Chapter-Communication & Networking

2-1
Communication Systems and Networking

2-2
2.0 Introduction
Communication is not a human thing. Everything in the universe communicates. The

distant stars communicate with us through cosmic rays, electrons communicate with an
atoms nucleus, and migratory birds communicate with the earth’s magnetic field to know
the right direction. So, communication is not a human inclusive thing. But our species has
taken communication to a different level. We communicate with each other through
thousands and thousands of language, through writing, through spoken words and even
eye contacts and hand gestures. Now-a-days communication is done by electronic
medium like telephone, mobile phone, MMS, SMS, email etc. All these modern
communication together build a communication network where everything is connected
with everything else. Now if you ever wondered how all these technologies works or how
a file or your voice is transferred over internet or what kind of technologies they are using
or what happens when you call someone over mobile phone, then this is the chapter you
are looking for. We are going to show you everything you need to know about modern
communication technology.
In this chapter we will know communication systems and its backbone, bandwidth,
different ways of data transmission, medium of data communication, wireless
communication technology with different generation of mobile communication system,
computer networking and its types with their topologies and cloud computation.
2.1 Communication Systems
Ever since ancient times, people continuously have devised new techniques and
technologies for communicating their ideas, needs and desires to others. Thus, many
forms of communication systems have appeared over the years. The basic motivations
behind each new one were to improve the transmission quality, to increase the
transmission capacity, so that more information could be sent or to increase the
transmission distance.
2-3
When we communicate, we share information. This sharing can be local or remote.

Between two peoples, local communication usually occurs face to face like you are
talking to somebody, while remote communication takes place over distance for example
telephone conversation.
2.1.1 Types of Communication Systems

Let us study the various types of communication system for the smooth flow of
information between two parties.
1. Optical Communication System

The word “Optical” stands for light. As the name itself suggests, optical
communication system depends on light as the medium for communication. In an
optical communication system the transmitter converts the information into an
optical signal (signal in the form of light) and finally the signal then reaches the
recipient. The recipient then decodes the signal and responds accordingly. In this
mode of communication light travels through the optical fiber.
2. Radio Communication System

In the radio communication system the information flows with the help of a radio.
Radio communication system works with the aid of a transmitter and a receiver
both equipped with an antenna.
The transmitter with the help of an antenna produces signals which are carried
through radio carrier wave. The receiver also with the help of an antenna receives
the signal. Some information is unwanted and must be discarded and hence the
electronic filters help in the separation of radio signals from other unwanted
signals which are further amplified to an optimum level Finally the signals are
decoded in an information which can be easily understood by the individuals for
them to respond accordingly.
3. Duplex communications system

In Duplex communications system two equipment’s can communicate with each
other in both the directions simultaneously and hence the name Duplex. When you
interact with your friend over the telephone, both of you can listen to each other at
the same time. The sender sends the signals to the receiver who receives it then
and there and also give his valuable feedback to the speaker for him to respond.
2-4
Hence the communication actually takes place between the speaker and the
receiver simultaneously.
In the Duplex communication system, two devices can communicate with each
other at the same time.
A type of communication system involves the sender and the receiver where the
sender is in charge of sending signals and the recipients only listen to it and
respond accordingly. Such communication is also called Simplex communication
system.
4. Half Duplex Communication System

In half Duplex communication system, both the two parties can’t communicate
simultaneously. The sender has to stop sending the signals to the recipient and
then only the recipient can respond.
A walkie talkie works on the half duplex communication system. The military
personnel while interacting has to say “Over” for the other person to respond. He
needs to speak the security code correctly for the other person to speak. The other
party will never communicate unless and until the code is correct and complete.
5. Tactical Communication System
Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of communication. In this

mode of communication, communication varies according to the changes in the
environmental conditions and other situations.
All the above modes of communication work for a common objective ie to transfer the
information from one party to the other party. The various models of communication
system help us to understand the route of flow of information from the sender to the
recipients through some medium.
2-5
2.1.2Data Communication
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a

receiver. The source sends the data and the receiver receives it. Data Communication is
idea of the transferring data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during
the transfer process. The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and
regulations that allow computers with different operating systems, languages, cabling and
locations to share resources without any problems. The rules and regulations are called
protocols and standards in Data Communications.
For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a

communication system. The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on
the three fundamental characteristics:
• Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user
• Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left behind are useless.
• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
are useless. In the case of video, audio and voice data, timely delivery means
delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced and
without significant delay. Surely you don’t want to watch last part of the film at
beginning or watch it with missing middle part. This kind of delivery called real-
time transmission.
2-6
2.1.3 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is very important for every part of this chapter. In computer networks,
bandwidth is used as a synonym for data transfer rate, the amount of data that can be
carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). Network
bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps); modern networks typically have
speeds measured in the millions of bits per second (megabits per second, or Mbps) or
billions of bits per second (gigabits per second, or Gbps).
To understand bandwidth you have to understand signal first. An electrical signal takes
the form of a change in voltage or current over time. There are two types of signal:
Analog and Digital. An analog signal’s values are continuous over time. These values
represent a level on some variable, such as voltage or intensity and they range between a
minimum and a maximum value. An analog signal can be periodic or aperiodic. Periodic
signals repeat in a regular pattern; aperiodic signal does not. The repetition behavior of a
periodic signal is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz). For example, a 50 Hz
signal repeats its pattern 50 times in a second. Each repetition is a cycle and consists of a
continuous process in which the signal’s value changes continuously from a peak to a
trough and back to the peak.
Analog Periodic Sine Wave Signal
Digital Signal and Baseband and Broadband Transmission
A digital signal’s possible levels are represented by discrete values within a limited range.
These values are created using sequences of 0 and 1 value. The number of possible values
that can be represented depends on the number of bits that are allocated to represent a
2-7
single value. For example, using ten bits, 1024 possible values can be represented.
Following figure: 2 is a representation of a digital signal. It represents 01001100011,
which represented in binary form. In regular or decimal representation it is equivalent to
611.
The signals we consider are usually electromagnetic waves. They propagate at the speed
of light (300,000Km/sec) in the vacuum or slightly slower (200,000Km/sec) in materials.
There are two types of transmission: Baseband and Broadband.
Baseband Transmission takes place on a communication medium, usually a local area

network, using only one communication channel. A communication channel is the
medium that is used in the transmission of a message/information from one party to
another. The signal is digital and directly inserted in the channel as pulses. For example
the Ethernet, the wired connection we use in our computer, uses baseband technology.
Also our regular telephone service uses baseband communication.
Broadband Transmission instead uses analog signals and multiple communication

channels. For example the cable that you may have at home for both television and your
computer uses broadband technology, television and computer use different channels in
the medium/wire. Similarly if your telephone line supports DSL, it uses broadband
technology with a channel for normal phone service and another channel for the internet
service.
Bandwidth refers to the amount of data, a cable or any medium can carry; measured in
bits per second (bps) for digital signals or in hertz (Hz) for analog signals such as sound
waves. An analog bandwidth is computed by subtracting the lower frequency from the
higher one. For example, the bandwidth of the human voice is roughly 2,700 Hz (3,000
Hz - 300 Hz). Here 3000 Hz is highest frequency and 300 Hz is lowest frequency. In this
chapter we only consider digital bandwidth.
You might hear an advertisement that says, "This computer has a 32-bit or 64-bit Pentium
processor with 1 gigabyte of RAM and 640 gigabyte of hard disk space? Now watch
carefully, sometimes it says bit and sometime byte. Bits and Bytes are common
computing terms that are very confusing for first time. Their representation are quite
similar (e.g. KBps for kilobytes per second and Kbps for kilobits per second) and used in
similar applications, i.e. data transfer or measuring. Then question is: what is the
difference between these? In simple way: "1 Byte = 8 bit". And we also denote them
2-8
different ways: "B"(Uppercase) = byte and "b"(Lowercase) = bit. Let’s go a little bit
deeper.
Prefix Symbol(s) Power of 10 Power of 2

yocto- y 10-24 * --
zepto- z 10-21 * --
-18 *
atto- a 10 --
femto- f 10-15 * --
pico- p 10-12 * --
-9 *
nano- n 10 --
micro- µ 10-6 * --
-3 *
milli- m 10 --
centi- c 10-2 * --
deci- d 10-1 * --
0
(none) -- 10 20
deka- D 101 * --
hecto- h 102 * --
** 3
kilo- k or K 10 210
mega- M 106 220
giga- G 109 230
Tera- T 1012 240
peta- P 1015 250
exa- E 1018 * 260
zetta- Z 1021 * 270
yotta- Y 1024 * 280
* Not generally used to express data speed
** k = 103 and K = 210
In computing when describing memory size, a Kilobyte is 2 10= 1024 bytes. Because of
binary computer architecture and memory address boundaries, bytes are always some
multiple or exponent of 2. So for this case:
1 byte (B) = 8 bits (b)
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

2-9
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 bytes = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
Most of the hard disk manufacturers use decimal form, which is slightly different than
previous one. Now for this case:
1 byte (B) = 8 bits (b) [This is same for all kind of cases]
1 Kilobyte (K/KB) = 103bytes = 1,000bytes
1 Megabyte (M/MB) = 106bytes = 1,000,000 bytes
1 Gigabyte (G/GB) = 109bytes =1,000,000,000 bytes
1 Terabyte (T/TB) = 1012bytes =1,000,000,000,000 bytes
Now if you buy a new Hard Disk or Pen drive/Flash drive you probably noticed, although
these shops are selling 500 GB hard disk or 8 GB pen drive, but your computer showing
different size, if we say more precisely, it is less than 500 GB or 8 GB. You probably feel
cheated. Are they really cheating or something else? Let’s investigate it right now. We are
going to check it for 8 GB pen drive. According to the modern data storage device
manufactures 1 GB=1,000,000,000 bytes= 1000 MB. So 8 GB=8000 MB as it is a round
figure, but when you connect it to your computer, it calculates as 1KB =1024Bytes,
1MB=1024KB and 1GB=1024MB. So 8GB = 8*1024*1024*1024 Bytes=
8589934592Bytes! So your computer is going to show 589934592Bytes or about 0.5GB
is missing. i.e. you can use about 7.5 GB. If it is a 500 GB hard disk, then you can use
only about 450 GB of storage space. It is a manufacturing parameter. Now you see both
manufacturer and your computer are right. They just calculate it in different ways.
Same kind of ideas goes to your internet speed information. Sometimes you will see some
Internet service providers offers high speed internet like 256K, 512K or 1M connections.
But when you use internet, you only gets 64KB, 128KB and 256KB respectively. The
reason is these company advertise their speed in bit, which is 256Kb/s, 512Kb/s etc. but if
you convert it in byte you will get 64KB/s, 128KB/s as you know 1byte = 8bit. This is
just a business trick.
A larger bandwidth means greater potential data-transmission capability. For digital

signals, a higher bit rate represents a larger bandwidth. Some people always confused
themselves between bandwidth and internet speed. Now the question is what is the
difference between bandwidth and speed? Bandwidth is a capacity; speed is a rate.
2 - 10
2.1.4Communication Model
If you wondered how a network works, then you have to understand communication
model. A communication model is a common backbone of any type of communication
system. If you know this model, then you will understand any kind of communication
system. Let’s understand a communication system for an example: by calling a friend of
yours. We are going to help you to call your friend with the help of this model and its
elements. Any communication network has five basic key elements:
• Source: Source is basically a device which initiates data transmission. Suppose

you call a friend by mobile and your mobile starting to send your voice data to
your friend. So your mobile works as a source.
• Encoder (Transmitter): As you call your friend, your voice can’t send directly to
your friend over network. Your voice first encoded into some electromagnetic
signal then transmits. This is the job of transmitter. It encodes your voice data
(analogue) into electromagnetic signal (digital) then transmits.
Communication Model
• Channel (Transmission System): It is a system which connects you and your

friend’s mobiles before you start talking. This can be done over single
transmission line or a complex network. A little noise (Distraction in voice) is
added with your voice here.
• Decoder (Receiver): As you see your friend can’t understand your voice which is
encoded into electromagnetic signal earlier. So electromagnetic signal needs to
convert into voice data. Well this is the job of receiver, just opposite of
Transmitter. The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and
converts it into original voicedata form.
• Destination: This is your friend’s mobile which receives these converted original
voice data. And the reply of your friend, could be done as same way, which is
called ’feedback’.
2 - 11
2.1.5Data Transmission Method
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more
digital devices. This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for
example: coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.). There are mainly two types of transmission:
Parallel Transmission and Serial Transmission.
Parallel Transmission
2.1.5.1 Parallel Transmission

Suppose there are two devices. For example: one is sender and other one is receiver. Now
we want to send some data from sender to receiver. For example we want to send 8 bit
data. Now we can send 1 bit data at a time over a line as a clock pulse. Well it looks like
we have to send 8 times for each bit. But we can do better than this. What if we connect 4
or 8 separate lines between sender and receiver? As every line carries 1 bit and if there
are 8 lines, we can send 8 bit data at the same time. This is the idea of parallel
transmission. It transmits data over parallel line at the same time.
Characteristics of Parallel Transmission

• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another
i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in the figure, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender
to receiver.
2 - 12
Advantage of Parallel Transmission

• It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with
a single clock pulse.
Disadvantage of Parallel Transmission

• It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the
same time.
Application of Parallel Transmission

• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
2.1.5.2 Serial Transmission

In serial transmission if you need to send some data you have do it one line only. So
naturally it is slower than parallel transmission. But it is more economical than parallel
transmission. Here data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval
for each bit. This mode of transmission is also known as bit-serial transmission.
Characteristics of Serial Transmission

• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender
to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in figure, suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to
destination. Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by
other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single
communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to
change this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so
that it can be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the
interval circuitry of computer can accept it.
2 - 13
Advantage of Serial transmission

•Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as
compared to parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission

•Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
•This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted
serially one after the other.
There are three types of serial transmission:
▪ Asynchronous Transmission
▪ Synchronous Transmission
▪ Isochronous Transmission
Synchronous and Asynchronous serial transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'. Bit

Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of
the data transmission occurs. Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know
when data begin and end during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides
timing control.
2.1.5.2.1 Asynchronous transmission

In Asynchronous transmission, data divided into number of suitable characters and each
character is transmitted one at a time. The transfer of data is controlled by start bits and
stop bits. Each character is surrounded by these bits, which shows the beginning and end
2 - 14
of the character. When receiver receives this, then it discards start bit & stop bit and gets
original data.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10

bits. For example: we want to transmit a character ’A’ which is in binary 01000001. So
we have to prepare this for asynchronous transmission. Here our data is not very long, so
we won’t divide it for this case. First we have to add start bit and end bit respectively at
first and last of this number. So it would become "1-01000001-0". The extra 1 (or 0,
depending on parity bit) at the start and 0 (or 1, depending on parity bit) at end are start
bit and stop bit.Then we send to the receiver. Receiver already has information about start
bit and end bit. So when it will start receiving data, it will discard start bit & end bit and
gets original data.
Application of Asynchronous Transmission

•Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape
devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the
terminal or the computer as transmission takes place character by character.
•Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is
transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.
Advantages of Asynchronous Transmission

•This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If
lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and
idle time will not be expensive.
•In this approach each individual character is complete in itself; therefore if character is
corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be
affected.
•It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
•The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
2 - 15
•Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Transmission

•This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the
overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
•Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits
can be missed or corrupted.
2.1.5.2.2 Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous transmission of data is a method in which blocks of character are

transmitted in times sequences i.e. time is synchronized here. Rather than using start bits
around each character like asynchronous transmission, each block of character is marked
with synchronization characters. The receiving device accepts data until it detects a
special synchronize character at which time the device knows the data has come to an
end. The special characters used in synchronous transmission are called message
character.
Synchronous Transmission
As you see in following figure, the data blocks are grouped and spaced in regular
intervals as ’data’ and preceded by special characters called ’syn’ or synchronous
characters. After the ’syn’ characters are received by the other device (where we want to
send), they are decoded and used to synchronize the connection. After the connection is
correctly synchronized, data transmission begins and data starts to transmit.
Application of Synchronous Transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
2 - 16
Advantage of Synchronous Transmission

• This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit &
stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous Transmission

• It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the
two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at
both ends. This leads to increase in the cost.
• The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires
proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.
2.1.5.2.3 Isochronous Transmission: An isochronous data transfer system combines the

features of an asynchronous and synchronous data transfer system. An isochronous data
transfer system sends blocks of data asynchronously, in other words at random intervals.
Each transmission begins with a start packet. Once the start packet is transmitted, the data
must be delivered with a guaranteed bandwidth.
Isochronous Transmission
Isochronous data transfer is commonly used for where data must be delivered within
certain time constraints, like video streaming. Isochronous systems do not have an error
detection mechanism (acknowledgment of receiver) because if an error were detected,
time constraints would make it impossible to resend the data. In this transmission the
clock is provided at a constant rate by a single device for all other devices on the network.
For example from following figure: 8, data must be transmitted in 125µs into all devices
and if one device missed some data bits, then that device never going to get it back again.
2.1.5.3 Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission
No. Factor Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

1 Number of bits One bit n bits
2 - 17
transmitted at one clock

pulse
2 Number of lines required One line n lines
to transmit n bits
3 Speed of data transfer Slow Fast
4 Cost of transmission Low as one line is required Higher as n lines are
required
5 Application Long distance Short distance
communication between communication like,
two computers computer to printer
2.1.5.4Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous SerialTransmission

No. Factor Asynchronous Serial Synchronous Parallel
Transmission Transmission
1 Data send at one time Usually one byte Multiple bytes
2 Start and Stop bit Used Not used
3 Gap between Data units Present Not present
4 Data transmission speed Slow Fast
5 Cost Low High
2.1.6Data Transmission Mode
The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data transmission
mode. It indicates the direction of flow of information. Sometimes, data transmission
modes are also called directional modes. Different types of data transmission modes are
as follows:
• Simplex Mode
• Half-duplex Mode
• Full-duplex Mode
Simplex Mode: In simplex mode, data can flow in only one direction. In this mode, a
sender can only send data but cannot receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data
but cannot send it. Data sent from CPU/Mainframe to Monitor or Keyboard to CPU is
examples of simplex mode.
2 - 18
Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, it is not possible to confirm successful transmission of data. It is also

not possible to request the sender to re-transmit information. This mode is not widely
used. Examples of simplex communication modes are Radio and T.V. remote.
Half-Duplex Mode: In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but only in one
direction at a time. In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively.
Half-Duplex Mode
Walkie-Talkie is an example of half duplex mode. It only supports half duplex

communication, so only one person can speak at a time. This is why people
communicating over Walkie-Talkie often say "over" at the end of each talking.
Full-Duplex Mode: In full duplex-mode, data can flow in both directions at the same
time. The telephone communication system is an example of full-duplex communication
mode where two persons can talk at the same time.
Full-Duplex Mode
According To selection of path in a network i.e. routing, data transmission mode can be
divided into many ways:
2 - 19
• Unicast
• Broadcast
• Multicast
• Anycast
• Geocast
Unicast: Think about your classroom with all students. You have a message. You need to
deliver it. If you deliver your message only one of the students, then it is going to be
unicast. Unicast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information
is sent from one point to another point. In this case there is just one sender and one
receiver.
Broadcast: Now if you deliver your message all the students of the class, then it is
broadcast. Broadcast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of
information is sent from one point to all other points. In this case there is just one sender,
but the information is sent to all connected receivers.
Multicast: Now you have to deliver your message only some students of the class but not
all of them. This is multicast. Multicast is the term used to describe communication where
a piece of information is sent to a set of other points. In this case information is
distributed to a set of receivers. In figure below, sender S transmits data to only three
subscribers (X), among all five of them. So it is multicast.
Anycast: Here you deliver your message to the nearest student to you and then that
informed student deliver message to his nearest student and so on. This is known as
Anycast. Anycast is a communication that takes place over a network between a single
sender and the nearest of a group of receivers.
Geocast: Geocast refers to the delivery of information to a group of destinations in a

network identified by their geographical locations. It is a specialized form of multicast.
Geocast
2 - 20
Data Transmission According to Selection of Path: Unicast, Multicast, Anycast,

Broadcast
2 - 21
2.1.6.1 Comparison between Half and Full Duplex
No. Factor Half Duplex Full Duplex
1 Direction of data The transmission and Two components can

reception of information transmit and receive
must happen alternately. information between each
While one point is other simultaneously.
transmitting, the other must
only receive.
2 Level of difficulty to High Low

use
3 Example Walkie-talkie Telephone
2.1.6.2Comparison between Duplex and Simplex

No. Factor Duplex Simplex
1 Direction of Bi-directional Unidirectional

communication
2 Permission on From both side Only from one side

transmitting data
3 Example Telephone, Walkie-talkie IR remote control
2.1.7Medium of Data Communication
The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called
transmission or communication media. There are two categories of transmission media
used in computer communication:
• Wired/Bounded/Guided media
• Wireless/Unbounded/Unguided media
2.1.7.1 Bounded Media
Bounded media is the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path.
Bounded media are made up an external conductor (Usually copper) bounded by jacket
material. Bounded media are great for working purpose because they offer high speed,
2 - 22
good security and low cost. However, some time they cannot be used due distant
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used for data transmission.
These are:
• Coaxial Cable
• Twisted Pairs Cable
• Fiber Optics Cable
A. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is very common & widely

used communication media. For example:
TV wire is usually coaxial. Coaxial cable
gets its name because it contains two
conductors that are parallel to each other.
The center conductor in the cable is usually
copper. The copper can be either a solid
wire or stranded material.
Coaxial Cable
Outside this central conductor is a nonconductive material. It is usually white, plastic

material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other
Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form EMI
Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. The actual data travels through the
center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh. There are
different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance. Gauge is the measure of the
cable thickness
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows for much
greater throughput.
• Lower error rates because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise
immunity is improved, and coax has a lower error rates and therefore slightly
better performance than twisted pair.
• Greater spacing between amplifiers coax's cable shielding reduces noise and
crosstalk, which means amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than with twisted
pair.
2 - 23
• Low cost and easy installation are main characteristics of Coaxial Cable.
• Easy wiring and expansion with medium level EMI immunity makes it excellent
communication medium.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• More expensive to install compare to twisted pair cable.
• The thicker the cable, the more difficult to work with.
• Only single cable failure can take down whole network.
B. Twisted Pair Cable
The most popular network cabling is twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install,
inexpensive and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of
100 Mbps. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid copper twisted along each other.
The twists are done to reduce lots of problems like EMI interference. The number of pairs
in the cable depends on the type. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
i. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade
(for voice transmission like phone) or data grade (for date transmission like computer
files) depending on the condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm.
UTP cost less than STP and easily available due to its many use.
Low cost, easy installation with effective EMI immunity is main advantage of UTP cable.
But high attenuation makes it impossible for long distance communication. Usually it has
100 meter limitation. But it is capable of high speed data transmission.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
ii. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s
protects it from EMI which allows for higher transmission rate
2 - 24
STP has higher capacity than UTP. It has moderate immunity from EMI. It is shielded
and has a faster data transmission rate than UTP and coaxial cable. But it is expensive
comparing UTP and coaxial. Difficult installation and high attenuation are main
disadvantage of STP cable. That’s why it has same 100 meter limitation like UTP.
Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

• Cheaper and far easier to splice
• Handled a data flow of up to approximately one megabit per second (Mbps) over
several hundred feet
• Small local area network with a limited number of users, twisted pair is an ideal
choice because it is both inexpensive and easy to install.
Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

• Susceptibility to signal distortion errors and the relatively low transmission rates
they provide over long distances.
Applications of Twisted Pair Cables

Some of the applications of twisted pair cables are as follows:
(1) In telephone lines to carry voice and data channels.
(2) In the local loop.
(3) In the DSL line (ADSL)
(4) Local area networks such as 10 Base-T and 100 Base-T. Use the twisted pair cables.
(5) In the ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).
C. Fiber Optics Cable
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable
light only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place. So a second
connection must be made between the two devices. A laser at one device sends pulse of
light through this cable to other device. These pulses translated into "1’s" and "0’s" at the
other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through
this glass to the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as
CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding. Fiber
optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 Gbps (Gigabits per Second).
2 - 25
Advantages of Fiber Optics Cable

• System performance
• Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
• Lower signal attenuation (loss)
• Immunity to electrical noise
• Immune to noise (electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference)
• Less restrictive in harsh environments
• Overall system economy
• High speed data transmission
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics Cable

• Fiber optic component are expensive
• Fiber optic transmitters and receivers are still relatively expensive compared to
electrical interfaces
• The lack of standardization in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fiber
optics.
Uses of Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of industries and applications. Some
uses of fiber optic cables include:
• Medical
Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries
• Defense/Government
Used as hydrophones for seismic and SONAR uses, as wiring in aircraft,
submarines and other vehicles and also for field networking
• Data Storage
Used for data transmission
• Telecommunications
Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving purposes
• Networking
Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network settings and help
increase the speed and accuracy of data transmission
• Industrial/Commercial
Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring where EMI is an issue, as
2 - 26
sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements, and as

wiring in automobiles and in industrial settings
• Broadcast/CATV
Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV,
internet, video on-demand and other applications
Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and imaging and as sensors to measure and
monitor a vast array of variables. Fiber optic cables are also used in research and
development and testing across all the above mentioned industries.
2.1.7.2 Unbounded Media
Unbounded / Unguided media or wireless media doesn’t use any physical connectors
between the two devices. Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere.
Wireless media is used when a physical obstruction or distance blocks are used with
normal cable media. The three types of wireless media are:
• Radio Waves
• Micro Waves
• Infrared Waves
A. Radio Waves
It has frequency between 10 KHz to 1 GHz. Radio waves has the following types.
• Short waves
• VHF (Very High Frequency)
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
i. Short Waves: Short wave transmission can be divided into following categories.
• Low Power, Single Frequency: As the name shows this system transmits from
one frequency and has low power out. Low cost, preconfigured simple installation
with 1Mbps to 10Mbps transmission rate capabilities are its key feature. But high
attenuation and low immunity to EMI are only down point of this medium. The
normal operating ranges of these devices are 20 to 25 meters.
• High Power, Single Frequency: This is similar to low power single frequency.
These devices can communicate over greater distances. Although it is more costly
than low power single frequency but it is easier to install. It has low attenuation
for long distance but low immunity to EMI. It is capable of 1Mbps to 10Mbps
data transmission.
2 - 27
You will know about VHF and UHF in higher studies.
B. Micro Waves
Micro waves travels at high frequency than radio waves and provide through put as a
wireless network media. Following are the types of Micro waves.
• Terrestrial Micro waves
• Satellite Micro waves
i. Terrestrial Micro waves: Terrestrial Micro waves are used to transmit wireless signals
across a few miles. Terrestrial system requires that direct parabolic antennas can be
pointed to each other. It is moderately costly and difficult to installation. It has variable
attenuation and low immunity to EMI. It can transmit from 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
Micro Wave Signal Satellite Micro Wave Signal
ii. Satellite Micro Waves: Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals
throughout the world. These systems use satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the
earth. Satellite dishes are used to send the signals to the satellite where it is again send
back down to the receiver satellite.
In satellite communication micro wave signals is transmitted from a transmitter on the
earth through the satellite position in space. By the time signal reaches the satellites
becomes weaker due to 50,000 Km distance. The satellite amplifies weak signals and
transmits it back to the earth.
It is very costly and very difficult to install. Variable attenuation and low immunity to
EMI are its key point characteristics. And it also needs high security because signal needs
to broadcast here i.e. every receiver receives its signal.
2 - 28
C. Infrared Waves
Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These high frequencies allow high speed
data transmission. This technology is similar to the use of a remote control for a TV.
Infrared transmission can be affected by objects obstructing sender or receiver. Although
it has high immunity to EMI and variable attenuation, its installation is not very easy.
With wide range of cost it has transmission capabilities of 100Kbps to 16Mbps.
2.2 Wireless Communication System
Wireless communication is among technology’s biggest contributions to mankind.

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without
help of wires or cables. The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters
(for example, a television’s remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for example,
radio or satellite communication). Some of the devices used for wireless communication
are cordless telephones, mobiles, GPS units, wireless computer parts and satellite
television.
Importance of Wireless Communication Technologies
In a world of increasing mobility, there is a growing need for people to communicate with
each other and have timely access to information regardless of the location of the
individuals or the information. A phone call placed from a moving train may close a
business deal, remote access to medical records by a doctor may save a life or a request
for reconnaissance updates by a soldier with a handheld device may affect the outcome of
a battle. Each of these instances of mobile communications poses a challenge that can be
met only with an efficient, reliable, wireless communication network. The four key
benefits of wireless technology are:
• Increased efficiency - improved communications leads to faster transfer of

information.
• You are rarely out of touch - you don’t need to carry cables in order to access
office networks.
• Greater flexibility and mobility for users - people can be networked without sitting
at PC.
• Reduced costs - wireless networks arecheaper to install and maintain.

2 - 29
2.2.1 Some Common Wireless Technologies
A. Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology is a short-range communications technology that is simple, secure

and everywhere. You can find it in billions of devices ranging from mobile phones and
computers to medical devices and home entertainment products. It is intended to replace
the cables connecting devices, while maintaining high levels of security. In 1994 a group
of engineers at Ericsson, a Swedish company, invented a wireless communication
technology, later named Bluetooth.
The key features of Bluetooth technology are robustness, low power and low cost. The
Bluetooth Specification defines a uniform simple structure for a wide range of devices to
connect and communicate with each other. When two Bluetooth enabled devices connect
to each other, this is called pairing. The structure and the global acceptance of Bluetooth
technology means any Bluetooth enabled device, almost everywhere in the world, can
connect to other Bluetooth enabled devices located in proximity to one another.
A fundamental strength of Bluetooth wireless technology is the ability to simultaneously

handle data and voice transmissions, which provides users with a variety of innovative
solutions such as hands-free headsets for voice calls, printing and fax capabilities and
synchronization for PCs and mobile phones etc...
The range of Bluetooth technology is application specific. The Core Specification

mandates a minimum range of 10 meters or 30 feet, but there is no set limit and
manufacturers can tune their implementations to provide the range needed to support the
use cases for their solutions.
Advantages of Bluetooth
• Bluetooth does not require a clear line of sight between the synced devices. This
means that the devices need not be facing each other.
• The fact that this technology requires no cables and wires is something that has
made it so popular.
• One major advantage is its simplicity of use. Anyone can figure out how to set up
a connection and sync two devices with ease. Moreover, the technology is
completely free to use and requires no charges to be paid to any service provider.
2 - 30
• The chances of other wireless networks interfering with yours are very low. This
is because of the low-powered wireless signals that the technology adopts, and
also because of something known as frequency hopping.
Disadvantages of Bluetooth
• Though the transfer speeds are impressive at around 25 Mbps, certain other
technologies like Wi-Fi Direct can offer speeds up to 250 Mbps. This is an area
that can be improved upon in the near future.
• Even though the security is good, it is even better on Wi-Fi Direct. This can be
accounted to the (comparatively) larger range of Bluetooth and also to the lack of
a line of sight. Someone who knows how to hack such networks can do so
eventually.
• The battery usage during a single transfer is negligible, but there are some people
who leave the device switched on in their devices. This inevitably eats into the
battery of these devices, and lowers the battery life considerably.
B. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is the way to connect devices together without wires. Wi-Fi is
often referred to as "wireless internet", because that’s what it is most often used for,
accessing the internet. When you see people surfing the web in a cafe, they’re probably
using Wi-Fi. Wireless technology has widely spread lately and you can get connected
almost anywhere; at home, at work, in libraries, schools, airports, hotels and even in some
restaurants.
Like mobile phones, a Wi-Fi network makes use of radio waves to transmit information
across a network. The computer should include a wireless adapter that will translate data
sent into a radio signal. This same signal will be transmitted, via an antenna, to a decoder
known as the router. Once decoded, the data will be sent to the Internet through a wired
ethernet connection. As the wireless network will work as a two-way traffic, the data
received from the Internet will also pass through the router to be coded into a radio signal
so that it can be used as original form. Areas which are enabled with Wi-Fi connectivity
are known as Hot Spots. The term Hotspot is used to define an area where Wi-Fi access is
available.
The speed of Wi-Fi connection depends on how many other people are connected to the
same "access point." If the coffee shop or airport terminal is crowded, your Wi-Fi internet
2 - 31
connection may slow down a bit. There are several different types of Wi-Fi, but the end
result is still the same, wireless communication.
Advantages of Wi-Fi
• The main advantages of using Wi-Fi technology is the lack of wires. This is a
wireless connection that can merge together multiple devices.
• Wi-Fi network is particularly useful in cases where the wiring is not possible or
even unacceptable. For example, it is often used in the halls of conferences and
international exhibitions. It is ideal for buildings that are considered architectural
monuments of history, as it excludes the wiring cables.
• Wi-Fi networks are widely used to connect a variety of devices, not only between
themselves but also to the Internet. And almost all modern laptops, tablets, and
some mobile phones have this feature. It is very convenient and allows you to
connect to the internet almost anywhere, not just where the cables are laid. Today,
you can access the network, for example, being in the park for a walk across the
street or in an airport lounge. The main thing that was available near the point of
Wi-Fi.
• Another advantage can be pretty easy to create a mesh Wi-Fi. To connect a new
device to your network, simply turn on the Wi-Fi and do the simple setting in the
software. In the case of wire technologies still need to pull the wire. Therefore,
many modern offices are switching to this technology.
• Standardization of Wi-Fi technology allows you to connect to the network in any
country, although there are still little features of its application. All equipment
with technology Wi-Fi certified and allows us to achieve high compatibility.
Disadvantages of Wi-Fi
• Call quality is greatly influenced by the environment, is particularly sensitive to
electromagnetic radiation generated by household appliances. This primarily
affects the speed of data transmission.
• Despite the global standardization, many devices from different manufacturers are
not fully compatible, which in turn affects the speed of communication.
• Wi-Fi has a limited radius of action and it is suitable for home networking, which
is more dependent on the environment. For example, a typical home router with
Wi-Fi in the room has a range of up to 45 meters and up to 450 meters outside.
2 - 32
• At high density Wi-Fi-points operating in the same or adjacent channels, they can
interfere with each other. This affects the quality of the connection. This problem
is common in apartment buildings, where many residents are using this
technology.
Really Wi-Fi technology is not perfect and has many flaws that limit its use. However,
the benefits of it are much greater. Therefore, every day, this modern technology is
increasingly used and becomes a popular.
C. Wi-MAX
WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. Around 2004,
WiMAX technology becomes progressively more discussed. Many experts made claims
about the WiMAX technology, some claimed it would have significantly greater range
than 3G, higher data rates, would be built into all computing devices and as an effect it
would take over the market for 3G like services. WiMAX itself is a 4G technology.
The WiMAX network operates similarly to a Wi-Fi connection, but there are few key
differences. WiMAX transmitters can cover an estimated 30-mile radius whereas Wi-Fi’s
range is about 100 feet. In other words, WiMAX turns many small, scattered hot spots
into one huge wireless hot spot.
Difference between Wi-MAX and Wi-Fi Signal Range
WiMAX initially offers up to about 40 Mbps capacity per wireless channel for both fixed
(using at home) and portable (using when moving for example in running vehicle)
applications. WiMAX can support voice and video as well as Internet data.
Advantages of WiMAX
1. Single station can serve hundreds of users.
2. Much faster deployment of new users comparing to wired networks.
3. Speed of 10 Mbps at 10 kilometers with line-of-site.

2 - 33
4. It is standardized, and same frequency equipment should work together.
Disadvantages of WiMAX
1. Line of site is needed for longer connections.
2. Weather conditions like rain could interrupt the signal.
3. Other wireless equipment could cause interference.
4. Multiplied frequencies are used.
5. WiMAX is very power intensive technology and requires strong electrical support.
6. Big installation and operational coast.
D. Wi-Fi Direct
Wi-Fi CERTIFIED Wi-Fi Direct® is a certification mark for devices supporting a
technology that enables Wi-Fi devices to connect directly, making it simple and
convenient to do things like print, share, sync and display. Products bearing the Wi-Fi
Direct certification mark can connect to one another without joining a traditional home,
office or hotspot network.Wi-Fi Direct allows two devices to establish a direct, peer-to-
peer Wi-Fi connection without requiring a wireless router. Wi-Fi becomes a way of
communicating wirelessly, like Bluetooth.
Mobile phones, cameras, printers, PCs, and gaming devices connect to each other directly
to transfer content and share applications quickly and easily. Devices can make a one-to-
one connection, or a group of several devices can connect simultaneously. Connecting
Wi-Fi Direct-certified devices is easy and simple, with the push of a button, tapping two
NFC-capable devices together, or entering a PIN. Moreover, all Wi-Fi Direct connections
are protected by WPA2™, the latest Wi-Fi security technology. With Wi-Fi Direct, you
do not need an access point or internet connection – your personal Wi-Fi network goes
with you wherever you go.
A set of optional pre-defined services let devices send files, print documents, play media
and display screens between and among devices easily, no matter the vendor. The
standard enhanced services let users “discover, connect and do” in a single step to
perform these common tasks. The new service platform also fosters innovative
development opportunities for new applications to take advantage of direct device-to-
device connections.
2 - 34
Advantages of Wi-Fi Direct

• Wi-Fi Direct doesn't need a wireless access point
• Wi-Fi Direct is an official standard
• Wi-Fi Direct is Wi-Fi without the internet bit
• Wi-Fi Direct uses Wi-Fi Protected Setup
• Wi-Fi Direct knows what's nearby
• Wi-Fi Direct uses the same silicon
• Wi-Fi Direct is in DLNA, iOS, Android and BB OS and even your new Xbox
Disadvantages of Wi-Fi Direct

• Wi-Fi Direct many bugs in it. E.g. the Wi-Fi-Direct went out of service when the
connection stopped.
• Wi-Fi Direct isn't available on every device.
• A connection has an "owner", when it disconnects the connection stops.
• When user leaves the owner's range, he disconnect from group connection.
2.2.1.1 Comparison between Wi-Fi Direct and Bluetooth
No. Specifications Wi-Fi Direct Bluetooth

1 Frequency Band Used 2.4 GHz and or 5 GHz 2.4 GHz
2 Number of Devices Several devices can be One master can control up
connected to 7 slave devices
3 Data Transfer Rate Up to 250 Mbps Up to 25 Mbps
4 Range Up to 200 meters Can be optimized to 200
feet and beyond
5 Compatibility Works with traditional Wi-Fi Compatible with all older
devices Bluetooth versions
6 Secured By WPA2 with 256-bit AES 128-bit AES encryption
encryption
7 Power Requirements Consumes more power than Bluetooth LE devices use
Bluetooth very less power, and can be
powered up even by coin
cells
8 Applications Data transfer applications in Used in smartphones,
smartphones, tablets, and laptops, tablets, smart
2 - 35
laptops. It can also be used to watches, music players,

form a wireless network. printers, computer
peripherals, health
monitors, etc.
2.2.1.2 Comparison between Wi-Fi and WiMAX
No. Feature WiMAX Wi-Fi

1 Primary Broadband Wireless Wireless LAN
Application Access
2 Frequency Band Licensed/Unlicensed 5 GHz U-NII
2 G to 11 GHz
3 Channel Adjustable 20 MHz
Bandwidth 1.25 M to 20 MHz
4 Half/Full Duplex Full Half
5 Radio Technology OFDM OFDM
(256-channels) (64-channels)
6 Bandwidth <=5 bps/Hz <=2.7 bps/Hz
Efficiency
7 Modulation BPSK, QPSK, BPSK, QPSK,
16-, 64-, 256-QAM 16-, 64-QAM
8 FEC Convolutional Code Convolutional Code
Reed-Solomon
9 Encryption Mandatory- 3DES Optional- RC4
Optional- AES (AES in 802.11i)
10 Mobility Mobile WiMAX In development
(802.16e)
11 Mesh Yes Vendor Proprietary
12 Access Protocol Request/Grant CSMA/CA
2.3 Mobile Communication

2 - 36
Mobile communication allows transmission of voice and multimedia data over mobile
device without having connected to any physical or fixed link. Mobile communication is
evolving day by day and has become a must have for everyone. Mobile communication
technologies are not only benefiting businesses to perform their operation faster and
efficiently but also raising the standard of human lives. Although by Mobile
Communication we understand only mobile phone but it also includes other mobile
devices like Notebook, Tablet, and Netbook. But mobile phone networks or cellular
network will be our main concern here for now.
▪ Mobile Phone
Mobile phone is a portable telephone device that does

not require the use of landlines or wires. It is a
wireless electronic telecommunications device, often
referred to as a cellular phone or cellphone. Mobile
phones connect to a wireless communications
network through radio wave or satellite transmissions.
In 1973 using a prototype Motorola DynaTac,
inventor Martin Cooper made the first call on a mobile phone. The original DynaTac was
10 inches long and weighed 2.5 pounds. For comparison, most modern smartphones
weigh between four and six ounces.
▪ Roaming
Roaming refers to the continued data service you get when you go outside of your mobile
operator’s coverage area. This service must be available with your current phone plan.
Domestic roaming is usually free. Unfortunately, international roaming is usually very
costly. You can trigger data roaming fees in several ways: by making or receiving phone
calls, by sending or receiving text (SMS) messages and/or by downloading or uploading
any Internet content (such as emails or accessing web pages).
2.3.1 How Mobile Communication Works
Before we show you how mobile communication works, you should go back at first of
this chapter and check Network Communication Model again. Because this time, we are
going to show the same example with a little bit details. The area you live in are divided
into ’cells’ of prescribed size and each cell is having one mobile base station which we
call a mobile tower. This is the tower whose signal bar phone shows in screen. When you
turn your mobile on, it keeps on sending signals to nearest mobile base station via
2 - 37
microwave transmission. Mobile base station keeps records of SIM and related data of
your mobile into network computer. This is true for every mobile in coverage of that
network tower.
Area of Mobile Communication
When anyone tries to call anybody in another area, which is also covered by another cell
of network, mobile number data of that person is then constantly transmitted to network
computer of nearest mobile base station of caller. Immediately after verification of the
number, network computer tries to locate the person to whom you are calling via nearest
cell and base station. When your friend is traced by nearest base station, ring is rung on
receiver phone. Let’s tell this by example again with figure. You want to call your friend
Jalil. Now your friend is far away from where you live. Suppose you are in your home
and it is covered by Base Station-1. Your friend Jalil lives in another place which is
covered by Base Station-2. Now when you call Jalil your identity data will be transferred
to Base Station-1 and then forwards to network computer. Network computer will check
your identity, then after verifying it will search your friend Jalil in every cell. When your
friend will be found, it will connect you to your friend. This whole thing is done when
you heard “bipbip” buzzing sound in your phone while trying to call someone.
Now we see when someone receives the call, what will happen? When receiver/friend
picks up the call, base station of receiver and transmitter (you phone works as a
transmitter) creates unique channel between them. When you speak, your voice is
2 - 38
converted to analog form by microphone of the mobile. This analog signal is then
converted to digital form and is being sent to nearest mobile base station through
microwave signals. When nearest mobile base station of caller receives microwave
signals, it converts it immediately to digital form and it sends to the receiver’s (your
friend Jalil) nearest mobile phone base station via unique channel that was created earlier.
The whole process is shown below. Now are you seeing any similarity with Network
Communication Model where we explained it earlier with same type of example?
Mobile Communication
Now receiver’s nearest mobile base station transmits the calling data by microwave
signals and these signals are received by phone receiver of your friend to whom you are
calling. Receiver of your friend’s mobile phone then immediately converts that
microwave signals to digital form and then to analog form and so in amplified voice form.
And speaker of that phone speaks that voice of caller. When your friend replies/talks to
you, it then again happens in reverse and your conversation goes on at the same way.
2.3.2Mobile Phone Standards
There are several different mobile phone standards. The current and most popular mobile
communications standards are GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
2 - 39
▪ Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
GSM or global system for mobile communication is a digital cellular system. It was
originated in Finland Europe. However now it is throughout the world. GSM accounts for
80% of total mobile phone technologies market all over the world. There are over more
than 3 billion users of GSM now. The use of GSM is possible due to the SIM (subscribers
identity module) is easy to use, affordable and helps you carry your cell phone
everywhere. Originally GSM is a 2G technology. GSM offers moderate security. It allows
for encryption between the end user and the service base station. This network supports
international roaming, hence is the popular choice among users.
In Bangladesh, mobile operator like Teletalk, Grameenphone, Banglalink, Robi and Airtel
are using GSM service.
Advantages of GSM
• Less signal deterioration inside buildings.
• Ability to use repeaters.
• Talk time is generally higher in GSM phones due to the pulse nature of
transmission.
• The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch networks
and handsets at will, aside from a subsidy lock.
• GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international roaming is not a
problem.
• The much bigger number of subscribers globally creates a better network effect
for GSM handset makers, carriers and end users.
Disadvantages of GSM
• Interferes with some electronics, especially certain audio amplifiers.
• Intellectual property is concentrated among a few industry participants, creating
barriers to entry for new entrants and limiting competition among phone
manufacturers. Situation is however worse in CDMA-based systems like IS-95,
where Qualcomm is the major IP holder.
• GSM has a fixed maximum cell site range of 120 km, which is imposed by
technical limitations. This is expanded from the old limit of 35 km.
2 - 40
▪ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
CDMA originally is a military technology. It is based on "spread" spectrum technology.

Since it is suitable for encrypted transmission, that’s why it has long been used for
military purposes. CDMA allows for a "soft hand-off", which minimizes signal breakup
as a handset passes from one cell tower to another. The original CDMA standard, also
known as CDMA One is still common in cellular telephones. This method of
communication cannot offer international roaming and many other advanced user
services. Power consumption is reasonably lesser than GSM.
In Bangladesh only Citycell offers CDMA service for users. But due to limitation of the
current technology, Citycell plans to go for GSM technology.
Advantages of CDMA techniques:

• Efficient practical utilization of fixed frequency spectrum
• Flexible allocation of resources
• Many users of CDMA use the same frequency
• No absolute limit on the number of users, Easy addition of more users
• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
• Better signal quality
• No sense of handoff when changing cells
• The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide
• CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff, which minimizes signal
breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another
• CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this allows for nationwide
roaming
Disadvantages to using CDMA:
• As the number of users increases, the overall quality of service decreases
• Self-jamming
• Near-Far problem arises
Comparison between CDMA and GSM
No. Specification CDMA GSM

1 Stands for Code Division Multiple Access Global System for Mobile
communication
2 Storage Type Internal Memory SIM (subscriber identity
2 - 41
module) Card
3 Global market 25% 75%
share
4 Dominance Dominant standard in the U.S. Dominant standard
worldwide except the U.S.
5 Data transfer EVDO/3G/4G/LTE GPRS/E/3G/4G/LTE
6 Network There is one physical channel and a Every cell has a
special code for every device in the corresponding network
coverage network. Using this code, tower, which serves the
the signal of the device is mobile phones in that
multiplexed, and the same physical cellular area.
channel is used to send the signal.
7 International Less Accessible Most Accessible
roaming
8 Frequency Single (850 MHz) Multiple
band (850/900/1800/1900 MHz)
9 Network Handset specific SIM specific. User has
service option to select handset of
his choice.
2.3.3 A Journey from 0G to 5G Technology
▪ 0G Technology
0G (Zero Generation) is also known as Mobile Radio Telephone system. It was

mentioned as pre cellular system.
Characteristics of 0G technology
• This system was analog in nature.
• Generally Mobile Radio Telephone system provides half duplex communications

i.e. only one person will speak and other should hear.
These mobile telephones were placed in vehicles (truck, cars etc.). The device (telephone)
would connect to local telephone network only if it is in the range of 20KM.
2 - 42
Mobile Radio Telephone System
▪ 0.5G Technology
0.5G was the advance version of 0G. This 0.5G technology had introduced ARP
(Autoradiopuhelin) as the first commercial public mobile phone network. This ARP
network was launched in 1971 in Finland.
Characteristics of 0.5G technology

• ARP used half duplex system for transmission (voice signals can either be
transmitted or received at a time) with manual switched system.
• This network contains cells (Land area was divided into small sectors, each sector
is known as cell, a cell is covered by a radio network with one transceiver) with
the cell size of 30 km.
• Calls would get disconnected while moving from one cell to another.
The only difference with previous one is: you can carry this phone with you without any
vehicle.
▪ 1G Technology
1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology. These are the analog
telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until
being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications.
The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is
that the radio signals that 1G networks use are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
▪ 2G Technology
Second generation (2G) telephone technology is based on GSM or in other word global
system for mobile communication. Second generation was launched inFinland in the year
1991. Although it is originally introduced in Europe but is usedworldwide.
2 - 43
Characteristics of 2G technology
• 2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)based standards.
• GSM is TDMAbased standard. 2G networks were built mainly for voice services
and slow data transmission. It supports services such as text messages, picture
messages and MMS (Multimedia Messages).
• 2G technology is more efficient.
• It holds sufficient security for both the sender and the receiver.
• All text messages are digitally encrypted. This digital encryption allows for the
transfer of data in such a way that only the intended receiver can receive and read
it.
▪ 2.5G & 2.75G Technology
It was introduced mainly to add latest bandwidth technology to the existing 2G

generation. It supports higher data rate transmission for Web browsing and also supports
a new browsing format language called wireless application protocol (WAP). The
different upgrade paths include high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD), GPRS and
EDGE.
HSCSD (High-speed circuit-switched data) is a system for data calls on GSM networks
that came before packet based systems such as GPRS and EDGE. HSCSD is able to
provide a raw transmission rate of up to 57.6 kbps to individual users. It has better error
correction system. HSCSD was never widely adopted outside of Europe.
GPRS (General packet radio service) is 2.5G technology. GPRS supports multi-user
network sharing of individual radio channels and time slots. Thus GPRS supports many
more users than HSCSD but in a bursty manner. It can also be used for WAP, SMS &
MMS services, as well as Internet access. A user can achieve as much as 171.2 kbps
speed here.
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) is 2.75G technology. EDGE is the part
of GSM technology. It introduces a new degree of error control and protection. But the
covering range is smaller in EDGE than in HSCSD or GPRS. Both your phone and
network must support EDGE, otherwise the phone will revert automatically to GPRS.
2 - 44
▪ 3G Technology
3G is short for third-generation technology. It is usually used in the context of cell

phones. The services associated with 3G provide the ability to transfer both voice data (a
telephone call) and non-voice data (such as downloading information, exchanging email
and instant messaging). They also enable such advanced features as live, streaming video.
Applications of 3G
The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications
not previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Location-based services
• Mobile TV
• Telemedicine
• Video Conferencing
• Video on demand
In marketing 3G services, video telephony has often been used as the main feature for 3G.
A certain euphoria was created, which led to huge spectrum licensing fees in many
countries including Bangladesh. Since these spectrums licensing fees were collected
many years before any income could be expected from 3G businesses and since enormous
investments are necessary to build the 3G networks, many telecommunication operators
got into great financial difficulties, which greatly delayed 3G roll-out in many countries.
Plus you need 3G enabled phones to use 3G service.
The most significant features offered by third generation (3G) mobile technologies are the
momentous capacity and broadband capabilities to support greater numbers of voice and
data for customers. Plus higher data rates at lower incremental cost than 2G. 3G networks
have potential transfer speeds of up to 3 Mbps (about 15 seconds to download a 3 minute
MP3 song). For comparison, the fastest 2G phones can achieve up to 144Kbps (about 8
minutes to download a 3 minute song). 3G phones can accommodate broadband
applications like video conferencing, streaming video from the Web and instantly
downloading e-mail messages with attachments. 3G network have more enhanced
security than 2G.
The UN’s International Telecommunications Union IMT-2000 standard requires

stationary speeds of 2Mbps and mobile speeds of 384kbps at moving, for a "true" 3G.
Since the global standard was difficult to evolve, three operating modes have been
2 - 45
specified: First, a 3G device will be a personal, mobile, multimedia communication

device (e.g., TV provider redirects a TV channel directly to the subscriber’s phone where
it can be watched). Second, it will support video conferencing i.e. subscribers can see as
well as talk & watch each other. Third, it will also support location-based services, where
a service provider sends localized weather or traffic conditions to the phone or the phone
allows the subscriber to find nearby places or friends.
Teletalk, a government owned mobile phone operator is the first, who started 3G service
in Bangladesh from October, 2012. Recently Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory
Commission (BTRC) carries out an auction for 3G license in September, 2013. The four
cellphone operators Grameenphone, Robi, Banglalink and Airtel are won licenses for 3G.
All of these operators already stared experimental 3G service from October, 2013.
▪ 3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G Technology:
These systems are basically enhanced version of 3G. It supports a higher throughput and
speed at packet data rates of 14.4 MB/s downlink and 5.7MB/s uplink, supporting higher
data needs of users. 3.5G Data transmission technology is HSDPA. In 3.75G Data
transmission technology is HSUPA. In 3.9G Data transmission technology is HSPA
Evolution/HSPA+.
In 3.9G download peak data rates is 28Mbps and upload peak data rates is 11Mbps.
Although 3.9G is better than 3.75G and 3.75G is by all means technically superior to
3.5G, there will not be a noticeable transfer speed difference for most of the users. 3.9G
technology also known as pre-4G. Some operator branded their 3.9G service as 4G
service. However without fulfilling all requirements of 4G, it is just a business strategy.
You will know more about 4G next.
In Bangladesh, Airtel uses 3.75G, 3.9G technologies, Robi uses 3.5G technology,
Grameenphone uses 3.9G technology, Banglalink uses 3.5G technology andteletalk uses
3.5G technology.
▪ 4G Technology
4G is short for fourth-generation, the successor wireless access technology to 3G. The
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) official name for 4G is "3G and
beyond". In general, a generation is defined by the result of technology changes over a
10-15 year time frame. Thus, 4G would refer to whatever is deployed in the 2006-2015
period. The speed and standards of this technology of wireless needs to be at least 100
2 - 46
Megabits per second for mobile operation and up to 1 Gigabit per second for stationary to
pass as 4G.
Applications of 4G
4G applications include:
• Amended mobile web access
• IP telephony
• Gaming services
• High-definition mobile TV
• Video conferencing
• 3D television
• Cloud computing.
Long Term Evolution (LTE), this buzzword is a version of 4G that is becoming the latest
advertised technology but still not true 4G as the standards are set. This is true for 4G
WiMAX service too. When you start hearing about LTE Advanced and WIMAX Release
2, then we will be talking about true fourth generation wireless technologies because they
are the only two formats realized by the International Telecommunications Union as True
4G at this time. For using LTE service, one must need LTE supported mobile.
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a 4G internet service.

But it also supports VoIP and IPTV services. It is capable of around 40 megabits per
second with a range of 30 miles. It is one of the closest technologies to meet the standards
of true 4G and as it develops should surpass the 100Mb/second which is the 4G standard.
Mobile WiMAX allows the use of high speed data transfers and is the main competition
for the 4G LTE services provided by mobile operators.
In Bangladesh some internet service providers deployed 4G WiMAX service from 2009.
None of them are true 4G. 4G LTE service is still unavailable in Bangladesh. Only recent
winner of 3G bidding will get opportunity for 4G LTE service according to 3G guidelines
of Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC).
▪ 5G Technology:
Although it is not started yet, it is the next standard phase of 4G technology. 5G is also
referred to as beyond 2020 mobile communications technologies. Any particular
2 - 47
specification for 5G not available yet but 5G is bringing a new touch and making the life
real mobile life.
Li-Fi or light fidelity is an example of 5G technology. It uses lights of Light Emitting

Diodes (LED) bulbs as a medium of data transfer. Although it is different than Wi-Fi
technology, but their working principle are almost same. Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit
data over the electromagnetic spectrum, but whereas Wi-Fi utilizes radio waves, Li-Fi
uses visible light. Although Li-Fi is expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi, but
short range, low reliability and high installation costs are the potential drawbacks. This
technology still unavailable for public use as it is under experiment. In 2014, first Li-Fi
smartphone will be presented at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas,
Nevada, USA.
2.4 Computer Networking
2.4.1 Concept of Network
A computer network is established when a series of computers are interconnected for

communication. The purpose of this connection or network is to share the resources
within the connected units.
Computer networks are established using different software and hardware technologies.
Computer networks can be established using different hardware structures such as
Ethernet, optical fiber or merely using wireless connections. Ethernet network is the most
common and widely used technology to establish any computer network. The network
based on the use of Ethernet network is formed by physically connecting the individual
computer units to each other through wiring.
2.4.2 Objectives of Network
• Resource sharing is the main objective of the computer network. The goal is to
provide all the program, data and hardware is available to everyone on the
network without regard to the physical location.
2 - 48
• The second objective is to provide the high Reliability. It is achieved by

replicating the files on two or more machines, so in case of fail of hardware, the
other copies can be used.
• Computer network helped organization in saving money. This is due to the fact
that the small computer has much better price to the performance ratio comparison
than the powerful computer like mainframe computer. Mainframe computer are
more than ten times faster comparing other computers, but they cost thousands
times more.
• Computer network helps people who live or work apart to report together. So,
when one user prepared some documentation, he can make the document online
enabling which makes other to read and convey their opinions. Thus computer
network is a powerful communication medium.
• Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Users are
authenticated by their security systems. Hence it is not possible to access the data
without proper account. This increases security
2.4.3 Types of Network
Networking is required to make accessible communication between computers, possible

by a network connection. Networking allows for many possibilities, such as accessing the
internet, file sharing, and file transferring and system communication. Let’s look at the
different types of networking in detail. All of the following mentioned network
connections can be established using wireless or wired communication.
A. LAN (Local Area

Networks):
Local Area Networking is used

primarily in small areas such
as schools, hospitals and office
buildings. Local Area
Networking is one of the older
types of networks. TCP/IP
used as the method of
communication between
computers in Local Area
2 - 49
Networking. Due to its small size, it is possible for one person to administrate a Local
Area Network. It is divided in some parts. Each part has some devices
(Computer/Notebook) which are connected to server through Hub. All devices can share
information with server; even they can connect to each other.
Advantages of LAN
• Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This is cheaper than buying a
printer for every workstation.
• Workstations do not necessarily need their own hard disk or CD-ROM drives which
make them cheaper to buy than stand-alone PCs.
• User can save their work centrally on the network’s file server. This means that they can
retrieve their work from any workstation on the network.
• They don’t need to go back to the same workstation all the time.
• Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations very
easily.
• One copy of each application package such as a word processor, spreadsheet etc. can be
loaded onto the file and shared by all users.
• When a new version comes out, it only has to be loaded onto the server instead of onto
every workstation.
Disadvantages of LAN
• Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data that
they should not have access to;
• Networks are difficult to set up and need to be maintained by skilled technicians.
• If the file server develops a serious fault, all the users are affected, rather than just one
user in the case of a stand-alone machine.
B. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks): Wireless Local Area Networks are same as
LAN networks, except they do not require network cables to connect each other. Instead
they use wireless medium. Wireless Area Networks are commonly seen being used by a
Wi-Fi internet connection. Wireless LAN connections offer a surprising amount of
mobility for users with laptops and smart phones while being able to stay connected to the
network.
Advantages of WLAN
• Flexible
2 - 50
• Greater mobility
• Enables network connection for different kinds of devices
• No cables – no mess
• Increased productivity
Disadvantages of WLAN
• Higher price
• Interference
• Less reliable
C. WAN (Wide Area Networks): Wide Area Networks are used to connect server
machines where information is stored and computers across continents or countries for
constant information updates. Wide Area Networks, are used across the globe, many
networks connect with one another across continents to create one giant Wide Area
Network. Wide Area Networks use optic fiber as their communication medium. The
largest example of a Wide Area Network is the internet itself, which connects all users in
the world.
Advantages of WAN
• WAN can connect the computer to a wider area geographically, for example
connecting Dhaka, Bangladesh with the world.
• WAN network seeks to connect schools in Dhaka with other places in the world as
an example of Tokyo in just a few minutes, without the need to provide a large
sum of money for a payphone.
Disadvantages of WAN
• WAN network is more complicated and complex.
• It requires many equipment and data before local and metropolitan networks
related to global communication.
D. MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks): Metropolitan Area Networks are not

commonly used these days. It was used to create communication between systems in an
entire city like Dhaka. Hence a Metropolitan Area Network area falls between the sizes
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network.
2 - 51
Advantages of MAN
• MAN can cover a wider area than a LAN.
• MAN networks are usually operated at airports, or a combination of several pieces

at a local school.
• By running a large network connectedness, information can be disseminated more

widely, rapidly and significantly.
• Public libraries and government agencies typically use a MAN.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The key disadvantage of MANs is the cost of the cutting-edge technology

employed.
• Also, this equipment generally has to be installed for the first time, as the copper
traditionally used for the phone network is generally considered to be too slow to
be annexed for this purpose.
E. CAN (Campus Area Networks): Campus Area Networks are usually a connection of
many small LAN networks which are often used on university campuses and office
buildings. Campus Area Networks allow for easy file sharing between different
departments. This type of network offers a lot of simplicity in the transfer and
downloading of files.
Campus Area Network
F. SAN (Storage Area Network): Storage Area Networks are primarily used as
information databases. They are not usually used by large organizations. They are
2 - 52
specifically used for the storage of information and easy retrieval of specific pieces of
data whenever required. Storage Area Networks are usually used by websites which offer
downloading services.
G. SAN (System Area Network): System Area Networks are speed oriented networks
which provide high speed internet connections to a cluster of computers. These are
primarily used for server purposes and allow other computers to connect to these System
Area Networks.
Storage Area Network System Area Network
Comparison between LAN and WAN
No. Specification LAN WAN

1 Stands For Local Area Network Wide Area Network
2 Local areas only (e.g., homes, Large geographic areas (e.g., cities,
Covers
offices, schools) states, nations)
3 WAN (Wide Area Network) is a
LAN (Local Area Network) is a
computer network that covers a
computer network covering a
broad area (e.g., any network whose
Definition small geographic area, like a
communications links cross
home, office, school, or group of
metropolitan, regional, or national
buildings.
boundaries over a long distance).
4 Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
5 Data transfer LANs have a high data transfer WANs have a lower data transfer
rates rate. rate compared to LANs.
2 - 53

6 The network in an office The Internet is a good example of a
Example
building can be a LAN WAN
7 WANs tend to use technologies like
Tend to use certain connectivity
MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and
Technology technologies, primarily Ethernet
X.25 for connectivity over longer
and Token Ring
distances
8 Computers connected to a wide-area
One LAN can be connected to network are often connected
other LANs over any distance through public networks, such as the
Connection
via telephone lines and radio telephone system. They can also be
waves. connected through leased lines or
satellites.
9 Layers 3 devices Routers, Multi-
Layer 2 devices like switches
layer Switches and Technology
Components and bridges. Layer 1 device like
specific devices like ATM or
hubs and repeaters.
Frame-relay Switches etc.
10 LANs tend to have fewer
WANs tend to be fewer faults
Fault problems associated with them,
tolerant as they consist of large
Tolerance as there are smaller numbers of
number of systems.
systems to deal with.
11 Data
Experiences fewer data Experiences more data transmission
Transmission
transmission errors errors as compared to LAN
Error
12 WANs (like the Internet) are not
Typically owned, controlled, and owned by any one organization but
Ownership managed by a single person or rather exist under collective or
organization. distributed ownership and
management over long distances.
13 If there is a need to set-up a For WANs since networks in
couple of extra devices on the remote areas have to be connected
Set-up costs
network, it is not very expensive the set-up costs are higher. However
to do that. WANs using public networks can
2 - 54

be setup very cheaply using just
software (VPN etc).
14 Have a large geographical range
Have a small geographical range
Geographical generally spreading across
and do not need any leased
Spread boundaries and need leased
telecommunication lines
telecommunication lines
15 Because it covers a relatively Maintaining WAN is difficult
Maintenance small geographical area, LAN is because of its wider geographical
costs easier to maintain at relatively coverage and higher maintenance
low costs. costs.
16 High bandwidth is available for Low bandwidth is available for
Bandwidth
transmission. transmission.
17 Congestion Less congestion More congestion
2.4.4 Network Devices
The Network devices are playing an important role in Network Communication, each
device has different role. Here we discuss some common and most used network devices
shortly.
Network Hub Bridge

2 - 55
Modem Switch
Connectivity Network Devices
A. Network Hub
Networks using a Star topology require a central point for the devices to connect.
Originally this device was called a concentrator since it consolidated the cable runs from
all network devices. The basic form of concentrator is the hub.
As shown in Figure; the hub is a hardware device that contains multiple, independent
ports that match the cable type of the network. Most common hubs interconnect Category
3 or 5 twisted-pair cable with RJ-45 ends, although Coax BNC and Fiber Optic BNC hubs
also exist. The hub is considered the least common denominator in device concentrators.
Hubs offer an inexpensive option for transporting data between devices, but hubs don't
offer any form of intelligence. Hubs can be active or passive.
An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data
on to its destination.
Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.
B. Network Modem
A modem is a network device that both modulates and demodulates analog signals for
encoding and decoding digital information for processing. Modems accomplish both of
these tasks simultaneously and for this reason, the term modem is a combination of
"modulate" and "demodulate."
C. Network Bridge
2 - 56
abridge is used to join two network segments together; it allows computers on either
segment to access resources on the other. They can also be used to divide large networks
into smaller segments. Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more
nodes, and since the network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources
on each segment thus improving network performance.
Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different topologies, or
different protocols. But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token Ring
segment, because these use different networking standards. Bridges operate at both the
Physical Layer and the MAC sublayer of the Data Link layer. Bridges read the MAC
header of each frame to determine on which side of the bridge the destination device is
located, the bridge then repeats the transmission to the segment where the device is
located.
D. Network Gateway
A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols. Gateways
operate at the network layer of the OSI model. In order to communicate with a host on
another network, an IP host must be configured with a route to the destination network. If
a configuration route is not found, the host uses the gateway (default IP router) to transmit
the traffic to the destination host. The default t gateway is where the IP sends packets that
are destined for remote networks. If no default gateway is specified, communication is
limited to the local network. Gateways receive data from a network using one type of
protocol stack, remove that protocol stack and repackage it with the protocol stack that
the other network can use.
E. Network Router
Routers are networking devices used to extend or segment networks by forwarding
packets from one logical network to another. Routers are most often used in large
internetworks that use the TCP/IP protocol suite and for connecting TCP/IP hosts and
local area networks (LANs) to the Internet using dedicated leased lines.
F. Network Switch
Switches are a special type of hub that offers an additional layer of intelligence to basic,
physical-layer repeater hubs. A switch must be able to read the MAC address of each
frame it receives. This information allows switches to repeat incoming data frames only
2 - 57
to the computer or computers to which a frame is addressed. This speeds up the network
and reduces congestion.
G. NIC (Network Interface Card)

Network Interface Card or NIC is a hardware card installed in a computer so it can
communicate on a network. The network adapter provides one or more ports for the
network cable to connect to, and it transmits and receives data onto the network cable.
Comparison between Router and Switch
No. Specification Router Switch

1 Data Link Layer. Network
Network Layer (Layer 3
Layer switches operate at Layer 2 of
devices)
the OSI model.
2 Switch is multi-port Bridge.
Ports 2/4/8
24/48 ports
3 Active Device (With Software)
Device Type Networking device
& Networking device
4 Data Transmission Frame (L2 Switch) Frame &
Packet
form Packet (L3 switch)
5 Directs data in a network. Allow to connect multiple
Passes data between home device and port can be manage,
Function
computers, and between Vlan can create security also can
computers and the modem. apply
6 Used in (LAN,
LAN, WAN LAN
MAN, WAN)
7 Transmission At Initial Level Broadcast First broadcast; then unicast &
Type then Uni-cast & Multicast multicast as needed.
8 Switches use content accessible
Store IP address in Routing memory CAM table which is
Table table and maintain address at typically accessed by ASIC
its own. (Application Specific integrated
chips).
9 Transmission Full duplex Half/Full duplex
2 - 58

Mode
10 Switch has one broadcast
In Router, every port has its
Broadcast Domain domain [unless VLAN
own Broadcast domain.
implemented]
11 A router is a networking A network switch is a computer
device that connects a local networking device that is used to
network to other local connect many devices together
networks. At the Distribution on a computer network. A
Definition
Layer of the network, routers switch is considered more
direct traffic and perform advanced than a hub because a
other functions critical to switch will on send msg to
efficient network operation. device that needs or request it
12 Device Category Intelligent Device Intelligent Device
13 Bandwidth sharing is
Dynamic (Enables either
static or dynamic bandwidth There no sharing port can be 10,
Bandwidth
sharing for modular cable 100, 1000 and 10000 Mbps
sharing
interfaces. The default individual
percent-value is 0. The
percent-value range is 1-96.)
14 1-10 Mbps(Wireless) 100
Speed 10/100Mbps, 1Gbps
Mbps (Wired)
15 Take more time for complicated
Routing Decision Take faster Routing Decision
routing Decision
16 NAT (Network
Address Can Perform NAT Switches can Not perform NAT
Translation)
17 In a different network
In a LAN environment L3
environment (MAN/ WAN)
Faster switch is faster than Router
Router is faster than L3
(built in switchning hardware)
Switch.
18 Features Firewall VPN Dynamic Priority rt range On/Off setting
2 - 59

hadling of Bandwidth of port VLAN Port mirroring
19 Linksys WRT54GL Juniper Alcatel's OmniSwitch 9000;
Latest Models MX & EX series Cisco Cisco Catalyst switch 4500 and
3900,2900,1900 6500(10 Gbps),
20 Connecting two or more nodes
Connecting two or more
Used for in the same network or different
networks
network
21 Address used for
Uses IP address Uses MAC address
data tramsmission
Comparison between Hub and Switch

No. Specification Hub Switch
1 Physical layer. Hubs are Data Link Layer. Network
Layer classified as Layer 1 devices switches operate at Layer 2 of
per the OSI model. the OSI model.
2 Switch is multi-port Bridge.
Ports 4/12 ports
24/48 ports
3 Passive Device (Without Active Device (With Software)
Device Type
Software) & Networking device
4 Data Transmission Frame (L2 Switch) Frame &
Electrical signal or bits
form Packet (L3 switch)
5 Hubs always perform frame
Transmission First broadcast; then unicast &
flooding; may be unicast,
Type multicast as needed.
multicast or broadcast
6 Used in (LAN,
LAN LAN
MAN, WAN)
7 To connect a network of Allow to connect multiple
personal computers together, device and port can be manage,
Function
they can be joined through a Vlan can create security also can
central hub. apply
8 Table A network hub cannot learn Switches use content accessible
2 - 60
No. Specification Hub Switch

or store MAC address. memory CAM table which is
typically accessed by ASIC
(Application Specific integrated
chips).
9 Spanning-Tree No Spanning-Tree Many Spanning-tree Possible
10 Transmission
Half duplex Half/Full duplex
Mode
11 Switch has one broadcast
Hub has one Broadcast
Broadcast Domain domain [unless VLAN
Domain.
implemented]
12 A network switch is a computer
networking device that is used to
An electronic device that connect many devices together
connects many network on a computer network. A
Definition
device together so that switch is considered more
devices can exchange data advanced than a hub because a
switch will on send msg to
device that needs or request it
13 Collisions occur commonly in No collisions occur in a full-
Collisions
setups using hubs. duplex switch.
14 Sun Systems, Oracle and
Manufacturers Cisco and D-link Juniper
Cisco
2.4.5 Functions of Network
The main function of network is to share resources and information between users. It
allows computers to send data back and forth. This data could be emails and message or
pictures, videos or other information. Functions of networks are:
File and Data Sharing: With networking, however, files can be shared instantaneously
across the network, whether with one user or with hundreds.
2 - 61
Resource Sharing: Computer networking also allows the sharing of network resources,
such as printers, dedicated servers, backup systems, input devices and Internet
connections.
Data Protection and Redundancy: Networking computers together allows users to

distribute copies of important information across multiple locations; ensuring essential
information isn't lost with the failure of any one computer in the network.
Ease of Administration: Information technology (IT) officers and computer network

administrators can easily maintain connected computers in efficient manner.
2.4.6 Network Topologies
When two or more computers are connected with each other using any medium in such a
way that, they communicate with each other and share their resources, then it is called
computer network and a physical interconnection in a variety of ways is called topology.
Topology is the structure or arrangement of a network which may be physical or logical.
Physical topology included devices, location and installation of cables etc. Logical
topology included fact, that where and how data transmit from one location to another
location in a network. Physical Topologies includes:
• Point-to-point topology
• Bus topology
• Star topology
• Ring topology
• Mesh topology
• Tree topology
A. Point to Point Topology: The simplest

topology is a permanent link between two
endpoints. A children’s tin can telephone is an
example of a point to point topology.
B. Bus Topology: Bus topology is the

simplest way a network can be organized. In
bus topology, all computers are linked to the
2 - 62
same transmission line by using a cable, usually coaxial. The advantages of this topology
are that it is easy to implement and it functions easily; on the other hand, it is highly
vulnerable, since if one of the connection is defective, the whole network will be affected.
Advantages of Bus Topology

• It is easy to set up, handle, and implement.
• It is best-suited for small networks.
• It costs very less.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• The cable length is limited. This limits the number of network nodes that can be
connected.
• This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
When the number of devices connected to the bus increases, the efficiency
decreases.
• It is suitable for networks with low traffic. High traffic increases load on the bus
and the network efficiency drops.
• It is heavily dependent on the central bus. A fault in the bus leads to network
failure.
• It is not easy to isolate faults in the network nodes.
• Each device on the network "sees" all the data being transmitted, thus posing a
security risk.
C. Star Topology: In star topology, the network computers are linked to a piece of
hardware called a hub. This is a box which contains a certain number of ports into which
cables coming out of the computers can be plugged. Its role is to ensure communications
between those sockets.
Star topology is much less vulnerable, as one of the connections can easily be removed by
disconnecting it from the hub, without paralyzing the rest of the network. The critical
point in this network is hub, as without it, communication between the computers on the
network is no longer possible.
Advantages of Star Topology

• Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.
• It also achieves isolation of each device in the network.
• Adding or removing network nodes is easy, and can be done without affecting the
entire network.
2 - 63
• Due to the centralized nature, it is easy to detect faults in the network devices.
• As the analysis of traffic is easy, the topology poses lesser security risk.
• Data packets do not have to pass through many nodes, like in the case of a ring
network. Thus, with the use of a high-capacity central hub, traffic load can be
handled at fairly decent speeds.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Network operation depends on the functioning of the central hub. Hence, central
hub failure leads to failure of the entire network.
• Also, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the capacity of the
central hub.
• The setup cost is quite high.
D. Ring Topology: In a ring-topology network, computers each take turns
communicating, creating a loop of computers in which they each "have their turn to
speak" one after another. The fair sharing of the network performance does not degrade
but failure of one computer can affect the total network.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data
when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also
in ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
• Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of
Bus topology.
• There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between
workstations.
• Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
• Each computer has equal access to resources.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower than Star topology.
• If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
• Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
• MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.
E. Mesh Topology: The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault tolerance. It is used in critical networks like banks and financial
2 - 64
institutions. Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult. But if any line is
down, complete network can operate normally without any problems. When every device
has a connection to every other devices in a network it is called full mesh topology.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

• The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data
from one node to many other nodes at the same time.
• The failure of a single node does not cause the entire network to fail as there are
alternate paths for data transmission.
• It can handle heavy traffic, as there are dedicated paths between any two network
nodes.
• Point-to-point contact between every pair of nodes makes it easy to identify faults.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of
the network, many connections serve no major purpose. This leads to redundancy
of many network connections.
• A lot of cabling is required. Thus, the costs incurred in setup and maintenance is
high.
• Owing to its complexity, the administration of a mesh network is difficult.
F. Tree Topology: Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus
Topology. In Tree Topology, the number of star networks is connected using bus. This
main cable seems like a main stem of a tree and other star networks as the branches. It is
also called Expanded Star Topology.
Expansion of network, error detection & correction are key features of tree topology. But
because of tree topology it is relies heavily on bus which makes it vulnerable.
Advantages of Tree Topology

• The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be implemented
individually. It is most-suited in networking multiple departments of a university
or corporation, where each unit (star segment) functions separately, and is also
connected with the main node (root node).
• The advantages of centralization that are achieved in a star topology are inherited
by the individual star segments in a tree network.
2 - 65
• Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus, failing of one
segment does not affect the rest of the network.
• Fault identification is easy.
• The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus,
scalability is achieved.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends heavily
on the bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
• Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are high.
Also, configuration is difficult in comparison to that in other topologies.
• Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the
capacity of the central bus and on the cable type.
G. Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topology is a computer network that uses a combination of

two or more topologies. Examples of a hybrid topology include a star ring network or a
star bus network etc. Benefits of using a hybrid topology include being able to combine
the best features of the standard topologies.
Star Topology Ring Topology

2 - 66
Mesh Topology Tree Topology
Hybrid Topology
2.5 Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing is a modern computing system. It is a type of computing that relies on

sharing computing resources rather than having local servers or personal devices. Data
and software packages (like Microsoft office) are stored in cloud server. You don’t need
to have these software or any data in your computer. But, cloud computing structure
allows access to information and work as long as a computer has access to the internet.
This type of system allows anyone to work remotely. They don’t need to present at work
timely or every day. According to deployment model cloud computing can be divided
into 4 types:
2 - 67
Public Clouds: Public clouds are made available to the general public by a service
provider who hosts the cloud infrastructure. Generally, public cloud providers like
Amazon, Microsoft or Google owns and operate the infrastructure and offer access over
the Internet. With this model, customers have no visibility or control over the
infrastructure.
Private Cloud: Private cloud is cloud infrastructure dedicated to a particular

organization. It is not shared with other organizations. Private clouds allow businesses to
host their applications in the cloud, with security and complete control, which is often
absent in a public cloud.
Community Clouds: A community cloud is a is a multi-tenant cloud service model that

is shared among several or organizations and that is governed, managed and secured
commonly by all the participating organizations or a third party managed service
provider. Community clouds are a hybrid form of private clouds built and operated
specifically for a targeted group of organizations.
Hybrid Clouds: Hybrid Clouds are a composition of two or more clouds (private,
community or public) that bound together offering the advantages of multiple deployment
models. In a hybrid cloud, you can leverage third party cloud providers in either a full or
partial manner. Hybrid cloud increases the flexibility of computing.
Benefits of Cloud Computing:
Flexibility: A cloud-based service can instantly meet the demand of user because of the
vast capacity of the cloud service provider.
Disaster Recovery: When companies start relying on cloud based services, they no
longer need complex disaster recovery plans. Cloud computing providers take care of
most issues and they do it faster.
Automatic Software Updates: Cloud computing suppliers do the server maintenance,

including security updates, freeing up their customers time and resources for other tasks.
Cap-Ex Free: Cloud computing services are typically pay as you go, so there is no need
for capital expenditure at all.
Increased Collaboration: Cloud computing increases collaboration among employees.

They can sync up and work on documents and share apps simultaneously.
Work from Anywhere: As long as employees have internet access, they can work from
anywhere.
2 - 68
Security: About 800,000 notebooks are reported lost/stolenevery year. This can have
some serious monetary implications, but when everything is stored in the cloud, data can
still be accessed no matter what happens to a computer.
Competitiveness: The cloud grants SMEs access to enterpriseclass technology. It also

allows smaller businesses to act faster than big, established competitors.
Classification of Cloud Computing According to Deployment Model
Summary:
• Communication System is the transmission of information through various means.
• Source, Transmitter, Transmission System, Receiver, Destination are key elements of

Communication System.
• Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network.
• In Baseband, data is sent as digital signals through the media as a single channel that
uses the entire bandwidth of the media.
2 - 69
• In Broadband sends information in the form of an analog signal.
• There are two ways to transmit data: parallel and serial
• Asynchronous transmission, Synchronous transmission, Isochronous transmission are

three ways to transmit data for serial transmission
• The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data
transmission mode.
• In simplex mode, data can flow in only one direction.
• In half-duplex mode, data can flow in both directions but only in one direction at a
time.
• In full duplex-mode, data can flow in both directions at the same time.
• According To selection of path in a network data transmission mode can be divided

into unicast, multicast, broadcast, geo cast and any cast.
• Unicast packets are sent from host to host.
• Broadcast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is

sent from one point to all other points.
• In multicast a piece of information is sent from one or more points to a set of other
points.
• Any cast is communication that takes place over a network between a single sender
and the nearest of a group of receivers.
• Geo cast refers to the delivery of information to a group of destinations in a network

identified by their geographical locations.
• Transmission media can be divided into bounded and unbounded media
• Coaxial Cable, Twisted Pairs Cable and Fiber Optics Cable are bounded media
• Radio Waves, Micro Waves, Infrared Waves are unbounded media
• Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance

without help of wires.
• Depending on ranges wireless communication systems are divided into these types:
WWAN, WPAN, WLAN, WMAN and WBA.
2 - 70
• Mobile communication allows transmission of voice and multimedia data mobile

device without having connected to any physical link.
• Current mobile communications technologies are GSM and CDMA
• Mobile Station (MS), Base Station (BS), Base Station Controller (BSC), Mobile
Switching Center (MSC), Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are basic
components of Mobile Communication System.
• Basic overview of different generations of mobile technology.
• A Computer network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
• Different types of network connection
• A network topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a

network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
• The point to point topology is a permanent link between two endpoints.
• In bus topology, all computers are linked to the same transmission line by using a
cable.
• In star topology, the network computers are linked to a piece of hardware called a
hub.
• In a ring-topology network, computers each take turns communicating, creating a

loop of computers.
• The mesh topology connects all devices to each other.
• Tree Topology is combination of Star and Bus Topology.
• Hybrid topology is a computer network that uses a combination of two or more

topologies.
• Different Types of network devices.
• Cloud computing including their types.

Chapter-Communication & Networking

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter-Communication & Networking

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter-Communication & Networking

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2-1

Communication Systems and Networking

Communication Systems and Networking

Communication is not a human thing. Everything in the universe communicates. The

2.1 Communication Systems

When we communicate, we share information. This sharing can be local or remote.

2.1.1 Types of Communication Systems

1. Optical Communication System

2. Radio Communication System

3. Duplex communications system

4. Half Duplex Communication System

5. Tactical Communication System

Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of communication. In this

Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a

For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a

Analog Periodic Sine Wave Signal

Digital Signal and Baseband and Broadband Transmission

Baseband Transmission takes place on a communication medium, usually a local area

Broadband Transmission instead uses analog signals and multiple communication

Prefix Symbol(s) Power of 10 Power of 2

1 byte (B) = 8 bits (b)

1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes

1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes

1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 bytes = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes

1 Kilobyte (K/KB) = 103bytes = 1,000bytes

1 Megabyte (M/MB) = 106bytes = 1,000,000 bytes

1 Gigabyte (G/GB) = 109bytes =1,000,000,000 bytes

1 Terabyte (T/TB) = 1012bytes =1,000,000,000,000 bytes

A larger bandwidth means greater potential data-transmission capability. For digital

• Source: Source is basically a device which initiates data transmission. Suppose

• Channel (Transmission System): It is a system which connects you and your

2.1.5Data Transmission Method

2.1.5.1 Parallel Transmission

Characteristics of Parallel Transmission

Advantage of Parallel Transmission

Disadvantage of Parallel Transmission

Application of Parallel Transmission

2.1.5.2 Serial Transmission

Characteristics of Serial Transmission

Advantage of Serial transmission

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

There are three types of serial transmission:

Synchronous and Asynchronous serial transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'. Bit

2.1.5.2.1 Asynchronous transmission

In asynchronous transmission, ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

Advantages of Asynchronous Transmission

•Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of Asynchronous Transmission

2.1.5.2.2 Synchronous Transmission

Synchronous transmission of data is a method in which blocks of character are

Application of Synchronous Transmission

Advantage of Synchronous Transmission

Disadvantages of Synchronous Transmission

2.1.5.2.3 Isochronous Transmission: An isochronous data transfer system combines the

2.1.5.3 Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission

No. Factor Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

transmitted at one clock

2.1.5.4Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous SerialTransmission