ABSTRACT

Transfer of electric energy from the source of generation to the customer via the
transmission and distribution networks is accompanied by losses. The majority of these losses
occur on the distribution system. It is widely recognized that placement of shunt capacitors on
the distribution system can lead to a reduction in power losses.
Reduction of I2R loss in distribution systems is very essential to improve the overall
efficiency of power delivery. The I2R loss can be separated into two parts based on the active and
reactive components of branch currents. This thesis work presents a method of minimizing the
loss associated with the reactive component of branch currents by placing shunt capacitors. This
method first determines a sequence of nodes to be compensated by capacitors. The size of the
optimal capacitor at the compensated nodes is then determined by optimizing the loss saving
equation with respect to the capacitor currents. The performance of the proposed method was
investigated on distribution systems consisting of 28 buses and it was found that a significant loss
saving can be achieved by placing optimal capacitors in the system.
 Chapter #1
Introduction

Electrical Power System

Electrical power is transmitted by high voltage transmission lines from sending
end substation to receiving end substation. At the receiving end substation the voltage is
stepped down to a lower value (say 66kV or 33kV or 11kV). The secondary transmission
system transfer power from this receiving end substation to secondary substation. A
secondary substation consists of two or more step down power transformers together with
voltage regulating equipments, buses and switchgear. At the secondary substation voltage
is stepped down to 11kV. The portion of the power network between a secondary
substation and consumers is known as distribution system. The distribution system can be
classified into primary and secondary system. Some large consumers are given high
voltage supply from the receiving end substations or secondary substation.
The area served by a secondary substation can be subdivided into a number of
sub- areas. Each sub area has its primary and secondary distribution system. The primary
distribution system consists of main feeders and laterals. The main feeder runs from the
low voltage bus of the secondary substation and acts as the main source of supply to sub-
feeders, laterals or direct connected distribution transformers. The lateral is supplied by
the main feeder and extends through the load area with connection to distribution
transformers. The distribution transformers are located at convenient places in the load
area. They may be located in specially constructed enclosures or may be pole mounted.
The distribution transformers for a large multi storied building may be located within the
building itself. At the distribution transformer the voltage is stepped down to 400V and
power is fed into the secondary distribution systems. The secondary distribution system
consists of distributors which are laid along the road sides. The service connections to
consumers are tapped off from the distributors. The main feeders, laterals and distributors
may consist of overhead lines or cables or both. The distributors are 3 phase, 4 wire
circuits, the neutral wire being necessary to supply the single phase loads. Most of the
4
residential and commercial consumers are given single phase supply. Some large
residential and commercial consumers get 3 phase supply. The service connections of
consumers are known as service mains.
The consumer receives power from the distribution system. The main part of distribution
system includes:
1. Receiving substation

2. Sub- transmission lines

3. Distribution substation located nearer to the load centre

4. Secondary circuits on the LV side of the distribution transformer.

5. Service mains

Unlike main EHV-AC transmission systems, the distribution systems have several
service lines, several distribution transformers and associated primary and secondary
circuitry and one or two receiving substations. Unlike transmission systems distribution
systems are more complicated and have to face more problems like voltage drop during
peak load time and voltage rise during off peak load. In addition to above problems
distribution transformer is overloaded during most period.

5
Figure 1.1 Single Line Power System Network
Distribution System
The part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known
as distribution system.

Figure 1.2 Single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution system.

In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the substation
fed by the transmission system and the consumer’s meters. It generally consists of
feeders, distributors and the service mains. Figure 1.2 shows the single line diagram of a
typical low tension distribution system.
(i) Feeders: A feeder is a conductor, which connects the sub-station (or localized
generating station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are
taken from the feeder so that the current in it remains the same throughout. The main
consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.
(ii) Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to
the consumers. In Figure1.2, AB, BC, CD, and DA are the distributors. The current
through a distributor is not constant because tapping are taken at various places along its
length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main
consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 10% of rated value at the
consumer’s terminals.
 (iii) Service mains: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumer terminals.

Objectives of Distribution Systems

1. Planning, modernization and automation.
2. To provide service connection to various urban, rural and industrial consumer in the
allocated area.
3. Maximum security of supply and minimum duration of interruption.
4. Safety of consumers, utility personnel
5. To provide electricity of accepted quality in terms of:
a. Balanced three phase supply.
b. Good power factor.
c. Voltage flicker within permissible limits.
d. Less voltage dips.
e. Minimum interruption in power supply.

Classification of Distribution Systems

A distribution system may be classified according to:
(i) Nature of current: According to nature of current, distribution system may be
classified as (a) d.c. distribution system and (b) a.c. distribution system. Now-a-days a.c.
system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it is simpler and more
economical than direct current method.
(ii) Type of construction: According to type of construction, distribution system may be
classified as (a) overhead system and (b) underground system. The overhead system is
generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper than the equivalent
underground system. In general, the underground system is used at places where
overhead construction is impracticable or prohibited by the local laws.
(iii) Scheme of connection: According to scheme of connection, the distribution system
may be classified as (a) radial system, (b) ring main system and (c) inter-connected
system. Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Connection Scheme of Distribution System
All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In
practice, the following distribution circuits are generally used:
(i) Radial System: In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single sub-station and
feed the distributors at one end only. Figure 1.3 (a) shows a single line diagram of a
radial system for DC system. Distribution where a feeder OC supplies a distributor AB at
point A. Obviously, the distributors are fed at one point only i.e. point A in this case.
Figure 1.3 (b) shows a single line diagram of radial system for AC distribution. The
radial system is employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the sub-
station is located at the centre of load. This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the
lowest initial cost. However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:
(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
(b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any
fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the
fault away from the sub-station.
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes. Due to these limitations,
this system is used for short distances only.

(a) Distribution for DC Systems (b) Distribution for AC Systems

Figure1.3 Single line diagram of Radial System

(ii) Ring main system: In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers from a
loop. The loop circuit starts from the sub-station bus-bars, makes a loop through the area
to be served, and returns to the sub-station. Figure 1.4 shows the single line diagram of
ring main system for AC. Distribution where sub-station supplies to the closed feeder
LMNOPQRS of the feeder through distribution transformers.
The ring main system has the following advantages:
a. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals
b. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders.
In the event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained.
For example, suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then
section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity of
supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.

Figure 1.4 Ring Main Systems

(iii)Interconnected system: When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two
generating stations or sub stations, it is called inter-connected system. Figure 1.5 shows
the single line diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is
supplied by two sub-stations S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively. Distributors are
connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution transformers.
 The interconnected system has the following advantages:
a. It increases the service reliability.
b. Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from the
other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency of
the system.

Figure 1.5 Interconnected Systems

Requirement of a Distribution System

A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power supply
within the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a
good distribution system are: proper voltage, availability of power on demand, and
reliability.
(i) Proper Voltage: One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage
variations at consumers’ terminals should be as low as possible. The changes in voltage
are generally caused due to the variation of load on the system. Low voltage causes loss
of revenue, inefficient lighting and possible burning out of motors. High voltage causes
lamps to burn out permanently and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a
good distribution system should ensure that the voltage variations at consumer’s
 terminals are within permissible limits. The statutory limit of voltage variations is +/-10%
of the rated value at the consumer’s terminals. Thus, if the declared voltage is 230 V,
then the highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V while the lowest
voltage of the consumer should not be less than 216 V.
(ii) Availability of Power Demand: Power must be available to the consumers in any
amount that they may require from time to time. For example, motors may be started or
shut down, lights may be turned on or off, without advance warning to the electric supply
company. As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution system must
be capable of supplying load demands of the consumers. This necessitates that operating
staff must continuously study load patterns to predict in advance those major load
changes that follow the known schedules.
(iii) Reliability: Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation.
Homes and office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by electric power.
This calls for reliable service. Unfortunately electric power, like everything else that is
man-made, can never be absolutely reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to
a considerable extent by (a) inter-connected system, (b) reliable automatic control system
and (c) providing additional reserve facilities.

Need of capacitor
Most loads on an electrical distribution system can be placed in one of three
categories: Resistive, Inductive or Capacitive. The most common of these three on
modern systems is the inductive load. Typical examples include transformers, fluorescent
lighting and AC induction motors. All inductive loads require two kinds of power to
function properly:
• Active power (kW) - actually performs the work
• Reactive Power (kvar) - sustains the electro-magnetic field
As an example with an unloaded AC motor, one might expect the no-load current
to drop near zero. In truth, however, the no-load current will generally show a value
between 25% and 30% of full load current. This is because of the continuous demand for
magnetizing current by any induction load.
How to produce reactive power
In electrical terms, capacitance is also considered as a “reactive power”
component but in fact its characteristic in an electric circuit is to neutralize or compensate
for the inductive reactive power. Thus we have an item of electrical equipment which can
be used to effectively offset a proportion of the reactive power drawn from the supply.
Without capacitors connected the motors draw active and reactive power and the
transformer feeding the installation is fully loaded. With appropriately rated capacitors
connected in parallel with the motors the reactive power drawn from the supply is
neutralized and the transformer only feeds active power. This means that the reactive
power supplied by the Electricity Board is reduced and reactive power charges
eliminated. The power capacitor is however a static device (no moving parts) so
maintenance is minimal. They are also electrically very efficient so their use on a
network makes no significant increase in the active power requirement from the supply
authority.

Considerations When Applying Capacitors on Distribution Systems

Introduction
The capacitor is a source of reactive power. Applying shunt capacitors to primary
distribution feeders provides an alternate source of reactive power to reduce the level of
reactive power provided by the supply. There was a time when the application of
capacitors on a wide scale basis was unusual because losses didn’t cost that much and
regulators handled the voltage drop quite well.
Things have changed. Losses are a major concern. . The value of capacitors
has shifted from voltage concerns in the fist half of the 20th century, to loss reduction
during the oil crisis, and now to equipment utilization considerations. Voltage quality,
due to more sensitive loads, is an issue. Finally, in today’s world of cutting costs,
capacitors are seen as the cheap way to reduce losses and get more watts out of what’s
already there.
Benefits of Capacitors
The proper application of capacitors serves to reduce the system current and raise
the system voltage. This accomplishes following benefits:
1. Reduces loading of thermally limited equipment.
2. Reduces system voltage drop
3. Reduces system losses.
4. Improvement of stability.
The application of capacitors benefits the entire system and the value of these
benefits for the entire system should be considered when considering how many
capacitors should be installed. It should not be overlooked that kilovars flowing through
the system cause reactive as well as real losses. This means that when a certain quantity
of kilovars is required at the load, more than that will be required at the source of the
kvars.

Typical Placement Studies

Most utilities try to apply capacitors “optimally”. Years ago, when voltage levels
were low and wire sizes were smaller, an “optimal placement study” might mean
placement of the capacitor banks to obtain a reasonable voltage profile. Today, optimum
placement normally means place to minimize losses at the lowest cost.
Placement Studies are normally performed in one of two ways:
 Place capacitors until optimum power factor is reached (point where the cost of
adding bank exceeds value of losses reduction and equipment utilization benefits).
 Place capacitors until a predetermined power factor is met. This number is
sometimes quite arbitrary.
Optimal placement would be easy if the load didn’t change. The problem with
placement studies is that loads change during the day, week, month and most schemes
have to deal with all these changes as best they can. The var needs change dramatically
over a fairly brief period of time. The challenge to the distribution engineer is to pick the
correct size of the banks to be used, the placement of these banks and minimize the cost.
 Considerations in Locating Capacitors
Shunt capacitors provide reactive power locally, resulting in reduced maximum
kVA demand, improved voltage profile, reduced line/feeder losses, and decreased
payments for the energy. Maximum benefit can be obtained by installing the shunt
capacitors at the load. This is not always practical due to the size of the load, distribution
of the load, and voltage level.
Switched capacitors provide additional flexibility to control system voltage,
power factor, and losses. Switched capacitors are usually applied with some type of
automatic switching control.
Using shunt capacitors to supply the leading currents required by the load relieves
the generator from supplying the part of the inductive current. The system benefits due to
the application of shunt capacitors include:
- Reactive power support.
-Voltage profile improvements.
-Line and transformer loss reductions.
-Release of power system capacity.
-Savings due to increased energy loss.

Literature Survey
A lot of literature is available on this topic. The solution techniques for the
capacitor allocation problem can be classified into four categories: analytical, numerical
programming, heuristic, and artificial intelligence-based (AI-based). Here is the literature
survey that is relevant with the work carried out for this thesis work.
Neagle and Samson have presented in their paper titled ‘Loss Reduction from
Capacitors Installed on Primary Feeders’ assume the load is uniformly distributed along
the feeder. Where two banks are to be installed, they consider equally sized banks or one
bank to be twice the size of the other. They consider only peak kilowatt loss savings with
fixed capacitors and ignore the cost of capacitors. For installation of three or four banks,
equally sized capacitors were assumed. [1]
Cook in paper ‘Analysis of Capacitor Application as Affected by load Cycle’ also
addresses application of fixed capacitors to a uniformly distributed load. However,
instead of considering reduction of peak power losses, savings are based on energy loss
reduction considering a time-varying load [2]. This analysis is extended in Cook
‘Optimizing the Application of Shunt Capacitors for Reactive-Volt-Ampere Control and
Loss Reduction’ to include switched capacitors. Savings are calculated based on
reduction of both peak power losses and energy losses [3]. Cook in paper ‘Calculating
Loss Reduction Afforded by Shunt Capacitor Application’ describes an incorrect method
for calculating loss reduction often used in the literature. The correct method is also
presented [4].
Chang in his paper ‘Optimum Allocation of Shunt Capacitors and Voltage
Regulators on Primary Feeders’ assumes a feeder with a uniform load and a concentrated
end load. Accounting for both peak power losses and energy losses, he determines the
optimal location of a fixed capacitor and the resulting savings, given the capacitor size.
The optimal solution is determined by considering each of the available capacitor sizes [5-
6].
Duran in his work ‘Optimum number, location and size of shunt capacitors in radial
distribution feeders: A dynamic programming approach’ proposes a dynamic programming
approach to find the number, locations, and sizes of fixed capacitor banks on a feeder with
discrete loads. Algorithms are presented for the special cases of no capacitor cost,
capacitor cost proportional to installed capacity, and cost proportional to installed capacity
plus a fixed cost per capacitor bank [7].
Grainger and Lee in their work ‘Optimum size and location of shunt capacitors for
reduction of losses on distribution feeders’ propose a methodology which considers non-
uniform feeders and non-uniform loads. It transforms a feeder with different wire sizes
into an equivalent uniform feeder. It also accounts for non-uniform reactive load
distribution by introducing the concept of the normalized reactive current distribution
function. The objective function used consists of the peak power loss reduction, energy
loss reduction, and a linear cost of capacitors. Constant voltage is assumed and only fixed
capacitors are considered [8].
Salama M.M.A et. al. in their work ‘Control of Reactive Power in Distribution
Systems with an End-load and Fixed Load Condition’ assume a fixed load condition and
a uniform feeder. A concentrated load at the end of the feeder is dealt with separately.
They transform a non-uniform feeder into an equivalent uniform feeder using the “base
resistance” technique The objective function does not include energy loss reduction and a
linear capacitor cost is assumed [9].
Baran and Wu in their work ‘Optimal capacitor placement on radial distribution
systems’ formulate the problem as a nonlinear, mixed integer programming problem. The
solution method is decomposed into levels. The top level, called the “master problem”, is
an integer programming problem which determines the number and location of
capacitors. The bottom level, called the “slave problem”, is used to determine the sizes of
the capacitors. The slave problem is further decomposed into smaller problems referred
to as base problems. These base problems are solved by an algorithm developed for a
special capacitor placement problem called the “sizing problem”. Capacitor cost is
approximated by a linear function and a fixed charge. Finally, a heuristic procedure
determines whether the capacitors are of the fixed or switched type [10].
Salama and Chikhani in their work ‘A Simplified Network Approach to the Var
Control Problem for Radial Distribution Systems’ attempt to formulate the problem in a
simple manner, without the use of a sophisticated optimization technique. Laterals are
handled by first treating each lateral as a separate feeder. The shunt capacitor location
and size is then determined to reduce peak power and energy losses. If the savings for the
lateral is zero or negative, no capacitor is placed on that lateral. After determining
whether capacitors should be placed on each lateral, the optimum size and location for all
the capacitors is determined [12].
Abdel-Salam et al. in their paper ‘A new technique for loss reduction using
compensating capacitors applied to distribution systems with varying load condition’ uses
heuristic technique for reactive loss reduction in distribution network The method
allocates capacitors to certain nodes (sensitive nodes) which are selected by first
identifying the branch which has the largest losses due to reactive power. The capacitor
rating is determined by differentiating the system losses with respect to the load
connected to that node [13].
Ng, Salama and Chikhani in their paper ‘Capacitor allocation by approximate
reasoning: fuzzy capacitor placement’ applied FST to the capacitor placement problem
by using fuzzy approximate reasoning. Voltage and power loss indices of the distribution
system nodes are modelled by membership functions and a fuzzy expert system (FES)
containing a set of heuristic rules performs the inferencing to determine a capacitor
placement suitability index of each node. Capacitors are placed on the nodes with the
highest suitability [14].
Baghzouz and Ertem in their paper ‘Shunt Capacitor Sizing for Radial
Distribution Feeders with Distorted Substation voltages’ present an algorithm for
optimizing shunt capacitor sizes on radial distribution lines with distorted voltages, such
that the RMS voltages and their total harmonic distortion lie within prescribed limits. A
heuristic algorithm based on the Method of Local Variations is employed. Since only a
local optimal solution is guaranteed, it is suggested that several runs with different initial
solutions be made to identify other local optimal solutions [17].
Rinker and Rembert in their work ‘Using the Reactive Current Profile of a Feeder
to Determine Optimal Capacitor Placement’ claim that biggest problem in placing
capacitors is a lack of data concerning the reactive current profile along the feeder. They
address acquisition and treatment of data which is used to determine the size and
placement of both fixed and switched capacitors [18].
Das in his paper ‘Optimal placement of capacitors in radial distribution system
using a Fuzzy-GA method’ uses a fuzzy-genetic algorithm to solve the capacitor
placement problem to improve the voltage profile and maximizes the net savings [19].
Shao et al. in paper ‘A Capacitor Placement Expert System’ propose an expert
system solution approach that is based on a heuristic graph search method using an
evaluation function [20].
Yang and Huang in ‘Solution to Capacitor Placement Problem in a Radial
Distribution System Using Tabu Search Method’ use a Tabu Search in which the search
is biased toward solutions with a better objective function, while special features of the
algorithm prevent the solution from being trapped at a local optimum solution [21].
Based on the analysis of existing techniques, Goswami and Basu in ‘A new
algorithm for the reconfiguration of distribution feeders for Loss minimization’ develops
an algorithm which is based on the concept of optimum flow pattern and is determined by
solving the KVL and KCL (Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws) equations of the
network. The optimum flow pattern of a single loop formed by closing a normally open
switch is found out and the flow pattern is established in the radial network by opening a
closed switch. This process is repeated till the minimum loss configuration is obtained
[23].
Kaplan in paper ‘Optimization of Number, Location, Size Control Type, and
Control Setting of Shunt Capacitors on Radial Distribution Feeders’ presents a heuristic
approach which was claimed to make none of the simplifying assumption used in much of
the earlier work. The approach first determines the “best” locations and types (fixed or
switched) for the smallest available standard capacitor size. After placement of these
initial capacitors, an attempt is made to improve savings by the addition of larger banks or
by combination of smaller banks into larger units [25].
Chiang Et al. in paper ‘Optimal Capacitor Placements in Distribution Systems:
Part I, Part II’ treat capacitor cost as a step-like function and capacitor sizes as discrete
variables. The formulation allows the switched capacitors to be switched as a block or in
several consecutive steps as load varies. The proposed solution method is based on the
simulated annealing optimization technique [30].

Objectives of the Research

This thesis work presents a method of minimizing the loss associated with the
reactive component of branch currents by placing shunt capacitors. The objectives are
divided into the following:
 Find a sequence of buses to be compensated through finding the highest loss
saving by a singly located capacitor.
 The optimal size of multiple capacitors is then determined by minimizing the loss
saving equation with respect to the capacitor current.

Organization of Thesis Work

Chapter 1 has presented the introduction of distribution system, load modeling,
size of feeder conductor, Considerations When Applying Capacitors on Distribution
Systems, and literature survey, objectives of the research, scope of the research and
organization of the research.
 Chapter 2 presents an efficient algorithm to solve the radial distribution power
flow problem in complex mode. . The linear equations are solved to determine the bus
voltages and branch currents in terms of new variable as complex numbers.

Chapter 3 proposes a method of minimizing the loss associated with the reactive
component of branch currents by placing optimal capacitors at proper locations.

Chapter-4 outlines the results. The results of the number of buses to be

compensated after optimal sizing and location of capacitors are shown.

Chapter-5 presents the overall conclusions and future scope of research work.
 Chapter #2
Power Flow Analysis

Introduction
Power flow analysis is concerned with describing the operating state of an entire
power system, by which we mean a network of generators, transmission lines, and loads
that could represent an area as small as a municipality or as large as several states. Given
certain known quantities—typically, the amount of power generated and consumed at
different locations— load flow analysis allows one to determine other quantities. The most
important of these quantities are the voltages at locations throughout the transmission
system, which, for alternating current (AC), consist of both a magnitude and a time
element or phase angle. Once the voltages are known, the currents flowing through every
transmission link can be easily calculated. Thus the name power flow or load flow, as it is
often called in the industry: given the amount of power delivered and where it comes from,
power flow analysis tells us how it flows to its destination.
This Chapter presents an efficient algorithm to solve the radial distribution power
flow problem in complex mode. The relationship between the complex branch powers
and complex bus powers is derived as a non singular square matrix known as element
incidence matrix. The power flow equations are rewritten in terms of a new variable as
linear recursive equations. The linear equations are solved to determine the bus voltages
and branch currents in terms of new variable as complex numbers. The advantage of this
algorithm is that it does not need any initial value and easier to develop the code since all
the equations are expressed in matrix format. This method could be applied to
distribution systems having voltage-controlled buses also.

Notations
N-no of buses
Iij-Branch current flowing through element ij
Ij-Bus current of node j
Vj-Bus voltage of node j
Sij-Complex power flowing from node i to node j
Sji-Complex power flowing received at node j from node i
Sj-Specified Bus power at bus j
Zij-Impedance of element ij
PLij-Power loss of element ij

The distribution systems are characterized by their prevailing radial nature and
high R/X ratio. This renders the load flow problem ill conditioned.
This chapter exploits the radial structure of the distribution network and the
relationship between the bus powers and branch powers is expressed as a non-singular
square matrix known as element incidence matrix. The chapter is organized into two
sections. The first section derives the method for PQ buses and second section deals with
treatment of voltage-controlled buses.

Distribution power flow

The power flow equations for a radial distribution system are derived as the
relationship between the specified complex bus powers and the bus voltages. Let is the
complex power Sij flowing from bus ‘i’ to bus’j’.

Sij =Pij+iQij = Vi(Vi*-Vj*)Yij* (2.1)

The ‘i’th bus powers are expressed as

PQ
 P i   V (V *  V * )Y *
Q
i i ij ij i j ij
ik (i )
ik ( i )
i
(2.2)
Where k(i) is the set of nodes connected to node i, and Pi /Qi denote the
real/reactive power at node i. The complex non linear equations (2.2) are to be solved to
determine the bus voltages. The real and imaginary parts of the equations are separated
and solved using numerical methods. [15]

Formulation of method for load buses

The basis for the proposed method is that an N bus radial distribution network has
only N-1 lines (elements) and the branch currents (powers) can be expressed in terms of
bus currents (powers). For an element ij connected between nodes ‘i’ and ‘j’ the bus
current of node j can be expressed as a linear equation.
I j  Iij   I ij( j
(2.3)
)

k(j) is the set of nodes connected to node j. For the slack bus the power is not
specified so it is excluded and the relationship between bus currents and branch currents
are derived as a non-singular square matrix.
Ibus  K.Ibranch
(2.4)

Ibus  [Ib 2 Ib3 ...Ibn  T

(2.5)

The matrix K is element incidence matrix. It is a non singular square matrix of order N.
The elemental incidence matrix is constructed in a simple way same like bus incidence
matrix. In this matrix K each row is describing the element incidences. The elements are
numbered in conventional way i.e. the no of element ‘ij’ is j-1.
1. The diagonal elements of matrix K are one. The variable j is denoting the element
number.
K(j, j) =1
2. For each ‘j’th element let m (j) is the set of element numbers connected at its receiving
end.
K(j, m(j)) = -1
3. All the remaining elements are zero. It can be observed that all the elements of matrix
K below the main diagonal are zero.
I branch  K 1
I bus
(2.6)
The relationship between the branch currents and bus currents can be extended to
complex branch powers and bus powers. The sending end power and the receiving end
powers are not same due to transmission loss. The transmission loss is included as the
difference between the sending end/receiving end powers.
The relationship between branch powers and bus powers is established in same way of
bus/branch currents. Multiplying both sides by element incidence matrix K

S bus  K [ sending
T ]
branch
S
branch
(2.7)
L
 Sbranch
 K 1 .S bus  branch
(2.8)
TL
The power flow equations are complex quadratic equations .A new variable Rij is
introduced for each element ‘ij’ and the equations becomes recursively linear.
R  V (V *  V * )
ij i i j
(2.9)
The branch power of 'ij' th element is expressed in terms of R ij
SP
 iQ  R Y *
ij ij ij ij ij
(2.10)
Rij  Sij ij*
Z
(2.11)
The above method is summarized as follows:
1. For the first iteration transmission losses are initialized as zero for each element.
2. From the bus powers specified the branch powers are determined as per equation
(2.7 & 2.8).
3. The variable Rij. is determined for each element using equation (2.11).
4. The bus voltage, branch current and bus current are determined from Rij.

V j  Vi  Ri* (2.12)
Vij

*
I  Rij Y
ij
VI * ij (2.13)
5. The bus currents are determined from (2.2) and bus powers are calculated. Since the
transmission losses are neglected in the first iteration there will be mismatch between the
specified powers and calculated powers. The mismatch is a part of the transmission loss.
PLijr is the transmission loss part for ‘ij’th element for ‘r’th iteration. Transmission loss
of each element is the summation of the transmission loss portions of all previous
iterations.

PLr
spec r 1
V r 1 I (2.14)
S
* 
ij j j j

It can be concluded that the power flow solution always exists for a distribution
system irrespective of the R/X ratio if it is having connectivity from the source (slack
bus) to all the nodes. The limitations of the algorithm are being investigated in view of
voltage stability limit. For system having less transmission loss the algorithm will
perform faster. The convergence criteria is that the ‘r’th iteration of the transmission loss
part of each element should be less than the tolerance value.
 Chapter #3
Capacitor Placement for Loss Reduction

Introduction
Capacitor banks are added to radial distribution systems for power factor
correction, loss reduction, voltage profile improvement and in a more limited way, circuit
capacity increases. With these various objectives in mind, and subject to operating
constraints, optimal capacitor placement aims to determine capacitor types, sizes,
locations and control schemes.
A distribution system connects consumers to the high-voltage transmission
system. Because of lower voltage, and hence higher current, the I2R loss in a distribution
system is significantly high compared to that in a high-voltage transmission system. The
pressure of improving the overall efficiency of power delivery has forced the power
utilities to reduce the loss, especially at the distribution level. The methodology was
developed only for radial networks because most of systems are deployed in a radial basis
due to their simple operation and low investment costs.
In general, a distribution system is fed at only one point and the structure of the
network is mainly radial. For such a system all active power demands and losses must be
supplied by the source at the root bus. However, addition of shunt capacitors can generate
the reactive power and therefore it is not necessary to supply all reactive power demands
and losses by the source. Thus, there is a provision to minimize the loss associated with
the reactive power flow through the branches.
As already stated that the use of capacitors in power systems has many other well-
known benefits which include improvement of the system power factor, improvement of
the system voltage profile and reduction of losses due to the compensation of the reactive
component of the power flow. If all the nodes have capacitors giving the same reactive
power as the loads at these nodes, it will be expected that almost no reactive power will
flow on the distribution feeders, and the losses due to reactive power will be almost zero.
However, although this type of compensation of the reactive power gives minimum
system losses, it is not practical because the cost of the compensating capacitors may
exceed the benefits gained from reducing the energy losses. [10]
The capacitor placement problem is a well research topic that has been addressed
by many authors in the past. All approaches differ from each other by way of their
problem formulation and problem solution methods employed.
This chapter provides a method of minimizing the loss associated with the
reactive component of branch currents by placing optimal capacitors at proper locations.
The method first finds the location of the capacitor in a sequential manner. Once the
capacitor locations are identified, the optimal capacitor size at each selected location is
determined through optimizing the loss saving equation. The method was tested on two
different distribution systems and very encouraging results were found.

Background
The total I2R loss (PLt) in a distribution system having n number of branches is
given by

P  n I 2 R (3.1)
Lt i i
i1

Here Ii and Ri are the current magnitude and resistance, respectively, of the i th
branch. The branch current can be obtained from the load flow solution. The branch
current has two components; active (Ia) and reactive (Ir). The loss associated with the
active and reactive components of branch currents can be written as

PLa n

  IaiRi
2
(3.2)
i1

n
PLr   Iri2Ri (3.3)
i1

Reducing the inductive reactive portion of the line loading, would reduce the
reactive losses. With a highly inductive load we want to reduce the level of inductive load
current. This is done by the addition of shunt capacitors.
Note that for a given configuration of a single-source radial network, the active
current component Ia depends only on the circuit load. The loss PLa, associated with the
active component of branch currents cannot be minimized because all active power must
 be supplied by the source at the root bus. However, the loss PLr associated with the reactive
component of branch currents can be minimized by supplying part of the reactive power
demands locally. The purpose is to locate these capacitors in the points where they can
improve best the technical circuit performance.

Proposed method
The method used here first identifies a sequence of nodes to be compensated. The
sequence is determined by repetitive applications of loss minimization technique by a
singly located capacitor. Once the sequence of nodes to be compensated is identified, the
corresponding optimal capacitor size at the compensated nodes can be determined
simultaneously by minimizing the loss saving equation with respect to the capacitor
currents. The procedures of loss minimization by placing a single and multiple capacitors
are described in the following sections.

Figure 3.1 Single-line diagram of the 15-bus system

Loss minimization by a singly located capacitor

Consider a single source radial distribution system with n branches. Let a
capacitor C be placed at bus m and  be a set of branches connected between the source
and capacitor buses. In Fig. 1, if the capacitor is placed at bus 12 (m = 12), the set 
consists of branches 1, 2, 10 and 11. The capacitor draws a reactive current I c and for a
radial network it changes only the reactive component of current of branch set . The
current of other branches (  ) is unaffected by the capacitor. Thus the new reactive
current Irinew of the ith branch is given by [16]

Ir new  I r  Di I (3.4)
i i c

Where,
Di = 1; if branch i 
= 0; otherwise
Here Iri is the reactive current of the ith branch in the original system obtained from
com
the load flow solution. The loss P associated
Lr with the reactive component of branch
currents in the compensated system (when the capacitor is connected) can be written as

PLrcom  (I  Di I )2 R
n ri i 1 c i
(3.5)

The loss saving S is the difference between eqns. 3 and 5 and is given by
S  PLr
 PLrcom
n

S  (2D I I DI2) (3.6)

R
i ri c i c i
i1

The capacitor current Ic that provides the maximum loss saving can be obtained from
S
 2 n
I
 (Di I  Di I )Ri  0 (3.7)
ri c
c i1

Thus the capacitor current for the maximum loss saving is

n

D I
i1
i ri
Ri  I ri Ri
i
Ic   
D
n

i
 Ri (3.8)
i
i1
Ri
The corresponding capacitor size is
Qc=VmIc (3.9)
Here Vm is the voltage magnitude of the capacitor bus m. The above process can
be repeated for all buses to get the highest possible loss saving for a singly located
capacitor. When the candidate bus is identified and compensated, the above technique
can also be used to identify the next and subsequent buses to be compensated for loss
reduction. When the sensitive node (where the capacitor is installed) is determined, the
 nearest available standard MVAR rating or multiple units of the capacitor is chosen. This
procedure is repeated until the system losses decrease to almost a steady value, and
connecting more capacitors will have only a marginal reduction on the system losses. If
there are already capacitors in the distribution power system, they are taken into account
in the input data. Using the proposed method, it suffices to connect capacitors only to the
sensitive nodes which are few in number to attain very large reduction in the losses
arising from the reactive power component.
This will provide only the locations where the capacitors are to be placed. The
capacitor size obtained from equation 3.9 is a local optimum value and may not be used
when more than one capacitor is placed in the system. The size of the optimal capacitors
for multiple locations is to be determined simultaneously, and the procedure for finding
the optimal sizes is described in the following section.

Loss minimization by multiple capacitors

The concept of loss minimization by a singly located capacitor can be extended
for multiple capacitors. Let us consider the following:
K=number of capacitor buses
Ic= k dimensional vector consisting of capacitor currents
 j=set of branches from the source bus to the j th capacitor bus (j=1, 2, ….., k)
D=a matrix of dimension n× k
The elements of D are considered as
Dij = 1; if branch i 
= 0; otherwise
In fig. 1 if three capacitors (k=3) are placed at buses 10, 12 and 14, the branch set
 s and the matrix DT can be written as
 1= [1, 5, 6];  2= [1, 2, 10, 11];  3= [1, 2, 3, 13];

When the capacitors are placed in the system, the new reactive component of branch
currents is given by
 [I new ]  [I ]  [D][I ] (3.10)
r r c

The loss PLrcom associated with the new reactive currents in the compensated
system is
n k

  (I ri   Icj ) R
com
PLr
2
(3.11)
i i
1 Dij j
1

The loss saving S obtained by placing the capacitors is the difference between
eqns. 3 and 11 and is given by
n k k

S  [(2Iri  Icj  ( Icj ) 2 ] i (3.12)

i1 Dij Dij R
j 1 j 1

The optimal capacitor currents for the maximum loss saving can be obtained by
solving the following equations:

S
Ic1 
0

S
Ic2 
0
… …
… …
S
(3.13)
Ick 
0

After some mathematical manipulations, eqn. 13 can be expressed by a set of

linear algebraic equations as follows:
[A][Ic]=[B] (3.14)

Where A is a k x k square matrix and B is a k-dimensional vector. The elements of

A and B are given by

A jj
 Ri (3.15)
i j

A jm
  (3.16)
Ri i(j
m )
B j
 I ri R i (3.17)
i 
j
 Only the branch resistances and reactive currents in the original system are
required to find the elements of A and B. The capacitor currents for the highest loss
saving can be obtained from eqn. 14.
[Ic]=[A]-1[B] (3.18)

Once the capacitor currents are known, the optimal capacitor sizes can be written
as
[Qc]=[Vc][Ic] (3.19)

Here Vc is the voltage magnitude vector of capacitor buses. The saving in the
compensated system can be estimated from eqn. 3.12 using the value of I C given by eqn.
3.18.

Algorithm
The computational steps involved in finding the optimal capacitor size and
location to minimize the loss in a radial distribution system are summarized in following:
1. Run the load flow program and obtain the branch currents. Select a bus and find the
maximum loss saving and the corresponding capacitor size from eqns. 3.6 and 3.9
respectively. Repeat this step for all buses in the system, except the source bus. Identify
the bus that provides the highest loss saving.
2. Compensate the bus to get the highest loss saving with the corresponding capacitor
found from eqn. 3.9.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 to get the next capacitor bus and hence the sequence of buses to
be compensated until it is found that no significant loss saving can be achieved by further
capacitor placement.
4. Once the sequence of buses is known, determine the optimal capacitor sizes and the
corresponding loss saving from eqns. 3.9 and 3.12, respectively.

Note that the system load is time-variant and load duration curve of the system
can be approximated by a piecewise linear function during which the load level is
assumed to be constant. The above algorithm provides the optimal capacitor sizes and
locations for a given load level. Determination of overall loss saving for the entire period
of the load duration curve requires the application of the above algorithm to each load
level. This may suggest different capacitor sizes and, in some cases, at different locations.
The problems of different capacitor size and location can be solved by using a
combination of fixed and switched capacitors.
The above algorithm can be represented in the form of a flowchart as shown in
fig. 3.2.
 Figure 3.2 Flowchart
Start

Read System Data

Perform Load Flow

Select a Bus except Slack

bus

Find the maximum loss

saving and capacitor size

no All buses
Done

yes
Compensate the bus of
highest loss saving with
Corresponding capacitor

Is there any yes

significant
loss change

no
Compute the size of capacitor for multiple
locations

stop
 Conclusions and Future Scope of Work

Conclusions

A simple method of minimizing the loss associated with the reactive component
of branch currents by placing capacitors in a radial distribution system has been proposed
in this work. The method first finds a sequence of buses to be compensated through
finding the highest loss saving by a singly located capacitor. The optimal size of multiple
capacitors is then determined by minimizing the loss saving equation with respect to the
capacitor currents. This involves the solution of a set of linear algebraic equations.
The proposed method was tested on distribution system 28 buses. In the 28-bus system it
was found that by placing a total 1400 kvar optimal capacitors at two different locations
(buses 7 and 11), the loss associated with the reactive branch currents can be reduced
from 41.19kW to 1.92kW that is by more than 95%. In this system a saving of 5 kW per
100 kvar of capacitor bank can be realized.

Future Scope of work

 Practical implementation of the capacitor placement technique requires further

cost-benefit analysis which in turns depends on the costs of capacitor bank and
energy saving.
 The repeated simulation results could be used to develop a Model using any
artificial intelligence technique which can accurately predict the location and size
of capacitor for any load conditions which gives a great promise for practical
implementation of the proposed technique.
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