Research Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2018, Vol. 10(6) 1–9
Ó The Author(s) 2018
Remanufacturing of nodular cast iron DOI: 10.1177/1687814018779852
journals.sagepub.com/home/ade
crankshaft with plasma cladding

Jinxia Liu , Chao Ma, Luda Yu, Yu Wang and Zhiyuan Jiao

Abstract
Remanufacturing technology has a wide range of applications in the repair of scrapped parts with a certain remaining ser-
vice life. In this work, a scrapped crankshaft fabricated from nodular cast iron that had failed from working surface wear
was remanufactured via a plasma cladding process. Taking into account the wear amount on the working surface and the
characteristics of nodular cast iron, in this article, cladding layer parameters were designed and two types cladding pow-
ders, Fe-based and Ni-based, were prepared, respectively, to perform the cladding experiment. After examining different
process parameters, relatively smooth cladding layers were obtained using four powders. The cladding experiment
results showed that the powder No. 3 exhibited superior qualities when combined with proper processing parameters.
When applying powder No. 3 to the main journal of crankshaft, a higher quality of cladding layer was achieved.

Keywords
Crankshaft, remanufacturing, nodular cast iron, plasma cladding, surface treatment

Date received: 15 August 2017; accepted: 4 May 2018

Handling Editor: Farzad Ebrahimi

Introduction extensively used in the surface modification and rema-

nufacturing of aircraft, automobiles, mining machinery,
Nodular cast iron has been widely used as substitute petroleum/chemical industry equipment, and so on.7–10
for steel in crankshaft, connecting rod, gear and similar The heat source used in cladding technology primarily
parts requiring high strength, good toughness, low cost, consists of laser and plasma beams.11–13 Research into
and high yield ratio. These parts are often scrapped laser cladding is comparatively mature, but the tech-
owing to the wear and tear of work surfaces after a long nique has higher costs and requires special working
working time. Traditional surface treatment technolo- conditions. Although higher heat energy input is more
gies, such as nitriding, carburizing, thermal spraying,1,2 likely to lead distortion than laser cladding, plasma
and remelting3–5 are usually used to improve the wear cladding enjoys the most enormous potential for less
resistance of these parts’ working surface and have vast pollution, higher powder utilization rate, more efficient,
applications. However, these technologies have some no previous surface treatment, and low cost.14,15
limitations for the scrapped parts with a certain remain-
ing service life.
With the development of high-density energy heat-
treatment technologies, cladding surface modification College of Transportation, Shandong University of Science and
technology has developed rapidly. Because a higher Technology, Qingdao, P.R. China
strength metallurgical bond forms between the cladding
layer and the substrate, and cladding layers have excel- Corresponding author:
Jinxia Liu, College of Transportation, Shandong University of Science and
lent comprehensive properties, cladding technology has Technology, 579 Qianwangang Road, Qingdao 266590, Shandong, P.R.
become a topic of great research interest. Since began China.
to be used to repair turbine engine blades,6 it has been Email: xiar_liu@163.com

Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without
further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/
open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Research on plasma cladding parameters, bond

strength between cladding layer and substrate and wear
resistance of the cladding layer are of great importance
to remanufacturing applications. The influence of the
power and scanning speed of plasma cladding on the
quality of cladding layer are comprehensive.16 Low
power and high scanning speed of plasma cladding will
lead to bad bond between cladding layer and substrate; Figure 1. The scrapped crankshaft.
otherwise, the high power and low scanning speed will
lead to cracks in cladding layer.17 In addition to the
influence of the cladding parameters, the bond strength
is influenced by the wettability of the powder.18,19 The Table 1. Chemical compositions of the studied nodular cast
metallurgraphic and electron microscopic inspection of iron crankshaft (wt%).
the cladding layer formed by Fe-, Ni-, and other pow-
Element C (%) Si (%) Fe (%)
ders have been analyzed.15,20–24 And, the properties of
plasma cladding layer can be largely improved by mix- Mass percent 3.3 1.7 Balance
ing hard ceramic particles in the powder.25,26 The sur-
face hardness of the workpiece is obviously improved
after the plasma cladding, which provides a guarantee
for the excellent wear resistance of the cladding crankshaft has good supporting stiffness and balance
layer.23,27 performance. The scrapped crankshaft has a good
With the development of plasma cladding technol- appearance, and the working surface of main journals
ogy, it began to be used to restore the size of crapped and connecting rod journals is relatively smooth and
parts in remanufacturing.28–30 Based on an analysis of has no crack and tear.
the wear amount on the working surface of a scrapped The components and contents of crankshaft material
crankshaft made from nodular cast iron, to achieve were analyzed using an electron probe (JXA-8230,
successful remanufacturing of the scrapped crankshaft, JEOL, Japan). The main components are Fe, C, and Si
four possible cladding powders and various technologi- as shown in Table 1. Because the crankshafts are gener-
cal parameters were used for testing in this work. The ally made by forged steel and nodular cast iron, it is
rest of this article is organized as follows. In section inferred that the crapped crankshaft is made of nodular
‘‘The preliminary check of scrapped crankshaft,’’ the cast iron for the high C content.31,32
chemical compositions of the crankshaft, wear amount,
and hardness of working surface are measured.
Because the structure of crankshaft is relatively com- Measurement of working surface
plex, it will need special plasma cladding equipment if Dimensional measurement. The diameters of the different
directly cladding on the working surface of the crank- parts and the circumferential directions of the main
shaft. In this article, the cladding experiment on a flat and connecting rod journals were measured with ver-
sample was carried out in section ‘‘Cladding experi- nier calipers, and the maximum and minimum dia-
ment,’’ and followed with section ‘‘Analysis of the clad- meters were recorded, as shown in Table 2. It can be
ding experiment results,’’ then the first main journal of seen that the wear thickness of the main journal paral-
the scrapped crankshaft was remanufactured in line lel in direction to the crank is obviously larger than ver-
with the results of the experiment on the flat sample in tical in direction to the crank, and the section of
section ‘‘Remanufacturing the main journal.’’ Finally, connecting rod journals is slightly elliptical. Also, it can
section ‘‘Conclusion’’ draws the conclusions. be seen that the local maximum wear thickness is about
0.3 mm, which is far greater than the repair quantity
The preliminary check of scrapped with friction repair method.
crankshaft
Hardness measurements. The hardness of the main and
Structure and material of the crankshaft connecting rod journal were measured by Rockwell
Cleaned with gasoline after disassembling from a hardness tester (HR-150A, China) with test load of
scrapped engine, a scrapped crankshaft is shown in 150 kgf and dwelling time of 5 s. The hardness changes
Figure 1, which is composed of five main journals, four of the main journal are larger than that of the connect-
connecting rod journals and crank arms, balance ing rod journal according to the results of hardness
weights, and so on. Each side of the connecting rod measurements. And, the four hardness values from
journal is supported by the one main journal, so three groups measured along the main journal in three
Liu et al. 3

Table 2. The diameters and errors of the main and connecting rod journal.

Diameter of main journal (mm) Diameter of connecting rod journal (mm)

Parallel to the crank Max 50.60 48.10

Min 50.00 48.06
Vertical to the crank Max 50.10 47.88
Min 50.00 47.76
Roundness error 0.30 0.06
Cylindricity error 0.30 0.17

Table 3. The determination of the hardness of main journal.

Group Point 1 (HRC) Point 2 (HRC) Point 3 (HRC) Point 4 (HRC)

1 47.2 50 50.2 50.4

2 57 49.7 28.5 32
3 45 50.5 51.3 55

Table 4. Chemical compositions of cladding powder (wt%).

Powder C Cr Si Mn W V Mo Nb B Fe Ni

1 0.4–0.6 11–12 1.6–1.9 – 6.8–7.3 2.0–2.3 0.5–0.7 0.6–0.7 1.5–1.7 Balance –

2 0.8–1 11–12 1.6–2.0 – 6.8–7.3 2.0–2.3 0.5–0.7 0.6–0.7 2.3–2.5 Balance –
3 0.4–0.5 7–8 3.8–4.2 0.1–0.3 – – – – 2.3–2.6 2–4 Balance
4 0.7–0.9 15.5–16.2 4.3–4.6 0.1–0.2 – – – – 2.8–3.1 3–5 Balance

circumferential directions are shown in Table 3. From well, the Fe-based and Ni-based alloy powders were
Table 3, it can be seen that the hardness range for the made by water and nitrogen atomization, respectively,
main journal is 28.5–57 HRC. However, the difference according to the melting point. Finally, the powders
in hardness of a same crankshaft working surfaces is were obtained after drying and sieving, and the parti-
required no more than 6 HRC in accordance with the cles size is 53–198 mm. The components of four alloy
literature.32 powders are shown in Table 4.
According to the measurements of diameters and
hardness of main and connecting rod journals, it can The process of cladding experiment
be deduced that the main journals was more severely
Design of cladding layer parameters. The thickness of the
and unevenly worn.
cladding layer was determined to be 1–2 mm based on
the maximum wear thickness of the crankshaft, which
Cladding experiment would meet the repair requirements for the crankshaft’s
abrading section, and the width and length of the clad-
Preparation of the cladding powders ding layer were set to be 10 and 30 mm, respectively.
In line with the performance requirements for the clad- The path for the cladding processing is denoted via
ding layer, the physical and chemical properties of clad- arrows in Figure 2.
ding powders should be similar to the material of the
scrapped crankshaft, including melting point, thermal Determination of cladding parameters. The ideal micro-
expansion, and cold shrinkage, and should have high structure and properties of the cladding layer were
wear resistance, corrosion resistance, oxidation resis- determined not only by the alloy powder and the clad-
tance, wettability, and so on. In this article, two differ- ding processing route but also by the plasma processing
ent types of, Fe-based and Ni-based, alloy powders, parameters, which include the cladding power, scanning
which were numbered from 1 to 4, were prepared to speed, powder feeding rate, distance between the plasma
perform the cladding experiments. When melt with high torch and the substrate surface, gas flow, and so on.
temperature in electric melting furnace after the compo- The coating thickness is not very thick according the
nents of materials at a certain proportion ratio mixed plasma cladding technology (the thickness of single
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 5. The plasma cladding test parameters.

Powder Current (A) Voltage (V) Powder feeding Cladding rate Distance between plasma Gas flow (m3/h)
rate (r/min) (mm/min) torch and substrate (mm)

1 110 35 8.5 900 15–20 1

2 105 34 8.5 900 15–20 1
3 100 35 5.9 900 15–20 1
4 100 36 6.0 900 15–20 1

Table 6. The surface hardness of cladding layers of the four

powders.

Sample 1 2 3 4
number

HRC 64.3 65.8 49.1 47.9

Figure 2. The cladding processing path. layers of the four powders achieved high hardness,
and the Fe-based cladding layer had a higher hardness
than the Ni-based cladding layer. Also, the hardness
of all cladding layers was higher than the standard
hardness requirement for the nodular cast iron crank-
shaft surface.32

Low microstructure analysis of cladding layers

Samples of the cladding layers were cut in the vertical
direction with respect to the cladding, after grinding,
polishing, and etching by 4% HNO3. The microstruc-
tures of the cladding layers were analyzed by means of
metallographic microscope (Axio Lab A1, Zeiss,
Figure 3. Samples after the cladding process.
Germany) and shown in Figures 4–7 via low-power
microscopy.
layer cladding layer by plasma is generally about 3 mm
Figure 4 shows the microstructure of the cladding
or 2–3 mm22,25). To obtain the design requirements of a
layer from powder No. 1. According to the previous
cladding layer with a smooth and uniform thickness, the
research, the entire cladding layer mainly consists of
cladding current, voltage, scanning speed, powder feed-
ferrite and eutectic grain boundaries.22,23 The structure
ing rate, and other parameters were adjusted many
of the cladding layer is uniform with a large number of
times. And, about 2-mm overlap width was formed
micropores. According to the high hardness of cladding
between the two cladding trace. The final plasma clad-
layer, the ferrite is reinforced by a solid solution of a
ding test parameters are obtained and shown in Table 5.
variety of strengthening alloy elements. The main struc-
Figure 3 shows the result of the sample after the
ture of the cladding layer adjacent to bonding region
cladding process. In the figure, the cladding layer from
contains dendrites, which formed due to the good ther-
left to right corresponds to powders No. 1–4. Although
mal conductivity of the nodular cast iron and the high
there are some obvious overlapping lines, the cladding
under cooling of the melt powders. There is no obvious
layers are relatively smooth. Therefore, the experiments
interface and there is a lamellar structure in the bond-
process parameters in Table 5 are appropriate.
ing region, which is due to the diluted substrate and
direct crystallization of the cladding layer on the sub-
Analysis of the cladding experiment strate surface.
results Figure 5 shows the microstructure of the cladding
layer from powder No. 2, which is composed of rela-
Surface hardness of the cladding layer tively homogeneous dendrites that have good directiv-
The hardness of polished surface of the cladding ity extended from the adjacent bonding region to the
layers is shown in Table 6. The surface of cladding surface of the cladding layer. However, there are a few
Liu et al. 5

Figure 4. The microstructure from powder No. 1: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c) adjacent substrate bonding region.

Figure 5. The microstructure from powder No. 2: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c) adjacent substrate bonding region.

Figure 6. The microstructure from powder No. 3: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c) adjacent substrate bonding region.

of microcracks from the higher contents of C and B in middle region form a white reticular structure, and the
powder No. 2, which caused the higher hardness and carbide solid solution of M7(C, B)3 appears as strip-like
brittleness of the cladding layer. The structure near the structures in adjacent substrate bonding regions.22
bonding region consists of obvious lamellar eutectic Figure 7 shows the microstructure from the cladding
material from the melting of the iron substrate. layer for powder No. 4, which is also composed of a
Figure 6 shows the microstructure from the cladding Ni-based alloy and carbide. The distribution of car-
layer for powder No. 3, which mainly composed of a Ni- bides is relatively uniform and tiny in the middle region
based alloy and carbide according to literature.20 The and the carbide began to form into thick strips with
microstructure is dense, homogeneous with some tiny good wear resistance due to the diffusion of the C into
micropores and no obvious microcracks. The distribution the cast iron in adjacent substrate bonding region.
of carbides in the microstructure is different between the However, there are some micropores that act as the
top and adjacent substrate bonding regions. Due to the source of the microcracks, resulting in a cladding layer
diffusion of C in the cast iron, the carbides in adjacent with a lower toughness.
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 7. The microstructure from powder No. 4: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c) adjacent substrate bonding region.

Figure 8. The high magnification microstructure from powder No. 3: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c) adjacent substrate
bonding region.

From the above analysis of the cladding layer

formed using powders No. 1–4, the microstructures of
the cladding layer formed by the two Fe powders are
uniform. Because of the alloy element Cr, W, and V
solid solution strengthening effect and high content of
element B, the hardness is higher, reaching more than
64 HRC. It can conclude that the cladding layer tough-
ness of powder No. 1 is better than that of No. 2. The
microstructures of the cladding layer formed by the
two Ni powders are also dense and homogeneous. The
cladding layer formed by powder No. 4 has obvious
microcracks. And, the micropores in the cladding layer
formed by powder No. 3 are obviously smaller than the
No. 1; therefore, the cladding layer formed by powder
No. 3 is more suitable for the surface cladding of nodu-
lar cast iron and remanufacturing the working surface Figure 9. The microstructure of bonding region of cladding
of the crankshaft. layer and substrate layer.

High magnification microstructure of cladding layer decreases to about 2 mm in the middle region. Near the
adjacent substrate bonding region, the structure is more
formed by powder No. 3
compact and homogeneous without any micropores,
The high magnification microstructure of the cladding and the strip-like structures is nearly perpendicular to
layer formed by powder No. 3 is shown in Figure 8. the wear surface with high wear resistance.22 It implies
There are many micropores with diameters of 3–5 mm that in positions closer to the substrate bonding region,
in the top region. The diameter of the micropores the performance increases.
Liu et al. 7

Remanufacturing the main journal

Plasma cladding process for the main journal
The first main journal of the scrapped crankshaft was
remanufactured using the plasma cladding process with
the parameters corresponding to powder No. 3 in
Table 3 at a rotational linear crankshaft velocity of
100 mm/min. The cladded main journal is shown in
Figure 10, and the surface of the cladding layer is more
continuous and smooth.

Performance of the cladded main journal

Hardness of the cladding layer. After grinding, the clad-
ding layer’s microhardness on the main journal along
Figure 10. The cladded main journal. two random vertical lines from the cladding surface to
the substrate was measured by automatic microhard-
ness tester (FM-700/SVDM4R, F-T, Japan) with test
load of 10 gf and dwelling time of 10 s, as shown in
Figure 11 as line 1 and line 2. A total of 15 microhard-
nesses were determined at different depths, with 1–12
corresponding to the cladding layer and 13–15 corre-
sponding to the substrate. The hardness of cladding
layer ranges from 520–720 HV0.01 (50–60 HRC) is
greater than the standard surface requirement for a
nodular cast iron crankshaft (because 13–15 measure-
ment points of line 1 are on irregular spheroidal gra-
phite, the hardness of the substrate of the line 1 is
lower than that of line 2).
Figure 11. The cladding layer hardness of main journal.
Microstructure analysis of cladding layer of main
journal. Figures 12 and 13 represent the low and high
As shown in Figure 9, from the rapid increase in the magnification microstructures of the main journal’s
temperature during the cladding process, C atoms diffuse cladding layer, respectively. Compared with Figure 6,
from the high concentration nodular cast iron zone to the the cladding layer showed in Figure 12 is more dense
alloy layer with a low mass concentration. This caused and homogeneous. The diameters of the micropores
the spherical graphite in the bonding region to deform to are about 3–5 mm and 1–2 mm in the top region of the
an irregular shape, rather than remaining spherical in the cladding layer, respectively, in Figures 8 and 13, and
substrate bonding region. In addition, the powder and the the micropores hardly can be seen structure in the adja-
substrate metal are melted completely. cent substrate bonding region in Figure 13. The sub-
strate bonding region is more dense and homogeneous

Figure 12. The low magnification microstructure from cladding layer of main journal: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c)
adjacent substrate bonding region.
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 13. The high magnification microstructure from cladding layer of main journal: (a) top region, (b) middle region, and (c)
adjacent substrate bonding region.

in Figure 13. And, the micropores are so small that it Declaration of conflicting interests
hardly affects the practical performance of the The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
crankshaft. respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Conclusion Funding
1. For the scrapped crankshaft experiencing wear The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
failure, the original working surface dimensions port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
can be obtained by plasma cladding remanufac- article: This research was supported by the High Educational
turing, permitting the crankshaft to have a Institution of Shandong Science and Technology Project
(grant no. YB06).
higher performance than a new one.
2. The performance of cladding layer was deter-
ORCID iD
mined not only by the process parameters but
also by the degree of matching between the Jinxia Liu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0889-0397
cladding powders and the substrate. In this arti-
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