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1. MARKETING
1.1 DEFINITION OF MARKETING: Marketing is the process
of communicating the value of a product or service to customers, for the purpose of
selling that product or service.
Marketing can be looked at as an organizational function and a set of processes for
creating, delivering and communicating value to customers, and customer
relationship management that also benefits the organization. Marketing is
the science of choosing target markets through market analysis and market
segmentation, as well as understanding consumer behavior From a societal point of
view, marketing is the link between a society's material requirements and
its economic patterns of response and providing superior customer value.
Marketing satisfies these needs and wants through exchange processes and
building long term relationships.
Marketing may be defined in several ways, depending on the role of the advertised
enterprise in relation to the strategic role in positioning the firm within its
competitive market. The main definition is often credited to Philip Kotler,
recognized as the originator of the most recent developments in the field, for the
works that appeared from 1967 to 2009, with the latest work born from the last
economic crisis: Chaotics.

History
The origins of the concept of marketing have their roots with the Italian
economist Giancarlo Pallavicini in 1959. These roots are accompanied by the
initial in-depth market research, constituting the first instruments of what became
the modern marketing, resumed and developed at a later time by Philip Kotler.
Giancarlo Pallavicini introduces, the following definitions: Marketing is defined as
a social and managerial process designed to meet the needs and requirements of
consumers through the processes of creating and exchanging products and values.
It is the art and science of identifying, creating and delivering value to meet the
needs of a target market, making a profit : delivery of satisfaction at a price.
Contemporary approaches
Recent approaches in marketing include relationship marketing with focus on the
customer, business marketing or industrial marketing with focus on an
organization or institution and social marketing with focus on benefits to
society. New forms of marketing also use the internet and are therefore
called internet marketing or more generally e-marketing, online marketing, "digital
marketing", search engine marketing, or desktop advertising. It attempts to perfect
the segmentation strategy used in traditional marketing. It targets its audience more
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precisely, and is sometimes called personalized marketing or one-to-one

marketing. Internet marketing is sometimes considered to be broad in scope,
because it not only refers to marketing on the Internet, but also includes marketing
done via e-mail, wireless media as well as driving audience from traditional
marketing methods like radio and billboard to internet properties or landing page.

Customer orientation

Constructive criticism helps marketers adapt offerings to meet changing customer

needs.
A firm in the market economy survives by producing goods that persons are
willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for
a firm's future viability and even existence as a going concern. Many companies
today have a customer focus (or market orientation). This implies that the company
focuses its activities and products on consumer demands. Generally, there are three
ways of doing this: the customer-driven approach, the market change identification
approach and the product innovation approach.
In the consumer-driven approach, consumer wants are the drivers of all strategic
marketing decisions. No strategy is pursued until it passes the test of consumer
research. Every aspect of a market offering, including the nature of the product
itself, is driven by the needs of potential consumers. The starting point is always
the consumer. The rationale for this approach is that there is no reason to spend
R&D (research and development) funds developing products that people will not
buy. History attests to many products that were commercial failures in spite of
being technological breakthroughs.
A formal approach to this customer-focused marketing is known
as SIVA (Solution, Information, Value, Access). This system is basically the four
Ps renamed and reworded to provide a customer focus. The SIVA Model provides
a demand/customer-centric alternative to the well-known 4Ps supply side model
(product, price, placement, promotion) of marketing management.
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Product → Solution

Promotion → Information

Price → Value

Place (Distribution) → Access

If any of the 4Ps were problematic or were not in the marketing factor of the
business, the business could be in trouble and so other companies may appear in
the surroundings of the company, so the consumer demand on its products will
decrease. However, in recent years service marketing has widened the domains to
be considered, contributing to the 7P's of marketing in total. The other 3P's of
service marketing are: process, physical environment and people. Some consider
there to be a fifth "P": positioning.
Some qualifications or caveats for customer focus exist. They do not invalidate or
contradict the principle of customer focus; rather, they simply add extra
dimensions of awareness and caution to it.
The work of Christensen and colleagues on disruptive technology has produced a
theoretical framework that explains the failure of firms not because they were
technologically inept (often quite the opposite), but because the value networks in
which they profitably operated included customers who could not value
a disruptive innovation at the time and capability state of its emergence and thus
actively dissuaded the firms from developing it. The lessons drawn from this work
include:

 Taking customer focus with a grain of salt, treating it as only a subset of one's
corporate strategy rather than the sole driving factor. This means looking
beyond current-state customer focus to predict what customers will be
demanding some years in the future, even if they themselves discount the
prediction.
 Pursuing new markets (thus new value networks) when they are still in a
commercially inferior or unattractive state, simply because their potential to
grow and intersect with established markets and value networks looks like a
likely bet. This may involve buying stakes in the stock of smaller firms,
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acquiring them outright, or incubating small, financially distinct units within

one's organization to compete against them.
Other caveats of customer focus are:

 The extent to which what customers say they want does not match their
purchasing decisions. Thus surveys of customers might claim that 70% of a
restaurant's customers want healthier choices on the menu, but only 10% of
them actually buy the new items once they are offered. This might be
acceptable except for the extent to which those items are money-losing
propositions for the business, bleeding red ink. A lesson from this type of
situation is to be smarter about the true test validity of instruments like surveys.
A corollary argument is that "truly understanding customers sometimes means
understanding them better than they understand themselves." Thus one could
argue that the principle of customer focus, or being close to the customers, is
not violated here—just expanded upon.
 The extent to which customers are currently ignorant of what one might argue
they should want—which is dicey because whether it can be acted upon
affordably depends on whether or how soon the customers will learn, or be
convinced, otherwise. IT hardware and software capabilities and automobile
features are examples. Customers who in 1997 said that they would not place
any value on internet browsing capability on a mobile phone, or 6% better fuel
efficiency in their vehicle, might say something different today, because the
value proposition of those opportunities has changed.

Organizational orientation
In this sense, a firm's marketing department is often seen as of prime importance
within the functional level of an organization. Information from an organization's
marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments
within the firm. As an example, a marketing department could ascertain (via
marketing research) that consumers desired a new type of product, or a new usage
for an existing product. With this in mind, the marketing department would inform
the R&D (research and development) department to create a prototype of a product
or service based on the consumers' new desires.
The production department would then start to manufacture the product, while the
marketing department would focus on the promotion, distribution, pricing, etc. of
the product. Additionally, a firm's finance department would be consulted, with
respect to securing appropriate funding for the development, production and
promotion of the product. Inter-departmental conflicts may occur, should a firm
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adhere to the marketing orientation. Production may oppose the installation,

support and servicing of new capital stock, which may be needed to manufacture a
new product. Finance may oppose the required capital expenditure, since it could
undermine a healthy cash flow for the organization.
Herd behavior
Herd behavior in marketing is used to explain the dependencies of customers'
mutual behavior. The Economist reported a recent conference in Rome on the
subject of the simulation of adaptive human behavior. It shared mechanisms to
increase impulse buying and get people "to buy more by playing on the herd
instinct." The basic idea is that people will buy more of products that are seen to be
popular, and several feedback mechanisms to get product popularity information to
consumers are mentioned, including smart card technology and the use of Radio
Frequency Identification Tag technology. A "swarm-moves" model was introduced
by a Florida Institute of Technology researcher, which is appealing to
supermarkets because it can "increase sales without the need to give people
discounts." Other recent studies on the "power of social influence" include an
"artificial music market in which some 19,000 people downloaded previously
unknown songs" (Columbia University, New York); a Japanese chain of
convenience stores which orders its products based on "sales data from department
stores and research companies;" a Massachusetts company exploiting knowledge
of social networking to improve sales; and online retailers such as Amazon.com
who are increasingly informing customers about which products are popular with
like-minded customers.
Further orientations

 An emerging area of study and practice concerns internal marketing, or how

employees are trained and managed to deliver the brand in a way that positively
impacts the acquisition and retention of customers, see also employer branding.
 Diffusion of innovations research explores how and why people adopt new
products, services, and ideas.
 With consumers' eroding attention span and willingness to give time to
advertising messages, marketers are turning to forms of permission
marketing such as branded content, custom media and reality marketing.

Marketing research
Marketing research involves conducting research to support marketing activities,
and the statistical interpretation of data into information. This information is then
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used by managers to plan marketing activities, gauge the nature of a firm's

marketing environment and attain information from suppliers.
Marketing researchers use statistical methods such as quantitative research,
qualitative research, hypothesis tests, Chi-squared tests, linear regression,
correlations, frequency distributions, Poisson, binomial distributions, etc. to
interpret their findings and convert data into information. The marketing research
process spans a number of stages, including the definition of a problem,
development of a research plan, collection and interpretation of data and
disseminating information formally in the form of a report. The task of marketing
research is to provide management with relevant, accurate, reliable, valid, and
current information.
A distinction should be made between marketing research and market research.
Market research pertains to research in a given market. As an example, a firm may
conduct research in a target market, after selecting a suitable market segment. In
contrast, marketing research relates to all research conducted within marketing.
Thus, market research is a subset of marketing research.
Marketing environment
Staying ahead of the consumer is an important part of a marketer's job. It is
important to understand the "marketing environment" in order to comprehend the
consumers concerns, motivations and to adjust the product according to the
consumers needs. Marketers use the process of marketing environmental scans,
which continually acquires information on events occurring outside the
organization to identify trends, opportunities and threats to a business.
The six key elements of a marketing scan are the demographic forces, socio-
cultural forces, economic forces, regulatory forces, competitive forces,
and technological forces. Marketers must look at where the threats and
opportunities stem from in the world around the consumer to maintain a productive
and profitable business.
The market environment is a marketing term and refers to factors and forces that
affect a firm's ability to build and maintain successful relationships with customers.
Three levels of the environment are: Micro (internal) environment - forces within
the company that affect its ability to serve its customers. Meso environment – the
industry in which a company operates and the industry's market(s). Macro
(national) environment - larger societal forces that affect the microenvironment.
Market segmentation
Market segmentation pertains to the division of a market of consumers into persons
with similar needs and wants. For instance, Kellogg's cereals, Frosties are
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marketed to children. Crunchy Nut Cornflakes are marketed to adults. Both goods
denote two products which are marketed to two distinct groups of persons, both
with similar needs, traits, and wants. In another example, Sun Microsystems can
use market segmentation to classify its clients according to their promptness to
adopt new products.
Market segmentation allows for a better allocation of a firm's finite resources. A
firm only possesses a certain amount of resources. Accordingly, it must make
choices (and incur the related costs) in servicing specific groups of consumers. In
this way, the diversified tastes of contemporary Western consumers can be served
better. With growing diversity in the tastes of modern consumers, firms are taking
note of the benefit of servicing a multiplicity of new markets.
Market segmentation can be viewed as a key dynamic in interpreting and executing
a logical perspective of Strategic Marketing Planning. The manifestation of this
process is considered by many traditional thinkers to include the following;
Segmenting, Targeting and Positioning.
Types of market research
Market research, as a sub-set aspect of marketing activities, can be divided into the
following parts:

 Primary research (also known as field research), which involves the conduction
and compilation of research for a specific purpose.
 Secondary research (also referred to as desk research), initially conducted for
one purpose, but often used to support another purpose or end goal.
By these definitions, an example of primary research would be market research
conducted into health foods, which is used solely to ascertain the needs/wants of
the target market for health foods. Secondary research in this case would be
research pertaining to health foods, but used by a firm wishing to develop an
unrelated product.
Primary research is often expensive to prepare, collect and interpret from data to
information. Nevertheless, while secondary research is relatively inexpensive, it
often can become outdated and outmoded, given that it is used for a purpose other
than the one for which it was intended. Primary research can also be broken down
into quantitative research and qualitative research, which, as the terms suggest,
pertain to numerical and non-numerical research methods and techniques,
respectively. The appropriateness of each mode of research depends on whether
data can be quantified (quantitative research), or whether subjective, non-numeric
or abstract concepts are required to be studied (qualitative research).
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There also exist additional modes of marketing research, which are:

 Exploratory research, pertaining to research that investigates an assumption.

 Descriptive research, which, as the term suggests, describes "what is".
 Predictive research, meaning research conducted to predict a future occurrence.
 Conclusive research, for the purpose of deriving a conclusion via a research
process.

1.2 FUNCTION OF MARKETING

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE MARKETING
1.4 MICROENVIRONMENT OF MARKETING
1.5 MACROENVIRONMENT OF MARKETING