Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Anti-oxidant capacities of flavonoid compounds isolated from acai pulp

(Euterpe oleracea Mart.)
Jie Kang a, Zhimin Li b, Tong Wu b, Gitte S. Jensen c, Alexander G. Schauss d, Xianli Wu a,*
a
USDA Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 15 Children’s Way, Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
b
Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Road, Shanghai 200040, China
c
NIS Labs, 1437 Esplanade, Klamath Falls, OR 97601, USA
d
AIBMR Life Science Inc., 4117 S Meridian, Puyallup, WA 98373, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Acai fruit (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) has been demonstrated to exhibit extremely high anti-oxidant capacity.
Received 7 December 2009 Seven major flavonoids were isolated from freeze-dried acai pulp by various chromatographic methods.
Received in revised form 28 January 2010 Their structures were elucidated as orientin (1), homoorientin (2), vitexin (3), luteolin (4), chrysoeriol (5),
Accepted 3 March 2010
quercetin (6), and dihydrokaempferol (7) by NMR, MS and compared with the reported literature. Com-
pounds 3 and 6 were reported from acai pulp for the first time. Anti-oxidant capacities of these flavonoids
were evaluated by oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, cell-based anti-oxidant protection
Keywords:
(CAP-e) assay and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells (ROS PMN
Acai pulp
Flavonoids
assay). ORAC values varied distinctly (1420–14,800 lmol TE/g) among the seven compounds based on
ORAC numbers and positions of hydroxyl groups and/or other substitute groups. The ORAC values of aglycones
CAP-e assay are generally higher than that of glycosides. CAP-e results indicated that only three compounds (4, 6 and
ROS PMN assay 7) could enter the cytosol and contribute to the reduction of oxidative damage within the cell. The ROS
PMN assay showed that five compounds (2–3 and 5–7) demonstrated exceptional effects by reducing ROS
formation in PMN cells, which produced high amounts of ROS under oxidative stress. In evaluating the
anti-oxidant capacity of natural products, combining both chemical and cell-based assays will provide
more comprehensive understanding of anti-oxidant effects and potential biological relevance.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reported by USDA (Wu et al., 2004). Anti-oxidant capacities and

other bioactivities of acai were studied in human, animal and cell
Acai (Euterpe oleracea) belongs to the family Arecaceae (palm culture models (Del, Percival, & Talcott, 2006; Jensen, Schauss,
tree). It is indigenous to South America. The palm trees grow at a Beaman, & Ager, 2009; Jensen et al., 2008; Spada et al., 2009).
density of 2500–3500 trees per hectare, serving as the predomi- Since its high anti-oxidant capacity was revealed, numerous re-
nant canopy plant inside the Amazon River delta in Para and search investigations have focused on analyses and assessments
Amapa states, Brazil, covering a range of over three million hect- associated with the anti-oxidant capacities of the acai pulp, juice
ares (Brondizio, Safar, & Siqueira, 2002). The nutrient-dense and or extracts (Honzel et al., 2008; Rufino, Fernandes, Alves, & Brito,
polyphenol-rich pulp of acai fruit is consumed as a fruit juice 2009; Schauss, Jensen, Wu, & Scherwitz, 2009; Schauss et al.,
(Rodriques et al., 2006). The single seed, which accounts for 87% 2006a; Wu et al., 2004). Polyphenols have been associated with
of the fruit, is expelled, while the skin is removed during pulping. the anti-oxidant activity in fruits and vegetables. Major polypheno-
A popular juice in Brazil prepared from the pulp of acai is con- lic components found in acai include anthocyanins, proanthocyani-
sumed in a variety of beverages and food preparations (Schauss, dins, other flavonoids and lignans, etc. (Gallori, Bilia, Bergonzi,
2010; Schauss et al., 2006a). Acai pulp has received much attention Barbosa, & Vincieri, 2004; Schauss et al., 2006b). Anthocyanins
in recent years due to its extremely high anti-oxidant capacity and and proanthocyanidins are considered major anti-oxidants in
its role as a ‘‘functional food” or food ingredient. Freeze-dried acai fruits, but their concentrations are relatively low in acai (Schauss
pulp had dramatically high anti-oxidant value measured by ORAC et al., 2006b). The contributions of the anthocyanins to the overall
(1027 lmol TE/g) (Schauss et al., 2006a), which is indeed higher anti-oxidant capacities of acai were estimated to be only approxi-
than that of any fruit or vegetable that have been analysed and mately 10% (Lichtenthäler et al., 2005). A recent paper also sug-
gested that the components other than anthocyanins in acai
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 501 364 2813; fax: +1 501 364 3161. contributed to antiproliferative activity against C-6 rat brain
E-mail address: wuxianli@uams.edu (X. Wu). glioma cells (Hogan et al., 2010). The flavonoids were found to be

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.03.020
 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617 611

the major polyphenols in acai (Gallori et al., 2004; Schauss et al., 1640 culture medium, hydrogen peroxide 30% solution (H2O2), di-
2006b). Many studies have demonstrated that flavonoids have methyl sulfoxide (DMSO), Histopaque 1077, and Histopaque 1119.
strong anti-oxidant activities and anti-inflammatory properties Dichloroflurescein diacetate (DCF-DA) was obtained from Molecu-
(Beara et al., 2009; Leong et al., 2010; Li et al., 2009). However, very lar Probes (Eugene, OR), a subdivision of Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA).
few studies have determined the anti-oxidant capacity of individ-
ual polyphenol compounds found in acai pulp. There is only one 2.3. Instrumentation
study that has primarily studied lignans (Chin, Chai, Keller, & King-
horn, 2008). Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESIMS) data were
On the other hand, due to given limitations in analytical proce- measured on Micromass Q-TOF spectrometer (Milford, MA). 1H
dures, flavonoids have only been tentatively identified by HPLC or NMR spectra were recorded on Varian Inova 400 or 500 MHz
mass spectrometric methods, resulting in many flavonoids in the NMR spectrometer (Palo Alto, CA) using tetramethylsilane (TMS)
pulp remaining unidentified, much less determined for possible as an internal standard in dimethyl sulfoxide-d6 (DMSO-d6). ORAC
bioactivity. Therefore, the first objective of this study was to iden- analyses were carried out on a FLUOstar Galaxy plate reader (BMG
tify the major flavonoid compounds in acai pulp. Systemic isolation Labtech, Duraham, NC). A fluorescence filter with an excitation
and fractionation in freeze-dried acai pulp is being reported in this wavelength of 485 nm and an emission wavelength of 520 nm
paper. Seven flavones and their C-glycosides were obtained from was used.
freeze-dried acai pulp and their structures were elucidated by
NMR, MS and the results compared to the literature. Among them, 2.4. Extraction and isolation
two compounds were identified in acai pulp for the first time.
The vast majority of studies that assess anti-oxidant capacities The freeze-dried acai pulp powder (1800 g) was mixed with
of acai and other anti-oxidant rich fruits and berries have utilised diatomite, percolated with 95% alcohol for 2 weeks. After evapora-
chemical-based assays. Unfortunately, such assays do not reflect tion of solvents under the vacuum, the residue (244 g) was then
or correlate with the test item’s cellular response. The second mixed with diatomite, extracted with petroleum ether, chloroform,
objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-oxidant capacities ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol, successively. The CHCl3 and
of these flavonoids with one chemical-based assay and two cell- EtOAc fractions were then chromatographed over silica gel and
based assays: ORAC, CAP-e assay and ROS PMN assay. By doing Sephadex LH-20 columns and purified by preparative thin layer
these additional assays, we hope to understand not only their chromatography (PTLC) (Fig. 1).
in vitro anti-oxidant capacities, but also their behaviours in living CHCl3 extract (9 g) was loaded into an open silica gel column
cells to reduce oxidative stress. (CHCl3:MeOH = 90:1). Fraction 27–34 was subjected to Sephadex
LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Sub-fraction 11–18 was then
2. Materials and methods purified by PTLC (petroleum ether:EtOAc = 1:3) to get compound
5 (Rf = 0.34, 8 mg).
2.1. Plant material EtOAC extract (19 g) was loaded into an open silica gel column,
using a gradient of increasing polarity with CHCl3 and MeOH mix-
Freeze-dried acai (Euterpe oleracea) fruit pulp was obtained ture as solvent.
(Earth Fruits LLC, Belem, Brazil). The fruit was collected in Para Fraction 71–86 (CHCl3:MeOH = 50:1) was subjected to Sepha-
dex LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Sub-fraction 16–24 was
state, Brazil, and processed within hours of harvesting to pure pulp
and stored at 20 °C until transferred for freeze drying. then purified using PTLC (CHCl3:MeOH = 5:1) to yield compound
7 (Rf = 0.61, 7 mg).
Fraction 87–99 (CHCl3:MeOH = 30:1) was subjected to Sepha-
2.2. Chemicals and reagents
dex LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Compound 4 (3 mg) came
from sub-fraction 21–23 by recrystallisation in MeOH.
2.2.1. Extraction and isolation
Fraction 100–112 (CHCl3:MeOH = 10:1) was subjected to
Ninety five percentage EtOH, MeOH, petroleum ether and CHCl3
Sephadex LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Sub-fraction 33–40
were purchased from Shanghai Zhengxing Chemical Plant (Shang-
was then purified by PTLC (CHCl3:MeOH = 5:1) to yield compound
hai, China). EtOAc and acetone were obtained from Sinopharm
6 (Rf = 0.29, 9 mg).
Chemical Reagent Corporation (Shanghai, China). Silica gel (100–
Fraction 118–136 (CHCl3:MeOH = 10:1) was subjected to
200 mesh) and Sephadex LH-20 were supplied by the Branch of
Sephadex LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Compound 3 (2 mg)
Qingdao Marine Chemical Corporation (Qingdao, China) and
was obtained from sub-fraction 11–12 by recrystallisation in
Shanghai Juyuan Biotechology Corporation (Shanghai, China),
MeOH.
respectively. Diatomite was obtained from Sinopharm Chemical
Fraction 137–159 (CHCl3:MeOH = 10:1) was subjected to
Reagent Corporation (Shanghai, China).
Sephadex LH-20 column, eluted with MeOH. Sub-fraction 14–26
was then purified using PTLC (EtOAc:MeOH:H2O = 8:2:1) to afford
2.2.2. ORAC-based assay compounds 1 (Rf = 0.55, 21 mg) and 2 (Rf = 0.49, 11 mg).
2,20 -Azobis(2-amidinopropane)dihydrochloride (AAPH) was
purchased from Wako Chemicals, USA (Richmond, VA). 6-Hydro- 2.5. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay
xy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox) and
fluorescein (sodium salt) (FL) were obtained from Sigma–Aldrich Seven pure flavonoids (>95%) were weighed exactly, dissolved
(Milwaukee, WI). Potassium phosphate dibasic (K2HPO4) and in MeOH and diluted properly with phosphate buffer (0.75 M, pH
potassium phosphate monobasic (KH2PO4) were obtained from 7.0). The dilution factors were in the range of 50–800 folds depend-
VWR (West Chester, PA). Microplates (48-well, Falcon 3230) were ing on the compounds. The ORAC assay was conducted based on
purchased from VWR (West Chester, PA). the method reported by our group (Wu et al., 2004). Briefly, the as-
say was carried out on a FLUOstar Galaxy plate reader used with
2.2.3. CAP-e assay and inhibition of ROS formation by PMN cells fluorescence filters for an excitation wavelength of 485 nm and
The following buffers and reagents were obtained from Sigma– an emission wavelength of 520 nm. The temperature of the incuba-
Aldrich (St. Louis, MO): phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), RPMI- tor was set to 37 °C. The micro plate loaded with samples and
612 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617

Fig. 1. The process of extraction, isolation and fractionation of flavonoids from acai.

standards were incubated for 5 min prior to run. Fluorescein was 2.5 min. The cells were lysed and the precursor dye was added to
used as fluorescence probe; AAPH was used as peroxyl generator; the wells. Incubation was performed at room temperature for
Trolox as standard. The results were expressed as lmol Trolox 15 min, followed by two washes. Oxidation was carried out using
equivalent (TE) per gramme. the peroxyl free radical generator AAPH for 1 h. The green fluores-
cence intensity, as a measure of oxidative damage, was measured
at 488 nm using a Tecan Spectrafluor plate reader (40 flashes, opti-
2.6. Purification of red blood cells (RBC) and polymorphonuclear
mal gain). The inhibition of oxidative damage was calculated as the
(PMN) cells
reduced fluorescence intensity of product-treated cells, compared
to cells treated only with the oxidising agent. The CAP-e value re-
Healthy human volunteers between the ages of 20 and 50 years
flects the IC50 dose of the test product. This is then compared to the
served as blood donors after informed consent, as approved by the
IC50 dose of the known anti-oxidant gallic acid. The CAP-e value
Sky Lakes Medical Center Institutional Review Board (Klamath
was expressed as gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per gramme.
Falls, OR). Peripheral venous blood samples were drawn into so-
dium heparin and layered onto a double-gradient of Histopaque
1119 and 1077. The vials were centrifuged at 2400 rpm for
2.8. Inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation by
25 min. The PMN-rich lower interface was harvested using sterile
polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells
transfer pipettes. PMN cells and the RBC fraction were washed
twice in PBS without calcium or magnesium at 2400 rpm for
Evaluation of inhibition by seven flavonoids of ROS production
10 min. Then the core of the packed RBC was transferred into
was performed by using primary human polymorphonuclear
new vials and again washed twice in PBS without calcium or mag-
(PMN) cells (ROS PMN assay) as previously described (Honzel
nesium at 2400 rpm for 10 min. RBC aliquots were stored at 4 °C
et al., 2008). Freshly purified human PMN were exposed to the test
until use in the CAP-e assay. PMN cells were used immediately
products. During the incubation with a test product, any anti-oxi-
for the ROS assay.
dant compounds able to cross the cell membrane can enter the
interior of the PMN cells. Compounds capable of transducing a sig-
2.7. Cell-based anti-oxidant protection of erythrocytes (CAP-e) assay nal across the cell membrane can do so. Then the cells were
washed, loaded with the DCF-DA dye, which turns fluorescent
CAP-e assay was conducted following the method published by upon exposure to reactive oxygen species. Formation of ROS was
Honzel et al. (2008), but using an accelerated and more sensitive triggered by addition of H2O2. The fluorescence intensity of the
microplate-based protocol. PMN cells was evaluated by flow cytometry. The low fluorescence
RBC cell suspension was prepared for the CAP-e assay by adding intensity of untreated control cells served as a baseline and PMN
packed RBC (0.1 ml) into PBS (10 ml). The cell suspension was dis- cells treated with H2O2 alone served as a positive control. If the
tributed in a V-bottom 96-well microtiter plate. Twelve wells were fluorescence intensity of PMN cells exposed to an extract, and sub-
not treated with any source of anti-oxidants, and served as nega- sequently exposed to H2O2, was reduced compared to H2O2 alone,
tive controls (six wells) and positive controls (six wells) for mini- this indicates that a test product has anti-oxidant and/or anti-
mum versus maximum oxidative damage. Twelve wells were inflammatory effects. In contrast, if the fluorescence intensity of
treated with a standard source of a known anti-oxidant (gallic acid) PMN cells exposed to test product was increased compared to
across six different serial dilutions, where each dilution was tested H2O2 alone, this indicates that a test product has pro-inflammatory
in duplicate. The remaining wells were treated with the isolated effects.
compounds from acai, where each compound was tested at 6 serial
dilutions, and each dilution was tested in duplicate. RBC were incu-
bated with anti-oxidants for 20 min, which was chosen based on 2.9. Statistical analysis
testing of various incubation times on RBC anti-oxidant uptake of
standard anti-oxidant compounds. Anti-oxidants not absorbed by Statistical analysis was performed using Sigma Stat 3.5 for
the cells were removed by washing twice in PBS at 2400 rpm for Windows (San Jose, CA). Statistical significance was tested using
 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617 613

Student’s t-test with a P value of less than 0.05 indicating a signif- H-6), 3.71 (3 H, s, OCH3-30 ). The data were consistent with the
icant difference between data sets. known compound (Awaad, Maitland, & Soliman, 2006).
Quercetin (6), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/z = 301
3. Results and discussion [MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 12.42 (1H, s, 5-OH), 9.26
(1H, s, 3-OH), 7.66 (1H, d, J = 2.0 Hz, H-20 ), 7.54 (1H, dd, J = 8.0,
3.1. Characterisation of compounds 2.0 Hz, H-60 ), 6.88 (1H, d, J = 8.0 Hz, H-50 ), 6.40 (1H, d, J = 2.0 Hz,
H-6), 6.18 (1H, d, J = 2.0 Hz, H-8). The data were consistent with
According to the initial screening, flavonoid compounds were the known compound (Awaad et al., 2006).
mainly present in CHCl3 and EtOAc fractions (Fig. 1). Therefore, Dihydrokaempferol (7), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS:
we separated and purified compounds from these two fractions. m/z = 287 [MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 11.96 (1H, s, 5-
After repeated separation by various chromatographic methods, OH), 7.30 (2H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-20 , 60 ), 6.78 (2H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-30 ,
seven known compounds were obtained (Fig. 2). Their structures 50 ), 5.79 (1H, d, J = 1.6 Hz, H-8), 5.74 (1H, d, J = 1.6 Hz, H-6), 4.99
were elucidated by ESIMS, 1H NMR spectra and compared with (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz, H-2), 4.50 (1H, d, J = 11.2 Hz, H-3). The data
literature. were consistent with the known compound (Nafady et al., 2003).
Orientin (1), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/z = 447 After a literature search, orientin (1), homoorientin (2), vitexin
[MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 13.12 (1H, s, 5-OH), 7.32 (3), luteolin (4) and quercetin (6) were isolated and identified as
(1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-60 ), 7.23 (1H, s, H-20 ), 6.58 (1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, pure compounds from acai for the first time. Two of them, vitexin
H-50 ), 6.19 (1H, s, H-3), 5.71 (1H, s, H-6), 4.72 (1H, d, J = 9.6 Hz, and quercetin (3 and 6), were reported from acai for the first time.
glc-H-100 ), 3.92–3.26 (5H, m, glc-H-200 -600 ). The data were consistent Though some previous studies identified some flavonoids from
with the known compound (Leong et al., 2010). acai, only a few of them (Chin et al., 2008) were separated and ob-
Homoorientin (2), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/ tained. Most flavonoids were tentatively identified by HPLC-UV or
z = 447 [MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 13.62 (1H, s, 5-OH), HPLC-MS analysis (Gallori et al., 2004; Pacheco-Palencia, Duncan,
7.19 (1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-60 ), 7.15 (1H, s, H-20 ), 6.59 (1H, d, & Talcote, 2009), therefore the bioactivities of pure compounds
J = 8.4 Hz, H-50 ), 6.19 (1H, s, H-3), 5.92 (1H, s, H-8), 4.56 (1H, d, from acai could not be studied. It is very important to obtain the
J = 9.6 Hz, glc-H-100 ), 4.16–3.15 (5H, m, glc-H-200 -600 ). The data were pure compounds from acai for studying responsible compounds
consistent with the known compound (Leong et al., 2010). having anti-oxidant capacities in acai.
Vitexin (3), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/z = 431
[MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 10.27 (1H, s, 5-OH), 8.01 3.2. Anti-oxidant capacity from ORAC
(2H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-20 , 60 ), 6.92 (2H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-30 , 50 ), 6.77
(1H, s, H-3), 6.28 (1H, s, H-6), 4.92 (1H, d, J = 9.6 Hz, glc-H-100 ), The ORAC values obtained for the seven flavonoids from ORAC
4.88–3.76 (5H, m, glc-H-200 -600 ). The data were consistent with assay is shown in Table 1. ORAC values varied distinctly among
the known compound (Leong et al., 2010). these seven compounds (1420–14800 lmol TE/g) based on the
Luteolin (4), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/z = 285 numbers and positions of hydroxyl groups and other substitute
[MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 12.94 (1H, s, 5-OH), 7.40 groups. A previous study reported that with compounds having
(1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-60 ), 7.40 (1H, s, H-20 ), 6.89 (1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, the same basic chemical structure, the ORAC value of flavonoid
H-50 ), 6.63 (1H, s, H-3), 6.44 (1H, s, H-8), 6.18 (1H, s, H-6). The data was proportional to the number of hydroxyl substitutions on the
were consistent with the known compound (Hartwig, Maxwell, Jo- structure (Cao, Sofic, & Prior, 1997). However, according to our
seph, & Phillips, 1990). study, the ORAC value of each flavonoid was not only determined
Chrysoeriol (5), yellowish amorphous powder; ESIMS: m/ by the number of hydroxyl groups, but also depended on the posi-
z = 299 [MH]; 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) ppm: d 12.94 (1H, s, 5-OH), tions of hydroxyl groups in the structures. The structure of vitexin
7.36 (1H, d, J = 8.4 Hz, H-60 ), 7.32 (1H, s, H-20 ), 6.74 (1H, d, (3) is very similar to that of orientin (1). The difference is a lack of
J = 8.4 Hz, H-50 ), 6.34 (1H, s, H-3), 5.78 (1H, s, H-8), 5.54 (1H, s, one hydroxyl group at C-30 of vitexin (3). ORAC values of these two

Fig. 2. The structures of seven flavonoid compounds (1–7) isolated from acai. The corresponding compound names are shown in Table 1.
614 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617

Table 1 cetin, and dihydrokaempferol (4, 6 and 7) could enter into the live
Antioxidant capacities from ORAC assay and CAP-e assaya. cells with quercetin (6) displaying the highest CAP-e value. The
No. Compound name ORAC (lmol TE/g) CAP-e (GAE/g) IC50 for compounds 4, 6, and 7 were 0.00635 ± 0.00033,
1 Orientin 1700 ± 78.9 N/Ab 0.00581 ± 0.00047, and 0.00803 ± 0.00025 mg/ml, respectively.
2 Homoorientin 1420 ± 63.3 N/A The results showed that the compounds (4, 6 and 7) being able
3 Vitexin 14,800 ± 451 N/A to get into living cells were all aglycones, and their C-glycosides
4 Luteolin 7870 ± 350 5040 ± 260 (1–3) cannot penetrate into living cells. Surprisingly, chrysoeriol
5 Chrysoeriol 4400 ± 189 N/A
6 Quercetin 12,300 ± 1070 5510 ± 443
(5), as an aglycone, was not able to enter living cells at all. It is
7 Dihydrokaempferol 8390 ± 93.8 3980 ± 126 the only aglycone that bears a methoxy group. So we speculate that
a
this structural property may increase its hydrophobicity thus pre-
Data was expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).
b vent this compound from entering living cells.
No value was obtained.

3.4. Inhibition of ROS formation by ROS PMN assay

compounds were very different. Vitexin (3) has the highest ORAC
Inhibition effects of the seven flavonoids against ROS formation
(14800) among the seven compounds, whereas ORAC of orientin
were evaluated by the ROS PMN assay are shown in Fig. 4. The ROS
(1) was only 1700. The results also showed that ORAC values of
PMN assay monitors the combined effect of a test product on an
aglycones are generally higher than that of C-glycosides. For in-
inflammatory cell type, and the data reflects a combination of at
stance, the ORAC value of the aglycone luteolin (4) was four times
least three different mechanisms: (1) anti-oxidants penetrate into
higher than that of glycosides, orientin and homoorientin (1 and 2).
the cell and neutralise free radicals, similar to the CAP-e assay; (2)
The O-methylation of the hydroxyl groups reduced the ORAC val- anti-inflammatory compounds mediate cell signalling at the cell
ues (about two times), such as chrysoeriol (5) vs. luteolin (4). Likely
surface, reprogramming the PMN cell to a less inflammatory
the conjugation between 40 -OH and 4-C@O distinctly affects the behaviour, resulting in a reduction in formation of ROS; and (3)
anti-oxidant activity (e.g. vitexin and dihydrokaempferol, 3 and
pro-inflammatory compounds capable of supporting innate im-
7), while mono-OH substitution at 40 (vitexin, 3) has stronger
mune functions mediate a signal at the cell surface, resulting in
anti-oxidant activity (approximate 8–10 times) than di-OH substi-
an increase in the PMN cell function, thus increasing the produc-
tution at 30 and 40 (e.g. orientin and homoorientin, 1 and 2).
tion of ROS (Honzel et al., 2008). All compounds tested were shown
to reduce ROS formation at various doses. However, their behav-
3.3. CAP-e anti-oxidant capacity iours were very different. Orientin (1) and luteolin (4) showed dose
responses in which only higher doses displayed inhibition effects
Anti-oxidant capacities of the seven flavonoids were also mea- (Fig. 4). Four compounds, homoorientin, vitexin, quercetin, and
sured by the recently developed cell-based anti-oxidant protection dihydrokaempferol (2, 3, 6 and 7), were shown to reduce ROS for-
(CAP-e) assay. Data from the CAP-e assay reflects whether anti-oxi- mation best at the lowest concentrated dilution of 8  107 mg/ml
dants can enter into and protect live cells from oxidative damage. (Fig. 4). Interestingly, chrysoeriol (5) exhibited inhibition effects
The results of CAP-e values of seven flavonoids are shown in Table indistinguishably at doses varied from 8  107 to 8  103 mg/
1. Remarkably, orientin, homoorientin, vitexin and chrysoeriol (1– ml (Fig. 4). One apparent reason for these dramatic behavioural dif-
3 and 5) did not have any CAP-e values at any tested concentra- ferences is the chemical structure. Chrysoerial (5), for example, is
tions (Fig. 3), which meant that they were not able to penetrate the only one among these seven compounds that bears a methoxy
into live cells and provided protection against oxidative stress. As group. This structural characteristic might be responsible for the
these compounds were not able to enter into and protect RBC in unique inhibitory effects of this compound, which inhibited ROS
the CAP-e assay, no inhibition of oxidative damage was seen, and formation at both low and high doses ranging from 8  107 to
no IC50 were calculated. The other three compounds, luteolin, quer- 8  103 mg/ml (Fig. 4). But exactly how the chemical structure af-
fects ROS production and the potent anti-inflammatory effect seen
at the lowest dose tested for these compounds warrant further
investigation.

3.5. Results of anti-oxidant capacities from different assays

In this study, anti-oxidant capacities of seven flavonoids iso-

lated from acai were investigated by three assays. Of these three
assays, ORAC is one of most widely used chemical-based anti-
oxidant assays, which measures anti-oxidant inhibition of per-
oxyl radical induced oxidation (Prior, Wu, & Schaich, 2005).
However, a chemical-based assay is solely based on chemical
reaction and do not reflect the cellular physiological conditions,
including cellular uptake versus signal transduction. Mechanisms
of anti-oxidants going beyond direct scavenging of free radicals
may be involved in disease prevention and health promotion.
Therefore, there is need for cell-based anti-oxidant assays (Liu
& Finley, 2005). The CAP-e assay is a newly developed cell-based
assay using erythrocytes to address the question of whether
anti-oxidants in complex natural products enter the cytosol
and contribute to the reduction of oxidative damage within the
cell. The assay allows for semiquantification specifically of those
Fig. 3. CAP-e values of seven flavonoid compounds. The corresponding compound anti-oxidants that are capable of penetrating into live cells (Hon-
names are shown in Table 1. GA represents gallic acid, which was used as standard. zel et al., 2008). Based on the CAP-e data, another cell-based as-
 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617 615

Fig. 4. Results from the ROS PMN assay for seven flavonoid compounds. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) for the reporter dye DCF-DA is plotted. It is proportional to ROS
formation under each assay condition. Black bars indicate H2O2 treatment and grey bars indicate different doses of each flavonoid (*P < 0.05 and **P < 0.01).

say using primary pro-inflammatory PMN cell was performed, PMN cell can respond to compounds in natural products extracts
which allows for a more complex assessment of the properties in the three aforementioned mechanisms. Thus, data obtained
of natural products in vitro, were conducted. PMN cells are an from a PMN-based assay may be interpreted better in the con-
important part of our innate immune defense and are capable text of data from the CAP-e assay (Honzel et al., 2008).
of rapid production of ROS in response to both oxidative damage The combination of ORAC to CAP-e data and ROS PMN data
and pro-inflammatory stimuli such as microbial invaders. The give a good foundation for making further decisions and fully
616 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617

understand the scope of acai compounds’ anti-oxidant capacities. References

For instance, vitexin (3) responsible for the highest ORAC value
may not match the three compounds, luteolin, quercetin and Awaad, A. S., Maitland, D. J., & Soliman, G. A. (2006). Hepatoprotective activity of
Schouwia thebica Webb. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 16(10),
dihydrokaempferol (4, 6 and 7) that performed best in the 4624–4628.
CAP-e assay. The four compounds, orientin, homoorientin, vitexin Beara, I. N., Lesjak, M. M., Joven, E. D., Balog, K. J., Anackov, G. T., Orcic, D. Z., et al.
and chrysoeriol (1–3 and 5) that showed no bioactivity in the (2009). Plantain (Plantago L.) species as novel sources of flavonoids
antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(19), 9268–9273.
CAP-e bioassay, may be responsible for the signalling at the cell Brondizio, E. S., Safar, C. A. M., & Siqueira, A. D. (2002). The urban market of acai fruit
membrane level, where entry into the cell is not necessary for (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) and rural land use change: Ethnographic insights into
the biological activity involved in the ROS PMN assay. Basically, the role of price and land tenure constraining agricultural choices in the
Amazon estuary. Urban Ecosystems, 6(1), 67–97.
the seven compounds were divided into four groups according to
Cao, G., Sofic, E., & Prior, R. L. (1997). Antioxidant and prooxidant behavior of
the results from three assays. Group 1, orientin (1), showed rel- flavonoids: Structure–activity relationships. Free Radical Biology & Medicine,
atively low ORAC, and does not penetrate into live cells. Group 2, 22(5), 749–760.
homoorientin, vitexin and chrysoeriol (2, 3, 5), had exceptional Chin, Y. W., Chai, H. B., Keller, W. J., & Kinghorn, A. D. (2008). Lignans and other
constituents of the fruits of Euterpe oleraceae (acai) with antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory effect and compound 3 had the highest ORAC, cytoprotective activities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56(17),
but neither of these compounds were able to penetrate into live 7759–7764.
cells. Group 3, luteolin (4), had some anti-inflammatory effect, Del, P. D., Percival, S. S., & Talcott, S. T. (2006). Açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.)
polyphenolics in their glycoside and aglycone forms induce apoptosis of HL-60
relatively high ORAC, and can penetrate into live cells. Group leukemia cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(4), 1222–1229.
4, quercetin and dihydrokaempferol (6–7), both of them have Gallori, S., Bilia, A. R., Bergonzi, M. C., Barbosa, W. L. R., & Vincieri, F. F. (2004).
demonstrated exceptional anti-inflammatory effects and the abil- Polyphenolic constituents of fruit pulp of Euterpe oleracea Mart. (acai palm).
Chromatographia, 59(11/12), 739–743.
ity to penetrate into live cells. Remarkably, quercetin (6) in Hartwig, U. A., Maxwell, C. A., Joseph, C. M., & Phillips, D. A. (1990). Chrysoeriol and
group 4 displayed the best anti-oxidant capacities in all three as- luteolin released from alfafa seeds induce nod genes in Rhizobium meliloti. Plant
says, which included high ORAC and CAP-e value at the lowest Physiology, 92(1), 116–122.
Hogan, S., Chung, H., Zhang, L., Li, J., Lee, Y., Dai, Y., et al. (2010). Antiproliferative
dose of 8  107 mg/ml inhibiting ROS formation. and antioxidant properties of anthocyanin-rich extract from acai. Food
Chemistry, 118(2), 208–214.
4. Conclusions Honzel, D., Carter, S. G., Redman, K. A., Schauss, A. G., Endress, J. R., & Jensen, G. S.
(2008). Comparison of chemical and cell-based antioxidant methods for
evaluation of foods and natural products: Generating multifaceted data by
In this study, seven flavonoids (flavones and their C-glyco- parallel testing using erythrocytes and polymorphonuclear cells. Journal of
sides) were isolated and structurally identified from freeze-dried Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56(18), 8319–8325.
Jensen, G. S., Schauss, A. G., Beaman, R., & Ager, D. M. (2009). Acai fruit (Euterpe
acai pulp. Vitexin and quercetin (3 and 6) were reported from oleracea Mart.): Systematic and collaborative study of the phytochemistry,
acai pulp for the first time. Our data confirmed that flavonoids nutrient composition, and in vitro and in vivo bioactivities of the Amazonian
are major polyphenols in acai pulp. In order to determine the palm fruit in humans. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 15(3),
S90–S91.
major anti-oxidants in acai pulp, the anti-oxidant capacities of Jensen, G. S., Wu, X., Patterson, K. M., Barnes, J., Carter, S. G., Scherwitz, L., et al.
these flavonoids were evaluated with one chemical-based assay (2008). In vitro and in vivo antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities of an
and two cell-based assays: ORAC, CAP-e assay and ROS PMN as- antioxidant-rich fruit and berry juice blend. Results of a pilot and randomized,
double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Journal of Agricultural and
say. However, anti-oxidant capacities of these compounds varied
Food Chemistry, 56(18), 8326–8333.
significantly based on their chemical structures and the assays Leong, A. C. N., Kinjo, Y., Tako, M., Iwasaki, H., Oku, H., & Tamaki, H. (2010).
used. In general, flavonoid aglycones showed not only higher Flavonoid glycosides in the shoot system of Okinawa Taumu (Colocasia esculenta
S.). Food Chemistry, 119(2), 630–635.
anti-oxidant capacities than their C-glycosides, but also the abil-
Li, C., Du, H., Wang, L., Shu, Q., Zheng, Y., Xu, Y., et al. (2009). Flavonoid composition
ity to penetrate into living cells. Except for sugar moieties, the and antioxidant activity of tree peony (paeonia section moutan) yellow flowers.
methoxy group appears to be another important structural factor Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(18), 8496–8503.
that could lead to dramatic changes of flavonoids in terms of Lichtenthäler, R., Rodrigues, R. B., Maia, J. G., Papagiannopoulos, M., Fabricius, H., &
Marx, F. (2005). Total oxidant scavenging capacities of Euterpe oleracea Mart.
their anti-oxidant capacity and the ability to penetrate into liv- (Açaí) fruits. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 56(1), 53–64.
ing cells. Liu, R. H., & Finley, J. (2005). Potential cell culture models for antioxidant research.
Due to the complexity of the anti-oxidant defense system in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(10), 4311–4314.
Nafady, A. M., El-Shanawany, M. A., Mohamed, M. H., Hassanean, H. A., Nohara, T.,
body, a single anti-oxidant assay cannot reflect all aspects of activ- Yoshimitsu, H., et al. (2003). Cyclodextrin-enclosed substance of Brazilian
ities of a given compound. In evaluating the anti-oxidant capacities Propolis. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 51(8), 984–985.
of natural products, combining both chemical and cell-based as- Pacheco-Palencia, L. A., Duncan, C. E., & Talcote, S. T. (2009). Phytochemical
composition and thermal stability of two commercial açai species, Euterpe
says will provide a useful approach towards understanding the oleracea and Euterpe precatoria. Food Chemistry, 115(4), 1199–1205.
anti-oxidant effects of natural compounds and their biological rel- Prior, R. L., Wu, X., & Schaich, K. (2005). Standardized methods for the
evance to any health benefits observed in vivo. Such combined use determination of antioxidant capacity and phenolics in foods and dietary
supplements. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(10), 4290–4302.
of assays may prevent premature conclusions being made about
Rodriques, R. B., Lichtenthaler, R., Zimmerman, B. F., Papgiannopoulos, M., Fabricius,
which compounds are responsible for a foods biological effects, H., & Marx, F. (2006). Total oxidant scavenging capacity of Euterpe oleracea Mart.
based on reliance of chemical assays. (Acai) seeds and identification of their polyphenolic compounds. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(12), 4162–4167.
Rufino, M. M., Fernandes, F. A. N., Alves, R. E., & Brito, E. S. (2009). Free radical-
Acknowledgements scavenging behavior of some north-east Brazilian fruits in a DPPH system. Food
Chemistry, 114(2), 693–695.
Schauss, A. G. (2010). Acai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.): A macro and nutrient rich palm
The authors wish to thank Steve G. Carter and Kimberlee A.
fruit from the Amazon rain forest with demonstrated bioactivities in vitro and
Redman from NIS Labs for excellent technical assistance in in vivo. In Bioactive foods in promoting health: Fruits and vegetables
CAP-e and ROS PMN assays; Yue Li, Huimin Wang, Danyu Hua (pp. 479–490). Oxford: Academic Press.
Schauss, A. G., Jensen, G. S., Wu, X., & Scherwitz, L. (2009). Increased antioxidant
and Liangyan Yang from Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical
capacity and inhibition of lipid peroxidation in healthy adults consuming
Industry, Minjie Xue and Jianjun Wu from Shanghai Institute of Monavie Active, an acai (Euterpe oleracea) fruit based juice. Acta Horticulturae,
Measurement and Testing Technology, for MS and NMR mea- 841, 97–100.
surements. The authors appreciated the financial support of Schauss, A. G., Wu, X., Prior, R. L., Ou, B., Huang, D., Owens, J., et al. (2006a).
Antioxidant capacity and other bioactivities of the freeze-dried Amazonian
MonaVie LLC (Salt Lake City, UT) that was required to carry palm berry, Euterpe oleraceae Mart. (acai). Journal of Agricultural and Food
out this study. Chemistry, 54(22), 8604–8610.
 J. Kang et al. / Food Chemistry 122 (2010) 610–617 617

Schauss, A. G., Wu, X., Prior, R. L., Ou, B., Patel, D., Huang, D., et al. (2006b). peroxide-induced damage in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus
Phytochemical and nutrient composition of the freeze-dried Amazonian palm of rats. Journal of Medicinal Food, 12(5), 1084–1088.
berry, Euterpe oleracea Mart. (acai). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Wu, X., Beecher, G. R., Holden, J. M., Haytowitz, D. B., Gebhardt, S. E., & Prior, R.
54(22), 8598–8603. L. (2004). Lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of common foods
Spada, P. D., Dani, C., Bortolini, G. V., Funchal, C., Henriques, J. A., & Salvador, M. in the United States. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52(12),
(2009). Frozen fruit pulp of Euterpe oleraceae Mart. (acai) prevents hydrogen 4026–4037.