock occurs at a depth
Table 5.7: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves in
Kondadi
VES Types Resistivities in Ohm-m Thickness in meters
NO.s of 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
curves
KD1 QH 6300 1890 620 OC 1.1 4.9 7.5
KD2 QH 4300 1500 400 oc 1.1 5 7
KD3 QHKH 4400 2200 460 5200 170 X 1 5 6 15 . 13
KD4 QH 5400 4200 850 1800 1 5 7
KD5 KHKH 5200 6600 620 4000 450 X 0.5 3.7 2.8 28 10
KD6 QH 4000 3100 470 1 3 4

124
 N Open well

69m

FIG. 5.13 LOCATION OF VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDINGS

AND HORIZONTAL PROFILING AT KONDADI

125
IN Ohm
RESISTIVITY
APPARENT

SEMI-WEATHERED GRANITIC
LATERITE
GNEISS

GRANITIC GNEISS FRACTURED GRANITIC GNEISS

Figure 5.14 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of Kondadi

126
of 11 m. to 13 m. except at KD5 and KD6, where it occurs at a depth of 7
and 8 m. respectively.

In the 6-layered type, at KD3, a low resistivity zone is identified at a

depth of 27 to 40 m. with a resistivity of 170 Ohm-m. It is a fractured zone
and serves as a source for groundwater. Groundwater can be tapped by
drilling a borewell at this site. At KD5, semi-fractured zone has been
delineated at a depth of 35 to 45 m. The resistivity of this semi-fractured
layer is about 450 Ohm-m. Resistivity ranges of various litho-units of this
region is given in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Kondadi region

Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Soil 4000-6300
Laterite 1500-6600
Highly weathered gneiss 400-850
Fractured gneiss 170
Semi-fractured gneiss 450
Gneiss 1800-oc

AB AB
Iso-resistivity contour maps (—= 30 m and —=60 m) of the area
2 2•
(Fig.5.15) show that an increase in apparent resistivity values from North to
South direction. Low apparent resistivity values at Northern side of the site
may be due to the presence of groundwater potential zone in the gneiss.
Geoelectrical section of the area is shown in Figure 5.16.

5.6.2.4 Electrical resistivity survey at Kolkebailu: At Kolkebailu (Fig.

5.3), six vertical electrical soundings were carried out. The area is situated
on the crystalline basement of gneiss which is exposed on the NE comer of

127
Figure 5.15 (a) Map showing iso-resistivity contours at Kondadi (AB/2= 30 m.)

128
Figure 5.15 (b) Map showing iso-resistivity contours at Kondadi
(AB/2=60 m.)

129
FIG. 5.16 GEOELECTRICAL SECTION SHOWING VARIOUS
SUB-SURFACE LITHO-UNITS AT KONDADI

130
the site. Gneiss is overlain by laterite. Thickness of laterite varies and is up
to a maximum of 20 m.

The sounding curves obtained in the field (Fig. 5.17) represent two
distinct types viz., 5-layered (KB1, KB2 & KB3) and 3-layered (KB4, KB5
& KB6). After analysing the field curves, the layer parameters are
determined and the same is presented in Table 5.9. The top most layer with
resistivity values ranging from 4100 to 8000 Ohm-m. and an average
thickness of 2 m., corresponds to the soil layer. The resistivity of second
layer varies between 750 to 4800 Ohm-m. and thickness ranges from 3.5 to
20 m. This layer corresponds to laterite in KB1, KB4, KB5, KB6 and semi-
weathered gneiss in the case of KB2 & KB3. The resistivity of laterite varies
between 750 Ohm-m. to 1300 Ohm-m. with thickness of 12 m to 20 m. The
third layer of 3-layered type and third and fifth layers in the case of 5-
layered type represent the hard gneiss showing very high resistivity values.

In the 5-layered type at KB 1, a low resistivity zone is identified at a

depth of 65 to 85 m with a resistivity of 120 Ohm-m. It is interpreted as
fractured zone and serves as a source for groundwater which is confirmed
Table 5.9: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from field
curves in Kolkebailu
Ves Curves Resistivities in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
types
NO. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
KB1 HKH 5000 750 2400 120 OC 2 12 51 20
KB2 HKH 8000 4000 8000 300 oc 2 7 61 10
KB3 AKH 4100 4800 6000 110 oc 1.2 2.3 44.5 14
KB4 H 6000 1000 OC 2 20
KB5 H 7000 1000 oc 2 18
KB6 H 7000 1300 OC 2 18

131
 10000
APPARENT RESISTIVITY in Ohm-m
oOo
oo

10 100

A B / 2 in mts

.•.•.5odo.: 7 * *K * * “2400 ******* *882021 V KB1

"8000-.v. ;,x;x - is- x- x-x'1000 *,'*,'|£**x£*!|*** * x *8000 * x £***£* xMsQOlJx^ KB2
KB3
oo

■••6ppp:' iooo KB A
70 oov: m on x ,, x ******** « k - HuXuHj. KB5
,,r7Q^g> r^i^pTg^xT s rvS **x*x*x*x* x*x***x*x*
: V7000..'."-; KB6

l':Soil {xjxi] Granitic gneise

Laterite Fractured gneise

Semi-weathered granitic gneise

Figure 5.17 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of Kolkebailu

132
after studying the productive bore well at KB1. This type of fractured zone
is also observed at KB2 & KB3. At KB2 fractured zone is delineated at a
depth of 70 m. to 80 m. with a resistivity of 300 Ohm-m. The fractured zone
at KB3 is at a depth of 48 to 64 m. with a resistivity of 110 Ohm- m. In 3-
layered cases, fractured zone is absent. There are three failed borewells in
the area at DTI, DT2 and DT3.

Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Kolkebailu region is given

in Table 5.10. A schematic representation of resistivity and thickness of
different layers is shown in Figure 5.18.

5.6.3 Electrical resistivity survey in Gneissic terrain

5.6.3* 1 Vertical electrical soundings in Gneissic terrain : A few vertical

electrical soundings were carried out in hard rock terrain covered by thin
Table 5.10: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Kolkebailu region
Litho-units Resistivity in Ohm-m
Soil 4100-8000
Laterite 750-1300
Fractured gneiss 110-300
Semi-weathered gneiss 4000-4800
Gneiss 2400-oc

weathered zones, at Pangala and Salikeri (Fig. 5.3). Field curves obtained in
these localities are shown in Figure 5.19. Resistivity and thickness of
different layers, as interpreted from field curves, are given in Table 5.11.
Resistivity ranges of various litho-units of this region are given in Table
5.12.

133
Table 5.11: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves in
gneissic terrain.
Locatio Type Resistivities in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
n of 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
curves
Pangala HKH 550 150 800 60 OC 2 6 50 40
(P)
Salikeri KH 740 8100 240 CC 1.6 12.4 20
(SKI)
Salikeri KH 250 8500 80. OC 1.1 11.9 12
(SK2)

Table 5.12: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in different localities of gneissic terrain
Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Soil 250-740
Weathered material 150
Fractured gneiss 60-240
Gneiss 800-oc

5.6.4 Electrical resistivity survey to delineate salinity affected area:

Electrical resistivity soundings and profiling have been carried out at Mattu
(Fig.5.3), 3 Km. West of Katpadi, near West coast. Arabian sea makes the
Western boarder and Kopla stream is flowing on the Eastern side. Most of
the people in the village have their own dug wells. People are pumping
water from these wells for drinking and irrigation purposes. Saline water
digression occurs in Kopla stream periodically. Because of intensive
agricultural practices, fresh water aquifer is severely affected by saline
water intrusion and digression. Quality of groundwater from a few wells
within this area has been tested to confirm the effects of salinity hazards in
the region.

134
 10000

E
in O hm -
RESISTIVITY

1000
APPARENT

I00 i_L 1__J_

__I l 1.1-1
10 100

AB / 2 in mts

X X *
SOIL X X GRANITIC GNEISS
X X X

Er£r-rET: LITHOMARGIC CLAY FRACTURED GRANITIC GNEISS

Figure 5.19 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of gneissic terrains

136
 Seven vertical electrical soundings were carried out (Fig. 5.20) during
the summer season of the year 1997. Horizontal profiling was carried out in
a small agricultural land (abed) of measuring about 1430 sq.m, taking

— =15 m. and —=30 m.

2 2

The sounding curves exhibit a three to five layer sequence. After

interpreting the sounding data, the results are given in Table 5.13. Sounding
curves (Fig.5.21) are of KQH type (MT1), KH type (MT2), QH type
(MT3, MT4 & MT7), H type (MT5 & MT6).
Table 5.13: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted front sounding curves in
Mattu region
Location Type Resistivities in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
of 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
curves
MT1 KQH 900 3800 160 3 OC 1 1.2 1.8 34
MT2 KH 14 40 9.5 oc 1 3 19
MT3 QH 240 46 7.5 oc 0.5 3.3 19.2

MT4 QH 250 39 8 oc 0.8 2 17.2

MT5 H 14 7 OC 2 18

MT6 H 22 6 OC 0.5 18.5

MT7 QH 320 160 3.5 oC 1.3 0.7 30

Geoelectric section (Fig.5.22) has been prepared along the traverse

MT1 and MT7. It shows 5 distinct types of litho-units in the region. Top

137
 Overbridge with
RIVER saltwater exclusion dam

FIG. 5.20 FIELD LAYOUT TO CARRY OUT ELECTRICAL

RESISTIVITY SURVEY AT MATTU REGION

138
 10000

1000
APPARENT RESISTIVITY in O hm -m
o
•O

10
SAND

SATURATED
ALLUVIUM

SALINE WATEF

GRANITIC
GNEIS5
10 100
AB/2 in mts

MT 1
, OC ' MT2
l« \ * »<* *» » MT 3
k

MT 4
r.-Jr—-./i; '-yl« * x » MT 5
im £_■» i « i »T"T» MT 6
MT 7

Figure 5.21 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer

parameters of Mattu region

139
MT7

VERTICAL SCALE
1 cm = 5 mts

1
ions sub-surface litho-units at Mattu region
Figure 5.22 Geoeletrical section showing var:

140
most layer with resistivity values ranging from 14 Ohm-m to 900 Ohm-m
and thickness value ranging from 0.5 m. to 2 m. indicates the sandy soil.
The variation in resistivity may be due to the variation in composition,
moisture content and salt content.

A thin lens of sand of about 1.2 m. is delineated below the soil layer
at MT1. It shows resistivity value of about 3800 Ohm-m. This layer is
absent in the other sounding points. At MT2, MT3, MT4 and MT7, top
sandy soil is underlain by saturated alluvium. The thickness of this layer
varies between 0.7 m. to 3.3 m. with resistivity varying from 39 Ohm-m to
160 Ohm-m. Resistivity variation might be due to variation in salinity
content of water, Below the saturated layer, a thick saline water affected
zone has been delineated with a thickness varying from 17.2 m. to 34 m.
This zone shows a very low resistivity of 3 to 9.5 Ohm-m. At MTS and
MT6, top sandy layer is underlain by salinity zone. Below the salinity zone
is the hard rock. The depth to hard rock is 38 m. at MT1 and 32 m. at MT7.
At other sounding points, hard rock occurs at an average depth of 21 in
from ground surface. Iso-resistivity map (Fig.5.23) for AB/2=15 m. shows
the presence of very low apparent resistivity contour lines. It depicts the
presence of saline water in the region. Iso-resistivity map of AB/2=30 m.
also gives similar pattern Resistivity ranges of various litho-units of this
region is given in Table 5.14. Results of chemical analysis of groundwater
samples collected from well No.s.l, 2 and 3 are given in Table 5.15.
Presence of salinity in the region is also found by chemical analysis of
groundwater which indicates very high values of Electrical conductivity
(EC) and other chemical parameters (viz., TH, Cl, Ca & Mg).

141
Figure 5.23 Map showing iso-resistivity contours at Mattu
Table 5.14: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Mattu region
Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Sandy Soil 14-900
Sand 3800
Saturated alluvium 39-160
Salinity zone 3-9.5
Gneiss X

Table 5.15: Results of chemical analysis of groundwater samples from Mattu region
Well No.s EC TH Cl Ca Mg
1 6290 860 1580 168 106.92
2 3820 650 840 172 53.46
3 22800 2900 6550 256 549.18
All parameters are in mg/L except EC
EC in micromhos/cm

TH as CaC03

5.6.5 Electrical resistivity survey near a dolerite dyke:

5.6.5.I. Electrical resistivity survey at Athradi: Electrical resistivity

survey was carried out across a dolerite dyke near Athradi (Fig. 5.3). This
dolerite dyke is exposed in an open well at a depth of 9.5 m. from the
ground surface. This dolerite dyke is highly fractured. Electrical profiling
was carried out to delineate the dolerite dyke with half electrode spacing of

■—= 25 m. and — =50 m. with a station interval of 5 m. Apparent

2 2
resistivity value thus obtained is plotted and is shown in Figure 5.24. Three
vertical electrical soundings (Fig. 5.25) were carried out up to a maximum

half current electrode spacing of ~=100 m., one on dolerite dyke at

station No. 10 (AT2) and other two soundings were conducted on either
side of the dyke at station No.s.5 (ATI) and 15 (AT3). Resistivity and

143
 o
o
<n
o
O
— • ----- •— AB/2. = 25 mts
- - * ---- •— A B /2 = 50 mts

8cs
O
O

( UI - tuqo)
o
o
o
o
o
cr>
<©
o
o

AllAliSlS3d
o
VD
o

XN3bVddV
o
o
in
o
o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
STATION (INTERVAL 5 m ts )

, Figure 5.24 Map showing profiling across dolerite dyke in Athradi region
 10000
OhmIN
A P P A R E N T R E S IS TIV ITY

100
1 1

AB / 2 IN mts

450 Ohm - m ------:----- : '4 5 0 Ohm-m' * x » « * , * » »

A •’ , * A *, Q •“• A rr . , A • • -A - * ' A ‘ ' ' A '
560 Ohm-m = 460^7 , • • A ■ . A _ . A • . QC . ^ . A . • - A\ \ .A . >•

680 Ohm-m

* * X
y s SOIL LITHOMARGIC CLAY * X t
* * X

■■A-.-.*-.-"
LATERITE FRACTURED DO L E R IT E DO L E R IT E

Figure 5.25 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters of Athradi
145
thickness of different layers as interpreted from field curves are given in
Table 5.16. The top most layer with resistivity values ranging from 1200
Ohm-m to 8200 Ohm-m. corresponds to the soil layer. The resistivity of
second layer varies from 450 Ohm-m. to 680 Ohm-m. with a thickness of
4.5 m. to 6 m. and it corresponds to soft laterite. The third layer is
lithomargic clay with resistivity range from 400 Ohm-m. to 460 Ohm-m.
with a thickness varying from 3 m. to 29 m. Thickness of lithomargic clay
at AT2 is reduced to 3 m. due to intrusion of dolerite dyke. Fractured
portion of dolerite dyke is about 8 m. thick with a resistivity of 360 Ohm-m.
This layer is underlain by massive dolerite. The fourth layer at ATI and AT3
is gneiss. Geoelectric section across ATI to AT3 is shown in Figure 5.26.
Depth to water level and thickness of exposed litho-units are measured in
some of the open wells (OW1, OW2 and OW3) on the Western side of the
dolerite dyke. Based on depth to water level, groundwater flow direction is
marked (Fig. 5.27). Here groundwater flows from West to East and dolerite
dyke is acting as a barrier for groundwater movement. This is depicted from
presence of dry open wells (OW5 and OW6) during summer months on the
Eastern side of the dolerite dyke. From the field study it is observed that this
dolerite dyke is striking N20°W and is about 15 m. to 20 m. thick.
Resistivity ranges of various lithounits of this region is given in Table 5.17.
Table 5.16: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves in .
Athradi region
VES Types Resistivities in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
NO.s of 1 2 3 4 5 1 2, 3 ‘ 4 . 5
curves
ATI QH 1200 450 400 OC 1.5 4.5 29
AT2 QQH 8200 560 460 360 OC 1.0 6 3 8
AT3 QH 1700 680 420 OC 1.5 5 29

146
 Scale lcm = 5m.

SOIL 1200-8200 Ohm-m

LATERJTE 456-680 Ohm-m

LITHOMARGIC CLAY
400-460 Ohm-m

GRANITIC GNEISS

FRACTURED DOLERITE

MASSIVE DOLERITE

FIG. 5.26 GEOELECTRICAL SECTION SHOWING VARIOUS SUB-1SURFACE LITHO-UNTTS AT ATHRADI

 SCALE 1cm = 5m.

on

FIG. 5-27 SKETCH SHOWING FLOW DIRECTION OF GROUND WATER WITH

LITHO-LOGS OF EXISTING OPEN WELLS AT ATHRADI

148
Table 5.17: Resistivity ranges of various Iitho-units in Athradi
Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Soil 1200-8200
Laterite 450-680
Lithomargic clay 400-460
Fractured dolerite 360
Gneiss QC

5.6.S.2 Electrical resistivity survey at Bantakal adjacent to dolerite

dyke: Three vertical electrical soundings were carried out with a maximum
AB
half current electrode spacing — = 100 m. at Bantakal (Fig.5.3).

Geophysical investigations are carried out in an area which is located on the

Southern side of a dolerite quarry. The dolerite dyke is trending E-W. An
exposure of gneiss is observed on the N-E direction of the site. One of the
vertical electrical soundings (BT1) was carried out near an existing open
well. The litholog of existing open well is shown in Figure 5 .28. Resistivity
and thickness of different layers, as interpreted from field curves (Fig. 5.29),
are given in Table 5.18. Analytical results show that curves are five layered
(BT1) and four layered (BT2 & BT3). The top most layer with resistivity
value ranging from 4300 Ohm-m. to 8700 Ohm-m. corresponds to the soil
layer. The resistivity of second layer varies between 820 Ohm-m. to 2900
Ohm-m. and thickness varies from 5 m. to 7 m. which corresponds to
laterite. The third layer is lithomargic clay favourable for groundwater
accumulation. Resistivity of this layer varies from 55 Ohm-m. to 310 Ohm-
m. with a thickness varying from 10 m. to 27 m. Lithomargic clay is
underlain by massive gneiss at BT2 and BT3. At BT1, an highly fractured
gneiss of 64 m. thickness is observed with a resistivity of 160 Ohm-m.

149
 LATERITE

6.27m

LITHOMARGIC CLAY

15.5m
< X X X

< X X X
GNEISS
« X X X

< X X X I30B
DOLERTTE QUARRY

OPEN WELL AT BT1

FIG. 5.28 LITHO-LOG OF EXISTING OPEN WELL AT BANTAKAL

 4300 Ohm-m
§£#^1600 OhmTm^^
BT1
Ohm-m -------- ltt.SS 0 hm - m ~rzu~. J x „ x J k w xoc x , x * x * x * x * x * * BT2
$^2£££?2900 ; X ‘ “ KOC k ' x « „ “
BT3
62 0 0 Ohm-m

SOIL L AT E R IT E LITHOMARGIC CLAV

FRACTURED GNEISS GNEISS

Figure 5.29 Vertical electrical sounding curves with layer parameters at Bantakal

151
Resistivity range of various litho-units in Bantakal region is given in Table
5.19
Table 5.18: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from sounding curves in
Bantakal region
VES Types Resistivities in Ohm-m. Thickness in meters
NO.s of 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
curves
BT1 QQH 4300 1600 310 160 oc 1.5 5 10 64
BT2 QH 6200 820 55 cc 1.5 5 10.5
BT3 QH 8700 2900 270 CC 1.0 7 27

Table 5.19: Resistivity ranges of various litho-units in Bantakal

Litho-units Resistivity range in Ohm-m
Soil 4300-8700 . .
Laterite 820-2900
Lithomargic clay 55-310
Fractured gneiss 160
Gneiss CC

5.7 Resistivity ranges of various litho units in the study area: The
interpretation of sounding curves depict the following layers in the region-
soil, laterite, lithomargic clay, weathered gneiss, fractured gneiss and
gneiss. A thin saturated sandy layer is also observed in the coastal region.
The top most layer is soil which shows wide range of resistivity with a
thickness of about 1-2 m. In some areas soil layer is absent. The resistivity
values show a wide variation. The variation in resistivity is due to variation
in composition, moisture content, salinity etc. The resistivity of lateritic
formation varies generally from 750 Ohm-m. to 1500 Ohm-m. The thickness
of laterite ranges from 4 m. to 12 m. Laterites are underlain by lithomargic
clay. The resistivity of lithomargic clay varies from 25 Ohm-m. to 100
Ohm-m. Thickness of this layer is comparatively thin and sometimes is not

152
detected due to poor resolution of sounding curves. Groundwater occurs in
this lithomargic layer as it forms the aquifer. The resistivity of gneiss in the
region varies from 300 Ohm-m. to infinity. Resistivity of fractured gneiss
varies from 40 Ohm-m. to 300 Ohm-m. with a normal thickness of 9 m. to
20 m. and acts as a good aquifer. In the coastal region, salinity affected
sandy layers show a very low resistivity range of 3 Ohm-m to 9 Ohm-m. But
sandy layer which is saturated with fresh water shows a resistivity value of
160 Ohm-m. Resistivity and thickness of different layers as interpreted from
different field curves from different parts of Udupi taluk are givien in Table
5.20. Resistivity ranges of major litho-units of Udupi taluk is given in Table
5.21.
Table 5.20: Resistivities and thicknesses of different layers as interpreted from different field curves
from different parts in Udupi taluk
VES Type of No. of Resistivity of layers in Ohm-m Thickness of layers in meters
No.s curves layer 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5
UM1 H 3 45 32 cc 1.0 1.5
UM2 H 3 98 48 cc 1.3 3,2
UM3 QH 4 3100 705 160 OC 0.8 1.7 25.5
UM4 KH 4 24 395 4 cc 1.0 1.0 2
UM5 KH 4 10 150 10 cc 3.0 4.0 10
UM6 QH 4 1900 1000 400 cc 0.5 8.5 41.0
UM7 H 3 390 20 CC 0.6 19.4
UM8 HKQ 5 1400 850 5000 600 200 1.0 9 5.0 45
UM9 KHA 5 1000 1100 500 800 CC 1.0 14 15
UM10 H 3 570 140 oc 3.0 20
UM11 UK 4 1700 1100 8000 200 1.0 7 32
UM12 H 3 1450 1000 1800 1.0 6
UM13 H 3 420 330 CC 1.0 9
UM14 KHK 5 30 120 30 300 90 1.0 5 10 40
UM15 KQH 5 350 3500 850 160 cc 1.0 9 12 9
UM16 H 3 95 35 CC 1.2 8
KB1 HKH 5 5000 750 2400 120 oc 2 12 . 51 20
KB2 HKH 5 8000 4000 8000 300 CC 2 7 61 10

153
KB3 AKH 5 4100 4800 6000 110 X 1.2 2.3 44.5 14
KB4 H 3 6000 1000 CC 2 20
KB5 H 3 7000 1000 oc 2 18
KB6 H 3 7000 1300 oc 2 18
MT1 KQH 5 900 3800 160 3 X 1 1.2 1.8 34
MT2 KH 4 14 40 9.5 X 1 3 19
MT3 QH 4 240 46 7.5 X 0.5 3.3 19.2 '
MT4 QH 4 250 39 8 X 0.8 2 17.2
MTS H 3 14 7 CC 2 18
MT6 H 3 22 6 X 0.5 18.5
MT7 QH 4 320 160 3.5 X 1.3 0.7 30
SB1 QH 4 4900 1400 80 X 1.7 7.8 7.5
SB2 QH 4 4400 1300 82 X 1.4 8 9
SB3 QH 4 4600 1100 88 X 1.1 7.9 8
SB4 QH 4 5800 1650 115 X 1.4 7.6 9.5
ML H 3 1400 68 CC 12 40.8
SV1 QH 4 4100 2500 120 X 1.1 4.9 34
SV2 QH 4 1800 1700 180 X 1.1 5.9 39
KP1 H 3 2900 45 X 5 5
KP2 H 3 430 74 CC 8.5 10.5
UV QH 4 5200 2000 190 X 1.5 5.5 7
KK Q 3 2000 3300 X 1.2 8.8
A1 KH 4 1600 1880 150 X 0.5 4.5 9.5
A2 KHA 5 420 870 75 102 X 1.3 4.7 7 16
AL KH 4 1200 1380 410 X 1.2 8.3 14.5
B H 3 2200 250 X 6 49
K QHK 5 1700 1300 100 2700 40 2 8 3 15 40
P HKH 5 550 150 800 60 X 2 6 50 40
SKI KH 4 740 8100 240 X 1.6 12.4 20
SK2 KH 4 250 8500 80 X 1.1 11.9 12
KD1 - QH .4- 6300 - 1890 620 X 1.1 4.9 7.5
KD2 QH 4 4300 1500 400 X 1.1 5 7
KD3 QHKH 6 4400 2200 460 5200 170 X 1 5 6 15 13
KD4 QH 4 5400 4200 850 1800 1 5 7
KD5 KHKH 6 5200 6600 620 4000 450 X 0.5 3.7 2.8 28 10
KD6 QH 4 4000 3100 470 1 3 4

154
 Table 5.21: Resistivity ranges of major litho-units of Udupi Taluk
Litho-units Resistivity ranges in Ohm-m Remarks
Maximum Minimum Normal range
obtained obtained
Soil 8000 14 A wide range of resistivity is due
to change in composition,
moisture content, and salinity.
Laterite 6600 120 750-1500 Variation in thickness,
composition and texture
Lithomargic clay 410 4 25-100 Shallow aquifer
Semi-weathered 4800 400 Not favourable for groundwater
gneiss accumulation
Semifractured 600 450 Not favourable for groundwater
gneiss accumulation
Fractured gneiss 300 40 40-300 Groundwater potentail
Alluvium (Salinity 9.5 3 Low resistivity is due to high
zone) salinity
Saturated sand 160 160 - Groundwater potential
Gneiss cc 300 - Bedrock

5.8 Typical curves and probable sequence of subsurface formations:

Based on the field investigations in different geological terrains of Udupi
taluk typical curves have been selected for different terrains and their
probable sequence of subsurface formations are shown in Figure 5.30.

5.9 Some limitations of electrical resistivity survey at study area:

Electrical resistivity method is one of the best methods for groundwater
V , \

exploration .The success of electrical resistivity method increases with the

knowledge of additional information on geohydrological and geoelectrical
properties of the formations and their interrelations. The results of
resistivity data should be supplemented with the well lithology at existing
well. The success of application of the electrical resistivity method depends

155
10000

Figure 5.30 (a) Typical field curves -QH type, QHA type, H type & QHKH type

Probable sequence of subsurface formations

H type QH type QHA type QHKH type

Laterite Soil Soil Soil

Laterite Laterite
Lithomargic clay Laterite Lithomargic clay Semi-weathered gn«
Gneiss Gneiss
Gneiss Lithomargic clay Fractured gneiss Fractured gneiss

-
Gneiss
•
 lOOOO
OhmIN
APPARENT RESISTIVITY

Probable sequence of subsurface formations

KH type
Soil ____________
Gneiss
Fractured Gneiss
Gneiss

too L
0 10 100
AB/2 IN mts

Figure 5.30 (b) Typical field curve - KH type

157
Ohm IN
APPARENT RESISTIVITY

Figure 5.30 (c) Typical field curve - KQH type

158
on how best these empirical relations are established in a given geological
terrain.

Sometimes errors are introduced during resistivity survey which

sometimes lead to wrong conclusion. From various examples one may
encounter in the field, it is concluded that neither low apparent resistivity
values always indicate a conducting body nor a conducting body always
means an aquifer.

In hard rock terrains, weathered and fractured zones are considered as

the main sources of groundwater. The yield of a well in hard rock terrain
depends mainly on thickness of weathered layer and intensity and spacing
of joints and/or fractures. In certain cases, weathered layers are absent and
groundwater is confined mainly to fractures or joints in the hard rocks. The
saturated fractures or joints, which may yield large quantity of water, may
escape from being identified due to very high apparent resistivity values of
surrounding rocks and poor resolution of apparent resistivity curves
(Ramanujachary and Balakrishna, 1985). Locating such potential fractures
or joints is an extremely difficult task in the hard rock terrain. One of the
disadvantages of resistivity sounding is its relatively poor resolution of thin
layer. Ballukraya et al. (1983) have pointed out that saturated fractures in
the hard rock cannot be identified by merely considering the geoelectrical
parameters. An empirical study has been conducted based on the deviation
or "Breaks" in the normally smooth curves, as indicated by a perceptive
lowering of apparent resistivity values (Fig. 5.31). These "breaks" can be
used as a guide for locating potential well sites in hard rock areas. As such
'breaks' in apparent resistivity values may also be due to lateral non-

159
oi-ujqo Uj
AllAIISISad lN3fclVddV
<
c

<5
E

CM
l/l

Figure 5.31 ‘Curve Break ‘in vertical electrical sounding

homogenities. These 'breaks' may disappear while smoothening of curves
and high yielding thin fractures may escape identification.

Laterites are generally very hard and dry. They show high porosity
and very high resistivity. Resistivity measurements in the field are difficult
in this terrain because of its electrical properties. Development of
exceptionally high contact resistance at the current electrodes, high induced
polarisation characteristics of moist and clayey laterites, underlying hard
and dry lateritic cover are posing problems during field investigations and
also during curve interpretations. In some lateritic terrains curves show
effects of lateral non-homogenities due to very high surface resistivity
(Ballukraya et al. 1983).

Urban areas have limitations for field investigations. Urban areas are
generally less favourable for systematic electrical resistivity survey because
of interference from roads, power lines, underground cables and pipes,
fences, dwellings, buildings etc. In urbun limits the well sites are
generally required inside the town where electrical resistivity surveys are
difficult to conduct.

161