Applications of Meteorology To Agriculture: Users of Agrometeorological Information

CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY TO AGRICULTURE
9.1 INTRODUCTION to cite examples for the different climates and

regions of the world.
The application of meteorology to agriculture is
essential, since every facet of agricultural activity
9.1.1 Users of agrometeorological
depends on the weather. This chapter discusses
information
many examples of the usefulness of applied mete-
orology in order to make users aware of the potential The successful application of weather and climate
benefits that farmers can gain to improve efficiency information needs to integrate three components:
and ensure sustainability of their farm manage- data, analysis and users. Therefore, the ultimate
ment; to protect and ensure the continuing health goal of any application is to serve the needs of the
of their crops, livestock and environment; to users. A solid foundation of data is a prerequisite for
increase their yield and the market value of their successful agricultural meteorological applications
crops; and to solve selected operational problems. (see Chapters 1 and 2). Then an analysis of these
Other agricultural decision-makers derive benefit data that seeks to solve or address an agricultural
from agrometeorological applications, including problem is needed. These analyses are described in
government policymakers seeking to ensure this Guide. Ultimately, the users of agrometeoro-
adequate food supplies, affordable food prices for logical information and applications must be kept
consumers and sufficient farm income for farmers, in mind when developing new applications. The
and to reduce the impact of agricultural practices user can be defined as any agricultural decision-
on the environment. Decision-makers in interna- maker such as a farmer, extension agent,
tional agricultural organizations also use government official, media person or the general
applications of meteorology to ensure food security public. Rijks and Baradas (2000) provide an over-
and to react to potential famine situations. At any view of clients (users) of agrometeorological
level, these objectives can be achieved only through information. They discuss who the clients are, what
active cooperation among National Meteorological they require, what products agrometeorological
and Hydrological Services (NMHSs), agricultural services can offer, and how to approach clients and
extension services, farmers and their associations, assess the value of the product.
agricultural research institutes, universities and
industry.
9.1.2 Temporal and spatial scales of
agrometeorological information
The topics discussed in this chapter are based on a
and applications
classification of applications of micrometeorology
to various agricultural problems given in WMO Agrometeorological information and applications
Technical Note No. 119 (WMO, 1972). They are can be considered in temporal and spatial contexts.
grouped according to the general type of problem, In a temporal context, strategic applications are
namely, improving production; averting dangers to defined as those aiding in issues and decisions that
production; physiology and growth; strategy; and are assessed on a seasonal or yearly basis or only
tactics. These main topics were retained for this once, such as in a planning process. These applica-
edition of the Guide and only the subtopics have tions aid in the planning process whether the
been modified depending on recent applications. decision is choosing a specific crop variety to plant,
The physiology and growth topics for specific crops if an area should be exploited for forage products
are covered in Chapter 10. and livestock, how to design and plan where or if
greenhouses or animal shelters should be built, or
The main objective of this chapter is give to brief how to assist governments in setting agricultural
overviews and examples of applications at the local pricing polices. Such decisions can be based on
or farmer level. There are also important applica- climatological analyses, agroclimatic information,
tions that will be discussed at the government or and the use of complex soil–plant–atmospheric
international organization level, however. In select- models. Tactical applications are considered to be
ing the examples of applications of meteorology to short-term operational decisions relating to a period
agriculture, priority has been given to those that are ranging from a few hours to a few days. These often
used operationally. Also, an attempt has been made involve decisions, based on the state of the crop
9–2 GUIDE TO AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGICAL PRACTICES
and current or forecast weather, for such farm oper- on the farm, largely through a reduction in activi-
ations as cultivating, irrigating, spraying and ties that have little value or are potentially harmful.
harvesting. All of these increase the competitiveness of produc-
tion, reduce risk and help to lower the cost of the
Agrometeorological Aspects of Organic Agriculture, final products.
Urban Agriculture, Indoor Agriculture and Precision
Agriculture (WMO, 2003) provides a good descrip- In the developed world, a significant portion of
tion of macroclimate and mesoclimate in the recent work in agricultural meteorology has shifted
context of agrometeorological applications. from increasing yields to reducing the environmen-
Macroclimate is the largest and covers broad areas tal impact of agricultural fertilizer and pesticide use
of a continent (millions of square kilometres), and combating pests and diseases. In the develop-
and deals with the interaction of large-scale ing world, much of the focus remains on increasing
topography (mountain ranges, large lakes and agricultural production, but there is also an empha-
ocean influences) with airmasses. At this scale, sis on sustainable agricultural production and
climate characteristics should provide informa- reducing the impact of diseases and pests such as
tion on the suitability of a farm and whether the desert locusts.
farm could be weather-limited by pest, disease
and operational timing problems. Mesoclimate The following are brief examples of economic
reflects the farmer’s view of the weather experi- benefits of agrometeorological applications from
enced in a region. Local surface features such as Rijks and Baradas (2000). In Sudan, precise calcu-
hills, small mountains, large forests or extensive lations of water requirements for the main irrigated
plains have a distinct effect at this scale. A coun- crops (cotton, sorghum and groundnut) were
try may have one or two macroclimate zones, but compared with available irrigation water to allow
it will have many mesoclimates. It is at this scale for more accurate estimates of potential irrigated
that specific calculations can be made to define wheat area. The net result was an additional
agroclimatic regions. 8 000 ha of wheat grown, which added more than
US$ 2 million to the national economy at a cost of
At the smallest scale, microclimate is defined by a few thousand dollars for data, analysis and staff.
Rosenberg et al. (1983) as the climate near the In the Gambia, groundnuts are stored in the open
ground, or in other words, the climate in which air and if the dry pods become wet, they are at
most plants and animals live. In terms of meteor- high risk of developing aflatoxin, which can reduce
ology, The Application of Micrometeorology to farmer prices for the crop by up to 60 per cent. If
Agricultural Problems (WMO, 1972) describes farmers are warned of rainfall by forecasts trans-
micrometeorology as dealing with the physical mitted via local radio, they can cover the crop with
processes taking place within the boundary layers plastic sheeting. It is estimated that for each
between the top of the plant, tree or animal and percentage point of production saved, the benefit
the bottom of the roots of the soil. Most of the is US$ 60 000. In the Sahel, bush fires are common
applications in this chapter are based on micro every year, but the bush vegetation is needed for
meteorological principles. cattle and sheep grazing. By using wind, tempera-
ture and humidity observations to indicate speed
A monograph by Gordeev et al. (2006) presents the and direction of the fire, controlled burning can
results of an assessment of the bio-climatic poten- take place to prevent the fires from spreading.
tial in the Russian Federation, surrounding Reducing the burned area on 1 per cent of the
countries, Europe and the United States. Particular grazing land allows 5 000 more sheep to graze,
attention is given to climatic and agroclimatic which represents an additional annual value of
peculiarities in these territories in relation to solv- US$ 100 000 to the national economy. A WMO
ing certain social and economic problems. report on meteorology and plant protection
(WMO, 1992a) provides a framework for analysing
costs and benefits of agrometeorological applica-
9.1.3 Benefits derived from applications
tions in plant protection.
Many benefits result from the application of mete-
orological services to agriculture. The productivity The results of studying the peculiarities of climate
of a region or of a particular enterprise may be and weather conditions to optimize various cultural
increased by the reduction of many kinds of loss practices (namely, determination of an advisable
resulting from unfavourable climate and weather, structure of areas under crops, dates and methods
and also by the more rational use of labour and of soil treatment, optimum fertilizer application
equipment. Greater economy of effort is achieved periods and doses) aimed at boosting the
CHAPTER 9. APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY TO AGRICULTURE 9–3
productivity of plants growing in Russia, can be approaches and the index represents at any time of
found in several papers by Fedoseev (1979, 1985). the growing season the ratio between the actual
The economic efficiency of applied agro and potential evaporation.
meteorological recommendations is given.
The World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB) of
Other examples can be found in The Economic Value the United States Department of Agriculture
of Agrometeorological Information and Advice (WMO, (USDA) is mandated to provide official monthly
1980a) and in materials from a conference on the United States Government forecasts of agricul-
economic benefits of meteorological and hydrolog- tural commodities through the World Agricultural
ical services (WMO, 1994b). Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) publica-
tion (Motha and Stefanski, 2006). These supply
and demand estimates are based on official coun-
try reports, United States embassy reports, travel
9.2 APPLICATIONS FOR GOVERNMENTS reports of USDA personnel, economic analysis,
AND OTHER LARGE ADMINISTRATIVE remote-sensing information and, of course, global
BODIES weather information. USDA meteorologists
routinely collect, monitor and analyse global
Governments and other large administrative bodies weather conditions and agricultural information
need high-quality and reliable information for to determine the impact of growing-season
operational assessments of agricultural production. weather conditions on crops and livestock
With regard to planning, this would involve ques- production prospects. These activities are
tions about what kind of crops the country could supported by meteorologists from the United
produce economically and where they could be States National Weather Service who are located
grown. Planning questions of this nature can be within WAOB offices to serve the agricultural
answered by macro- and mesoscale agroclimatic community (Puterbaugh et al., 1997; Motha and
surveys. Heddinghaus, 1986).
Rusakova et al. (2006) describe the application of

9.2.1 Operational assessments
an automated Russian forecasting system that
There are several examples of operational assess- allows for the presentation of information about
ments of crop production that countries and observed weather conditions, state of crops, crop
international agencies perform. These examples yield forecast and the total harvest in the various
highlight the utility of integrating data, staff and regions of Russia. Comprehensive application of
resources to produce reliable crop production climatic and weather information at the govern-
assessments among different agencies at a coun- mental and field levels is demonstrated with the
try level and among different countries, Russian information and advice system meant for
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and resolving some practical problems in the planning
other organizations at an international level, as and organization of agricultural production (Zhukov
well as the need to do so. Boken et al. (2005) et al., 1989).
provide many examples of successful drought
monitoring and crop monitoring applications at In Brazil, several centres generate daily updated
these levels. agrometeorological information to support decision-
making, including Agritempo (http://www.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the agritempo.gov.br), which provides information for
United Nations (FAO) established the Global the whole country, and regional centres such as
Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) in Cepagri/Unicamp (http://www.cpa.unicamp.br) and
1975 in response to the global food crisis of the IAC (http://www.ciiagro.iac.sp.gov.br) for the state
early 1970s. GIEWS provides information on food of Sao Paulo, IAPAR/SIMEPAR (http://www.iapar.br/
production and food security for every country sma) for the state of Parana, and Ciram (http://www.
based on crop monitoring assessments that involve chlimerh.rct.sc.br) for the state of Santa Catarina.
remote-sensing and ground-based weather station Farmers’ cooperatives also provide agrometeorologi-
data (Mukhala, 2005). A number of these assess- cal information to their farmers and field technicians
ments are based on the FAO Crop Water Requirement (for example, http://www.fundacaoabc.org.br)
Satisfaction Index (WRSI) model that determines a (Pinto, personal communication).
cumulative water balance for 10-day periods from
planting to maturity. The WRSI model is a combi- Other examples include the Famine Early Warning
nation of dynamic water balance and statistical System, or FEWS (Rowland et al., 2005), the
European Union’s Monitoring Agriculture with European Union-sponsored European Cooperation

Remote Sensing (MARS) (Negre, 2006), the National in Science and Technology (COST) Action 719 on
Agricultural Monitoring System (NAMS) in Australia the Use of Geographic Information Systems in
(Leedman, 2007), the Farmweather service (WMO, Climatology and Meteorology provides several
2004) and agrometeorological services in Kazakhstan examples of these agroclimatic mapping methods,
(WMO, 2004). including temperature mapping, climate parameter
mapping in mountainous areas, and an agroecolog-
9.2.2 Agroclimatic surveys ical decision system (Dryas et al., 2005). The
Parameter–Elevation Regressions on Independent
Concerning macroscale agroclimatic surveys, the Slopes Model (PRISM) has been used to map daily
joint inter-agency project on agroclimatology weather and climatic parameters in mountainous
sponsored by FAO, WMO and the United Nations areas (Hunter and Meentemeyer, 2005; Daly et al.,
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1994).
(UNESCO) has been very successful in producing
five publications and is the foundation of current Zoidze and Ovcharenko (2000) assessed the agri-
agroclimatic zoning studies. The most important cultural potential of climate in the territory of the
practical applications of macroclimatic surveys Russian Federation and some of its regions for each
include: choosing crops, varieties and domestic crop, based on general indices of heat and water
animals; determining favourable periods for supply, radiation regime, unfavourable agrocli-
sowing, haymaking and harvesting; establishing matic phenomena, soil fertility, and relief essential
areas where dryland farming is possible and where to develop strategic and tactical agricultural poli-
irrigation has to be applied; planning afforesta- cies in different regions. These authors also
tion and reforestation; finding the optimum reviewed measures to optimize environmental
range of climatic variables for increasing yields conditions.
and agricultural production in general; establish-
ing potentials for the agricultural use of Motroni et al. (2002) focused on the development
rangelands; and determining requirements and of a methodology to assess climatic and agrocli-
potentialities for efficient storage and transporta- matic risks. Land capability was classified for
tion of crops. Sardinia by using climate, geographic and soil data.
A climatic risk index was computed on the basis of
The agroclimatology in the semi-arid and arid zones 30-year averages of climatic data.
of the Near East has focused on the estimation of
the boundary areas where dryland farming is possi- Petr (1991) described a mesoscale agroclimatic clas-
ble and where irrigation is needed (WMO, 1963e). sification scheme for Czechoslovakia based on a
The agroclimatology of semi-arid areas in West hydrothermic coefficient, HTC = R/(0.1TS10) where
Africa has dealt with dryland farming in West Africa R is the rainfall sum in millimetres and TS10 is the
and the length of growing seasons, which is strictly degree-days above 10°C. Such an approach could be
associated the rainy season (WMO, 1967). The agro- used with any degree-day base temperature and
climatology of the highlands of eastern Africa has adapted for specific crops.
focused on which crop water requirements are met
in the various localities of this area (WMO, 1973). In Brazil, there have been recent nationwide efforts
The agroclimatology of the Andes has looked at the in agroclimatic risk zoning for agricultural crops
unique effects of high elevation and high solar radi- that characterizes the potential and climatic risks
ation input on crops (WMO, 1978a). An for several crops, including maize, soybeans, beans,
agroclimatology survey of the humid tropics of wheat, barley, rice, cotton, coffee, cassava and
South-East Asia (WMO, 1982) illustrates the role of different species of fruits (Pinto, personal commu-
agroclimatology in determining strategies to nication). The recommendations are used by the
increase food production in the humid tropics. Brazilian Government to provide financing to the
farmers at very low rates. Furthermore, those who
follow the recommendation of the agricultural
9.2.3 Mesoscale agroclimatic surveys
zoning can obtain official insurance at special rates.
With the advent of widespread computing capabil- To be eligible for the bank credit, the farmers must
ity (personal computers) and Geographical also adopt the best agronomical practices recom-
Information Systems (GISs), climatic and agrocli- mended by the extension service. These efforts,
matic mapping has become widespread. There are combined with farmers’ use of optimum planting
many examples of the use of these methods for dates, have increased the productivity of Brazilian
climatological and agroclimatic analyses. The agriculture (Pinto, personal communication).
9.3 APPLICATIONS FOR FARMERS OR A report published by the WMO Commission for
GROUPS OF FARMERS Agricultural Meteorology (WMO, 2000b) describes
several operational applications to increase water
use efficiency, including an irrigation advisory
9.3.1 Improvements to production
system in Israel calculated on the basis of a modi-
As stated in the introduction, the original topics fied Penman potential ET equation. The same report
were based on a classification of applications of contains a paper describing the Irrigation Planner,
micrometeorology to various agricultural problems which has been developed into a computer soft-
in WMO Technical Note No. 119 (WMO, 1972). ware application for irrigation of grassland in the
Netherlands (WMO, 2000a). Results show that
using the system can reduce irrigation water by
9.3.1.1 Irrigation
15–20 per cent.
In its broadest terms, irrigation involves water
balance calculations based on rainfall, estima- Kroes (2005) provides on overview of the soil–
tion of water infiltration (effective rainfall), water–atmosphere–plant (SWAP) model, which
runoff, evapotranspiration (ET) and soil mois- integrates water flow, solute transport and crop
ture. There are several reliable direct growth. The SWAP model can be used at the local
measurements for soil moisture, such as those scale by farmers and extension agents for irrigation
obtained using manual gravimetric and neutron demand, potentials and strategies. At the regional
probe methods, which are suitable for routine level, it can be used by policymakers for spatial and
application in agricultural practice (see Chapter sectoral irrigation strategies.
2). Indirect measurements based on remotely
sensed information are also possible (see Chapter Venäläinen et al. (2005) used numerical weather
4). Early irrigation and soil moisture applica- forecast model data to model soil moisture for input
tions can be found in HMSO (1967), Baier and into irrigation models. Potential evaporation was
Robertson (1965) and WMO (1958, 1968b). Over calculated using the Penman–Monteith equation
the years a great deal of attention has been given based on data from a high-resolution, limited-area
to irrigation issues, especially measuring and model. The data were input into the AMBAV and
estimating evapotranspiration. A number of SWAP irrigation models.
textbooks provide good overviews of this subject,
including Rosenberg et al. (1983).
9.3.1.2 Shelter from the wind
Smith (2000) provides a survey of the widely WMO Technical Note No. 59 (WMO, 1964) and
accepted practical procedures that have been Chapter 9 of Rosenberg et al. (1983) deal compre-
developed by FAO et al. to estimate crop water hensively with windbreaks and shelterbelts; van
requirements and yield response to water stress. Eimern (1968) discusses problems of shelter plan-
The methodologies of crop water requirements ning. Grace (1977, as cited by Rosenberg) provides
were first published in 1974 as FAO Irrigation and an overview of the direct influences of wind on
Drainage Paper No. 24, and they were revised in plant growth.
1977 (FAO, 1977). A review and update of the
methodologies are contained in FAO Irrigation Rosenberg et al. (1983) define windbreaks as
and Drainage Paper No. 56, which deals with crop structures that reduce wind speed, and shelter-
evaporation (FAO, 1998). These methodologies belts as rows of trees planted for wind protection.
use the Penman–Monteith equation, which esti- Both of these can reduce physiological stresses
mates daily reference crop evapotranspiration on plants and animals due to wind. Rosenberg
(mm/day) based on net radiation, soil heat flux, and his co-authors reviewed the literature and
average air temperature, wind speed, vapour pres- found that shelter effects on the microclimate
sure deficit, and other humidity parameters. The include reduced potential and actual evapotran-
two publications listed above give details on esti- spiration; improved internal plant water relations
mating all these parameters based on weather and (greater internal water potential and lower
climate data and when data sources are limited. stomatal resistance); improved opportunity for
The FAO CROPWAT software program incorpo- photosynthesis; and finally, a general increase in
rates these methodologies and procedures to yield as a result of shelter. These generalities are
simulate crop water use under various climate, subject to variation depending on soil moisture,
crop and soil conditions. This software is available and the benefits may be most dramatic in dry
from FAO at http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_ years or under critical moisture shortages.
databases_cropwat.html. Examples of the widespread use of windbreaks
can be seen in the Great Plains in the United unshaded crop facilitates the harvesting and
States after the Dust Bowl years of the 1930s natural ground drying of the crop as the micro-
(Rosenberg et al., 1983), the Rhone Valley in climate is sunnier, and hence warmer and drier.
south-eastern France and the Netherlands (van In most places, coffee berries are hand-picked at
Eimern, 1968). Marshall (1967) has reviewed the the cherry stage, and if this stage is extended it
literature on the effect of shelter on the produc- provides for an easier and longer harvest period.
tivity of grasslands and field crops, and showed Therefore, shading can be advantageous since it
how the proportional decrease in wind speed increases the cherry stage of the crop because
with distance from the shelter corresponds to a the microclimate is cooler and moist, which
decrease in evaporation. Night-time temperature slows the maturation process. Shading also aids
decrease, relative humidity and the increase in in maintaining high soil organic matter. This
daytime air and soil temperatures vary with publication (WMO, 1994a) also cites several
distance from the barrier, but decline to no effect characteristics of good shading trees and several
at a distance of about 12 times the height of the other advantages and disadvantages.
shelter. In connection with these parameters,
the greatest soil moisture availability and crop Shelters may also be used to reduce production
yield are found in the zone at a distance of 2 to losses from lactating dairy cows because of the heat
4 times the height of the shelter. load during the summer (Hahn and McQuigg,
1970).
Windbreaks reduce the force of the wind in the
sheltered zone. WMO Technical Note No. 59
9.3.1.4 Greenhouses (glass and plastic)
(WMO, 1964) shows that a dense barrier may
protect an area about 10–15 times the height Greenhouses have been used in temperate climates
downwind, and by increasing the porosity of the for over 100 years and serve mainly to reduce heat
barrier to about 50 per cent, the downwind influ- loss and permit complete control over the watering
ence can be increased to 20–25 times the height. of plants. Recently, CO2 enrichment of the atmos-
Rosenberg et al. (1983) state that for the best wind phere has become an additional technique in
reduction and greatest downwind influence, the greenhouse cultivation. A detailed discussion of
windbreak should be most porous near the ground greenhouses is presented in WMO (1974a) and
and the density of the barrier should increase loga- WMO (2003).
rithmically with height in accordance with wind
speed profile. Wind reduction is a function of shel- A WMO publication on agrometeorological aspects
ter location as well as the height above the plants. of various types of agricultural activity (WMO,
Questions of orientation and spacing of shelter 2003) discusses many benefits derived from indoor
can be regarded as meteorological applications, agriculture (greenhouses): protection against
particularly if mesoclimatic wind surveys are used damage by ultraviolet (UV) light; improved ambi-
in advance. ent temperature conditions; protection of crops
from adverse climatic conditions; increased produc-
tivity; reduced production costs; controllable
9.3.1.3 Shade
harvest; and better product quality. They also list
Shelters of various types can also be used to provide several climate elements that must be managed for
shade from the sun; a well-known example is the good performance from greenhouses. The covering
use of taller-growing “shade trees” to protect cacao, of the greenhouse is important with regard to visi-
coffee or tea plants. ble light transmission for plant photosynthesis.
Knowledge of the climatology of a greenhouse site,
Agrometeorology of the Coffee Crop (WMO, 1994a) including solar radiation, cloudiness, relative
states that because coffee originally developed as humidity, temperature and wind profiles, is
an understorey shrub in the rain forests of important.
central Africa, it might be assumed that shading
or arborization of coffee trees is a well-defined Turning to construction materials, most greenhouse
cultural practice. There has been much discus- coverings are made of glass, fibreglass and plastic,
sion on the validity of this practice, however. while plastic agricultural tunnels are less widely
Most of the commercial crop in Brazil is used (WMO, 2003). In order to choose the best
unshaded, while shading is a common practice covering suited to a geographical location, the
in Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, maximum, minimum and average temperatures;
Uganda, Tanzania and in the higher-elevation the possibility of frost; the climatology of the wind
areas of North-east Brazil. In most of Brazil, an and relative humidity, rainfall distribution and
intensity; solar radiation; and specific crops need to extremes and minimizing erosion. Chapter 6 of
be taken into account. Rosenberg et al. (1983) provides several examples of
various mulches used with different crops.
A climatological analysis of solar radiation, temper-
ature and relative humidity is important for siting Agrometeorology of the Coffee Crop (WMO, 1994a)
greenhouses. These parameters will determine how lists the following advantages of grass-straw mulch-
much internal environmental control will be ing with the coffee crop in Kenya: it protects the
needed for optimum plant growth depending on soil from excessive heating that destroys the soil
the plants grown. Wind speed and direction are structure; it lowers temperatures, which results in
very important factors when designing a green- lower evaporation rates; it provides organic matter
house. High winds could damage the structure or to the soil; and it reduces soil erosion from heavy
coverings. Wind is also used in simple greenhouse rainfalls and minimizes weeds. It also cites studies
designs to maintain the thermal balance by reduc- indicating that mulching can reduce the frequency
ing energy costs for heating or cooling. Wind of irrigation. On the negative side, mulching
ventilation can be used for balancing internal requires a large amount of grass, and more impor-
temperatures by means of air circulation, reducing tantly, straw mulches can aggravate frost problems
relative humidity, promoting crop pollination, and as the air temperature above the mulch is much
replenishing carbon dioxide and removing oxygen warmer during the day and cooler at night. The
for plant photosynthesis. mulch also prevents the ground from absorbing
heat during the day, which is subsequently released
For some crops the degree of control is such that during the night. Studies on the effect of straw
firm advice can be given on the optimum tempera- mulching on air temperatures indicate that at 5 cm
tures for different growth stages (tomatoes are a above the ground, the maximum temperature is
good example); it is possible to differentiate between 6.6°C higher and the minimum is 1.7°C lower than
the environmental temperatures that should be the bare ground (WMO, 1994a). Gurnah and Mutea
maintained during the day and during the night. (1982, as cited in WMO, 1994a) tested the effect of
This knowledge has led to the design of “blueprints” different plastic coverings on the soil temperature
for the production of certain crops. and concluded that on areas subject to frost, trans-
parent plastic should be used and white plastic
There is scope for further assistance by meteorolo- should be used elsewhere, since it approximately
gists in research on environmental control. Practical has the same thermal regime as bare soil.
help can also be given at the advisory level, in terms
of greenhouse siting, design, and fuel consump-
9.3.1.6 Animal housing
tion. Meteorological factors are probably most
useful in siting greenhouses. In analysing possible Meteorological data are required when assessing
greenhouse sites, standard radiation data can be whether and how animal housing should be put
adjusted for latitude and mean cloudiness to give into use. Evaluation should also take into account
an estimate of the radiation input (and therefore the potential economic returns, energy cost and
plant growth) at each location. Such factors as shel- availability (WMO, 1980d). Animal housing is
ter and radiation must be balanced; highly exposed utilized because thermal imbalances lead to adverse
sites are undesirable because of extra fuel consump- effects on animal productivity.
tion and the risk of physical damage. As for fuel
consumption, if a crop requires the temperature to Weather and climate can determine the efficiency
be kept at a given level, the quantity of fuel needed of livestock production by direct and indirect
can be calculated from the number of degree-days influences (WMO, 1980d). Direct influences affect
below that temperature. the heat balance of the animal and include extreme
meteorological events. Indirect influences are
disease and parasites. Excessive heat or cold
9.3.1.5 Ground cover (mulching)
increases the metabolic energy required to
Soil mulches of various kinds (namely, straw cover maintain the animal’s body temperature, thus
or artificial materials such as plastics) are used to reducing the energy available for productivity.
modify the heat and moisture balance in the soil to This energy imbalance is usually corrected by
benefit plants. WMO Technical Note No. 136 increased feed, which entails an additional cost to
(WMO, 1975b) provides a good overview of the the farmer. The use of climatological data and
effects of mulching on plant climate and yield and analysis is useful in this case. Weather, Climate and
states that mulches are particularly useful in Animal Performance (WMO, 1980d) provides many
conserving moisture, reducing temperature examples of using weather and climate information
in the application of animal housing. It mentions 9.3.1.7.2 Grain

that siting, external wind, temperature and
humidity affect both entry conditions and patterns The previous WMO Technical Note on this subject
of internal air movement in environmentally has been revised (WMO, 1990a). Agrometeorology
controlled housing. Smith (1964) has shown the can provide guidance for the construction of grain
importance of the ventilation rate in animal storage based on local climate modification and
housing, and how it may be estimated by a environmental control. Stored grain interacts with
psychrometric method simple enough to be its environment, exchanging heat and moisture.
applied on a farm scale. The siting of animal The level of biological activity of grain and poten-
shelters is also important, particularly in relation tially damaging organisms must be minimized. For
to other shelters, as alternating positive and safe storage, grain must be kept cool and dry,
suction pressures may result from nearby requirements that are affected both by the charac-
obstructions. teristics of the building or structure for housing and
by the external environment. Heat uptake from
outside must be minimized while heat loss from
9.3.1.7 Storage
storage must be maximized. The moisture exchange
For some crops, storage is as important as produc- between the grain and the external environment
tion and weather may affect the quality of the food should generally lead to a reduction in grain mois-
product and modify the storage environment, caus- ture content. When hot dry grain must be cooled to
ing loss of product and economic value. prevent insect infection, the resulting moisture
increase must be kept to an acceptable level.
9.3.1.7.1 Fruit and vegetables
The siting of storage facilities and their design and
The Effect of Weather and Climate upon the Keeping construction materials can all be influenced by mete-
Quality of Fruit (WMO, 1963a) states that the stor- orological factors. For example, in hot, dry regions
age life of fruit is terminated by the onset of rotting with no refrigeration, there are advantages to storage
caused by specific fungi, physiological diseases facilities of high thermal capacity, with air space
and senescent breakdown. The rate of develop- ventilated at night when the air is coolest. In warm,
ment of these storage disorders is determined by wet regions with small diurnal temperature ranges,
storage conditions such as temperature and good storage may be difficult to design.
concentration of CO2 and oxygen, and by pre-
storage treatments. Agroclimatology of the Apple Meteorological factors become more important
Crop (WMO, 1996) states that the maturity of the to the farmer when natural air drying systems
apple fruit has a major impact on the quality of are used for grain. In the state of Ohio, United
fruit during storage and that there have been States, for example, best results for shelled corn
many studies on modelling apple maturity using occur when the climatic conditions provide
climatic data. temperatures in the range of –1°C to 10°C and
relative humidities in the range of 60 to 70 per
A WMO survey of operational models for agro cent (Hansen et al., 1990). In most western Ohio
meteorological services related to potato counties, October and November provide high
production (WMO, 1990b) states that monitoring probabilities for good climatic conditions for
of the storage environment and weather forecasts natural air drying of soybeans and shelled corn.
are used in many countries to determine the opti-
mum conditions for potato tubers. In the former There is also an impact of weather conditions due
Czechoslovakia, humidity and temperature data to rainfall before storage that can be important.
(the mean number of hours exceeding the limits High temperature and rain that occur shortly before
of 3°C, 7°C and 10°C during the winter months) harvest are the most important direct weather
were used for the design and construction of large effects on the quality of spring barley (WMO,
potato storage facilities. Another WMO report 2002).
(WMO, 2002) contains a review of the scientific
literature on the quality and storage of grapes and
9.3.2 Averting dangers to production
potatoes. It cites the most important meteorologi-
cal parameters for grape quality as temperature These dangers may be the direct result of weather
and solar radiation and lists several quality models (for example, frost) or they may be indirect and
for these crops. Potato storage quality is deter- carried by biological agents that are affected by the
mined by evaporation, transpiration, respiration weather (such as pests and diseases that attack
and germination. plants and animals).
9.3.2.1 Direct weather hazards during or after a change in airmass and is accom-
panied by strong winds (cold front). The number
of protection techniques against this kind of frost
9.3.2.1.1 Frost
is limited. Radiation frost occurs under the influ-
The occurrence of frost has been studied in ence of a high-pressure system and typically the
detail by many agrometeorologists mainly winds associated with this kind of frost are very
because of its economic effect on high-value light. They list the following frost protection
crops, and because some crops can be methods: site selection, radiation interception,
protected. Some examples were taken from thermal insulation, air mixing, direct convective
WMO publications (WMO, 1963d, 1971) in air heating, radiant heating, release of the heat of
the previous edition of this chapter. Two fusion and soil manipulation. Most of these meth-
WMO publications (WMO, 1978b, 1997d), ods are effective only against radiation frosts, but
Rosenberg et al. (1983), and a more recent some can be applicable to both advection and
FAO report on frost protection (FAO, 2005) radiation frosts.
provide overviews and examples of protection
against frost damage. Techniques of Frost Prediction and Methods of Frost and
Cold Protection (WMO, 1978b) describes many direct
Frost-risk maps and dates of first and last frost are (or active) and indirect (or passive) frost protection
simple but useful applications of climate data methods, which are taken from mostly Russian and
applied to agriculture. These maps are made at European sources. Direct methods of frost protec-
the macro- to mesoscale and are useful for speci- tion include: protective covers; smoke generation
fying general planting dates for cereal crops and and artificial fogs; open-air heating of plants and
for the assessment of crop damage when combined areas; irrigation and sprinkling; and mixing air.
with phenological data. Indirect methods include: biological methods such
as hardening, seed treatment, selection of frost-
hardy strains, development of new frost-hardy
9.3.2.1.1.1 Sites
varieties and regulation of bud development.
Assessment of potential sites for frost-sensitive Ecological methods such as control of mineral
crops, especially high-value crops such as tree fruit nutrition and crop site selection are other indirect
and coffee, is crucial since it will discourage growers approaches.
from planting in frost areas. Topoclimatology and
local-scale agroclimatic zoning are important tools The FAO publication Frost Protection: Funda
and methodologies in this regard. An early over- mentals, Practice, and Economics (FAO, 2005) lists
view of concepts and some examples are given in many recommended methods of passive and
WMO (1974b). The Effect of Temperature on the Citrus active frost protection along with detailed prac-
Crop (WMO, 1997b) describes agrotopoclimatology tical overviews of each method. It describes
as being concerned with the local differences in recommended passive methods such as site selec-
climate arising from topography, soil and vegetation, managing cold air drainage, plant selection,
tion within a uniform macroclimatic zone (this was canopy trees, plant nutrition management, pest
defined earlier in this chapter as mesoclimate). They management, pruning, plant and soil covers,
show some examples of using topoclimatological soil cultivation, irrigation, removal of cover
analysis to develop maps indicating the probability crops, trunk wraps and painting, and bacterial
of frost occurrence over complex terrain. With the control. Recommended active methods of frost
increase in availability and speed of personal protection include the use of heaters, wind
computers in recent years, applications of this kind machines, helicopters, various types of sprin-
have increased (see Chapter 4 on GIS applications). klers, surface irrigation, foam insulation, and
One example uses a spatial interpolation method to some combination of these methods. It also
determine the spring frost hazard in the hilly areas provides a review of critical temperatures for
of French vineyards based on digital elevation data annual, biennial and perennial crops, fruit and
and weather station temperatures (Madelin and citrus trees, grapes, and other small fruits. A
Beltrando, 2005). companion volume details several practical Excel
software spreadsheets that help users to compute
9.3.2.1.1.2 Protection against frost damage the probability that temperatures will fall below
critical levels (TempRisk.xls) and the risk of frost
Rosenberg et al. (1983) describe two kinds of frosts damage specific to a crop (DEST.xls), and to
that can affect crops and call for different protec- determine the economic risk of frost damage
tion techniques. Advection frost usually occurs protection (FrostEcon.xls).
9.3.2.1.2 Hail from standard meteorological data or measured

with leaf wetness sensors (Sentelhas et al., 2004).
Hail can destroy high-value crops within a short
time and many countries have therefore sought to Meteorology can be applied via observation of
reduce its frequency or to reduce the damage that it temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. More
causes. Protection of Plants against Adverse Weather sophisticated applications include numerical
(WMO, 1971) contains a short summary of the weather prediction models for wind direction and
protection methods that involve adding condensa- speed with regard to the disease or pest (see
tion nuclei to hail-forming clouds, by means of 9.3.2.2.2.1 on the desert locust and 9.3.2.2.4.1 on
missiles or aircraft, with the object of producing foot-and-mouth disease). For the host or plant food
small hailstones or soft hail. source, temperature can be used for phenological
development, rates of infection and disease/pest
Large reductions in hail have been claimed by a survival (extreme temperatures). Rainfall is impor-
number of groups. According to the WMO tant for host plant and disease/pest development.
Commission for Atmospheric Sciences, the weight of All of these aspects can then be modelled and used
scientific evidence to date is inconclusive, neither in operational applications for the agricultural
confirming nor refuting the efficacy of hail- decision-maker.
suppression activities. It is recommended that
interested parties consult the WMO Statement on One important use of weather and climate informa-
the Status of Weather Modification for further tion is in the field of Integrated Pest Management
information (http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/ (IPM). IPM strategies include avoiding the use
wwrp/new/documents/WM_statement_guidelines_ chemicals unless there is economic damage to the
approved.pdf). crop. There have been numerous studies and models
of the influence of temperature on plant and insect
growth and development. Pruess (1983) gives an
9.3.2.2 Indirect weather hazards
overview of degree-day methods for pest
management.
9.3.2.2.1 Introduction to crop and animal pests/
diseases
WMO Technical Note No. 192 (WMO, 1988b)
The application of meteorology to overcome the provides many examples of agrometeorological
effects of pests and diseases on plants and animals aspects of operational crop protection, including
involves a complete understanding of the complex protection against plant diseases, insect pests and
life cycles of the pathogen and its host, as well as weeds; meteorological data requirements; and
the environmental conditions that influence application of weather forecasts. Definition of
growth and development. Plant pathologists have Agrometeorological Information Required for Vegetable
developed a disease triangle with host (a susceptible Crops (WMO, 1997a) provides a brief overview of
animal or plant), environment (environmental the meteorological factors relating to vegetable
conditions suitable for disease or pest establishment pests and diseases. Pedgley (1982) provides a good
and development), and disease (the presence of the overview of the meteorology of windborne pests
disease or pest) at the different points of the trian- and diseases, accompanied by examples. Sections of
gle, as depicted in Figure 9.1. These concepts help
to describe the situation for virtually all known
Disease/pest
pests and diseases. All three sides of the triangle
must exist for the pest/disease to be established and
develop. If one of the sides is missing, then estab-
lishment of the pest/disease will not occur.
Meteorological factors are very important for the
growth and development of the host plant and
animal species, for the pest/disease, and the airborne
transport of the pest/disease. Orlandini (1996) lists
temperatures, solar radiation, precipitation, leaf
wetness and humidity, and wind as the major mete-
orological factors in relation to plant pathology. Environment Host
The duration of leaf surface wetness caused by dew,
fog or rain is often a critical variable controlling the
germination of disease spores. It must be computed Figure 9.1. Disease/pest triangle
the book deal with weather at take-off, organisms needed to determine where locust control person-
staying airborne, downwind drift, insect flight nel should scout for locust activity. During a desert
within and above the boundary layer, swarms, locust outbreak or plague, the type and amount of
dispersion and concentrations, and forecasting. meteorological information increases to include
daily temperatures and forecasts of temperature
and rainfall, as well as wind forecasts, which are
9.3.2.2.2 Crop pests
especially important. Recently, more attention has
There are many applications of meteorology involv- been given to high-resolution regional numerical
ing crop pests. Based on the concepts in the weather prediction models.
pest/disease triangle, applications focus on using
temperatures to predict insect development and
9.3.2.2.2.2 Other crop pests
host plant development. Any additional weather
parameters can then be added, depending on the WMO Technical Note No. 41 (WMO, 1961) was
nature of crop pest. prepared for the European and Mediterranean
Plant Protection Organization to delineate the
areas where the climate is suitable for the perma-
9.3.2.2.2.1 Desert locust
nent settlement of the Japanese beetle in Europe.
There has been much work on weather and desert Most of the life of the beetle is spent beneath the
locusts. Early studies include meteorology and ground as a grub. The appropriate environmen-
desert locust migration (WMO, 1963c) and the tal model therefore takes account of summer
accompanying training seminars (WMO, 1965). rainfall (as a substitute for soil moisture) and
Later work focused on meteorology for locust summer and winter soil temperatures. Volvach
control (WMO, 1991, 1992b, 1992c, 1997c). (1987) describes the model used to consider the
effect of agrometeorological conditions on the
Extreme Agrometeorological Events (WMO, 1997c) principal characteristics of Colorado beetle activ-
gives a good overview of the meteorological ity: duration of development, reproduction and
factors for locust control. Rainfall largely deter- death of individuals. The preliminary amount of
mines the extent and intensity of breeding and chemical treatments to be applied to potato is
therefore is the most important factor in the calculated on the basis of the forecast intensity
development of an outbreak or plague. Rainfall of Colorado beetle reproduction, then it is
location is more important than actual amounts, corrected in the light of observed weather
and this is where satellite rainfall estimates are conditions.
particularly useful. Once there is a significant
rainfall event in the desert (25 mm or more during There have been many studies relating meteorolog-
a month or two), the tender grass vegetation, ical factors to important crop pests, such as the
which is the main food source for desert locusts, cotton leaf worm and pink bollworm (WMO,
starts to grow. It is these abnormal rainfall events 1980b), the Colorado potato beetle (WMO, 1975a),
that can trigger locust outbreaks and plagues. various pests of sugarcane (WMO, 1988a) and
There have been cases in the Arabian Peninsula cassava mites (WMO, 1980c).
in which a tropical cyclone making landfall has
spurred a locust outbreak, for instance in 1969.
9.3.2.2.3 Crop diseases
Temperature affects the rate of development of all
stages of the desert locust life cycle. Since this The application of meteorology as an aid to the
pest is native to hot desert climates, temperatures farmer in combating plant disease differs accord-
gain in importance typically when swarm take- ing to the mechanisms by which each pathogen is
off is needed on a daily basis or when the desert spread. The pathogen may be a year-round resi-
locust migrates outside the desert climates. dent that increases and spreads whenever the
Likewise, wind direction and speed are needed to weather is suitable for the pathogen and the host
determine swarm flight and to perform tactical plant, which is the case with the fungal disease
spraying applications from aircraft or the called potato blight, for example. In some areas a
ground. pathogen may not be capable of surviving the
year, and may not reappear unless transported in
The biological activity of desert locusts determines sufficient quantity from a distant source, as in the
the kind of weather data needed over a given period. case of black wheat rust, for example. In recent
The desert locust is normally a solitary insect and years the development of crop disease models has
does not threaten crops and food security. This state focused on crops with high economic value, such
is called the recession period and rainfall data are as fruit trees, vineyards and vegetables, since the
models need meteorological observations in field The use of DSSs (Table 9.2) typically requires site-
settings that usually require the establishment of specific automatic weather station data, but
costly automatic weather stations. interfaces with alternative data sources are also
possible (Hansen, 1999). The systems automate the
use of the simple rule-based methods and usually
9.3.2.2.3.1 Potato blight
provide spray strategy recommendations as well.
There are two approaches available for the forecast-
ing of late blight with a view to reducing
9.3.2.2.3.2 Wheat diseases
agrochemical use compared to routine 7- and 10-
day spraying: WMO Technical Note No. 99 (WMO, 1969) provides
(a) Simple meteorological rules related to the life an overview of the various wheat rusts that occur
cycle of Phytophthora infestans that use rain- around the world and the meteorological factors
fall, temperature and humidity over 12–48 h that contribute to the transport of spores and
periods to predict spore production (“critical disease outbreaks for various types of wheat rusts.
periods”) and possibly subsequent periods
when risk of infection is greatest. These meth- A WMO report (WMO, 2000d) provides a survey of
ods can be used with either hourly observa- many crop disease models, including several for
tion data or synoptic weather maps; wheat. It describes EPIPRE as a system devised to
(b) Computer-based decision support systems support decision-making in pest and disease control
(DSSs), usually utilizing the simple rules that in winter wheat with the aim of reducing pesticide
rely on data from in-field automatic weather use. The system integrates six fungal diseases and
stations or available as digital files from three aphid pests of wheat. Spirouil–Epure was
(usually) Internet sources. developed in France and has been used for many
years to support extension services for brown wheat
The rules (Table 9.1) differ only in detail and rust. The model uses meteorological data, along
require some regional or site-specific calibration. with some agronomic and phenological data, and
Mercer et al. (2001) indicate that ideal conditions provides advice on the dates for first fungicide
for spore production are relative humidity above application within microregions and well-defined
95 per cent and temperature above 10°C at night- crop zones.
time; free water must be available on the crop
surface for serious infection to occur, so rainfall
9.3.2.2.3.3 Apple scab
and prolonged high relative humidity are also
required after spore production. Simple rule-based Apple scab is caused by the Venturia inaequalis
methods predict critical periods from late spring fungus and is an economically important disease
until late summer using the following general for apple producers. The Influence of Weather
rules: Conditions on the Occurrence of Apple Scab (WMO,
(a) Minimum temperature >10°C for a period of 1963b) provided one of first overviews of the disease,
between 12 to 48 hours; investigations in various countries and descriptions
(b) Relative humidity >90 per cent for the same of the early warning systems. More recently, the
time period; apple scab model ASCHORF was developed in
(c) Rainfall in the period following (4 hours to 10 Germany. This model can be used to provide practi-
days later). cal recommendations to plant protection services
and apple growers (Friesland, 2005). The modelled
Evidence of disease is expected between 7 and 21 infection risk is dependent on temperature and leaf
days after a critical period has been predicted and a wetness duration. Leaf wetness duration is calcu-
suitable crop protection strategy can be put in place. lated but not measured and is based on energy
If possible, prediction should be based on hourly balance principles. The model uses a sliding 10-day
observation of temperature and relative humidity. time series by inputting data for the previous four
Synoptic maps can be used (particularly where days from the standard meteorological network and
observations are sparse) to make predictions based then inputting grid point data from numerical
on the likelihood that current and forecast weather weather prediction models.
systems will create suitable conditions for a critical
period to occur, such as the passage of warm, moist
9.3.2.2.3.4 Downy mildew
tropical air giving rise to high humidity and temper-
ature, and slow-moving depressions giving rise to Downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) is one of the
overcast, humid, rainy conditions (WMO, 1955; most important fungal diseases for wine grapes
Austin Bourke, 1957). (Vitis vinifera) and can lead to considerable losses in
Table 9.1. Examples of “critical period” prediction methods indicating the types of modification made for various regions
where potatoes are grown (not an exhaustive list)
Method Temperature Humidity Other Rainfall Reference
Dutch rules >10°C min at night 4 h below dewpoint at night 8/10ths following day Followed by >0.1 mm rain van Everdingen (1926)
1926
Europe
Beaumont periods >10°C min for a minimum 75% during the 48 h period Beaumont (1947)
1947 48 h period
United Kiingdom
Irish rules >10°C min for a 12 h period >90% for the 12 h Free moisture on leaves for Between the 7th and 15th h Keane (1982)
1953 2 h after the 12 h period or around the end of the 12th h
Ireland the rainfall criterion of the 12 h period
Hyre rules 5-day average <25.5°C Looks for 10 consecutive Total rain in 10-day period Hyre (1954)
1954 excluding days with minimum risk days >30 mm
North-eastern United States <7.2°C
Smith periods 1956 >10°C min for 2 × 24 h periods >90% for 11 h in each of the Smith (1956)
United Kingdom and Ireland 2 periods
Negative prognosis Uses temperature bands and At low temperature only use Can subtract from risk when At low temperature only use h Ullrich and Schrodter (1966)
multiplies the hours in each hrs when >90% or a rainfall RH is <70% when >0.1 mm rainfall or RH
1966 band by a weighting factor limit for 4 h blocks. At higher limit for 4 h blocks. At higher
temperature use a 10 h block temperature use a
Germany >10°C and <24°C 10 h block
Young rules >10°C and <24°C for >70% at 2 p.m. during each of van Rij and du Preez (2004)
1978 2 × 24 h periods the 24 h periods
South Africa
Forsund rules Maximum 17°C–24°C >75% at noon during each >0.1 mm during each 24 h Forsund (1983)
1983 24 h period period
Norway Minimum >10°C for
2 × 24 h periods
Winstel rules Phase 1: Average daily Phase 1: >90% Winstel (1993)
1993 >10°C and <23°C for 10 h
Belgium and then 10 h >10°C
CHAPTER 9. APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY TO AGRICULTURE
Phase 2: Maximum daily

>23°C and <30°C for
2 × 24 h between 1 and 10
days after Phase 1
Washington State rules Rainfall indicators calculated Calculates probability of a Days with >0.25 mm and Johnson et al. (1996)
1996 for periods when minimum year being an “outbreak” temperature >5°C
North-western United States >5°C during April and May year using discriminant
and then July and August functions and binary logis-
tic regression
9–13
Table 9.2 Examples of DSS-type systems for prediction and management of blight outbreaks (after Bouma and Hansen, 1999) 9–14
Model Country and e-mail Original development year Main target users Input Output
Televis Norway 1957 Farmers, advisers Weather data Epidemiological data

Arne.Hermansen@
planteforsh.no
Guntz-Divoux France 1963 Advisers, extension Weather data Advice line
fredec.nord.pas-de-Calais@ service
wanadoo.fr
Simphyt Germany 1982 Plant protection service, Weather data Field data
Bkleinhenz.lpp-mainz@ extension officers Field data Advice
agrarinfo.rpl.de
ProPhy Netherlands 1988 Farmers, advisers, Weather data Weather overviews
info@Opticrop.nl extension officers Field data Field data
Other data Advice
Plant-Plus Netherlands 1990 Farmers, advisers, Microclimate Disease maps
Plantplus@dacom.nl suppliers, processors Crop + product Fungicide protection
information periods
I.P.I. Spain 1990 Farmers, advisers Weather data 1st spray timing
Epidemiological data
NegFry Denmark 1992 Farmers, advisers Weather data 1st spray timing
JensG.Hansen@agrisci.dk Field data Fungicide applications
PhytoPRE + 2000 Switzerland 1995 Farmers, advisers, Weather data Regional data
GUIDE TO AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGICAL PRACTICES
Hansrudolf.forrer@ plant protection service Field data Field data

fal.admin.ch Other data
Guntz-Divoux Belgium 1996 Advisers, extension Weather data Advice line
pcg@ping.be service
grape yield and quality. Friesland et al. (2005) devel- disease. Weather and Animal Diseases (WMO, 1970)
oped the PERO model to calculate the start of provides a good overview of practical links between
infection of the grapevine disease Peronospora, weather and animal disease that may be wind-
which is determined by temperature and leaf borne, parasitic, fungal or the result of environmental
wetness. The PERO model is based on laboratory or nutritional stress. More recent reviews include
and field experiments and the inputs are hourly air WMO (1989) and WMO (1980d), which detail inter-
temperature, relative humidity, calculated leaf nal animal parasites and cold and hot weather
wetness, daily extreme temperatures and daily rain- stress. Weather, Climate and Animal Performance
fall. The model outputs are infection dates and oil (WMO, 1980d) states that there are two lines of
spot balances (lesions), which are used for agrome- enquiry in using climate information as a measure
teorological advice. of disease incidence. The first uses climatic factors
to develop climatic indices known to influence the
PLASMO (Plasmopora simulation model) was devel- development of the animal parasite during its life
oped to simulate the biological cycle and the disease cycle outside the animal. The second uses biologi-
leaf area of grapevine downy mildew, allowing for cal development rates, calculated from the study of
the best timing for fungicide treatments (Orlandini parasites under laboratory conditions in constant
et al., 2005). Data inputs are hourly temperature, temperature chambers, to determine the influence
relative humidity, rainfall and leaf wetness. The of temperature variation on parasite development
results are expressed in percentage of leaf area in actual field conditions. Besides the animal
covered by oil spot lesion. The PLASMO model has diseases listed below for which meteorological
been developed into a computer program for distri- applications have been developed, this publication
bution and is also available on the Internet for also provides information on nematodiriasis and
greater access. Weather data can be uploaded to the parasitic gastro-enteritis.
model Website for running of the model (Rossi et
al., 2005).
9.3.2.2.4.1 Foot-and-mouth disease
The 1968/1969 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic

9.3.2.2.3.5 Other applications
in the United Kingdom led to research indicating
Norway has developed a Web-based site-specific that meteorological factors are major contributors
warning system called VIPS that calculates warn- to the spread of the virus during a foot-and-mouth
ings for several pests and diseases in selected fruits, outbreak (Smith and Hugh-Jones, 1969; Wright,
vegetables and cereals (Folkedal and Brevig, 2004). 1969). The virus is spread when it is exhaled by
The warnings are linked to over 70 weather stations animals as the nuclei of water droplets, which are
and colour-coded warnings ranging from danger then dispersed by winds. The most important mete-
(red) to no danger (green) are given for each county orological factors are wind, humidity and rainfall;
for the previous five days and are forecast for the the synoptic situation will determine to some
upcoming five days. VIPS incorporates previous degree the distance over which the virus can spread.
work done in Norway on pests and diseases such as Wind speed and direction will determine the pattern
NORPRE (Magnus et al., 1991). NORPRE is a cereal of dispersion of the virus. Stable atmospheric condi-
disease and pest control system that uses daily tions favour dispersion over large distances because
weather data as input to a number of different vertical distribution is minimized, while high winds
submodels. The system uses field observations of and turbulence usually reduce the transport range.
pest disease occurrence from farmers to validate the Humidity will determine the duration that the virus
models and adjust threshold values. The system remains protected by its water droplet. Maximum
includes the following pest models: cabbage moth, infectivity is associated with relative humidity
turnip moth, carrot fly and codling fly (WMO, above 60 per cent (Murphy et al., 2004). Rainfall
2000c). will influence when the virus is deposited from the
atmosphere. In rainy conditions the virus will be
There have been many surveys of crop disease deposited on herbage within short distances of the
models undertaken over the years. A WMO report source, rather than moving to infect other
(WMO, 2000d) contains a survey focused on fungal animals.
pathogens and lists 58 crops and 133 pathogens.
The more recent epidemic in the United Kingdom
in 2001 resulted in the development, utilization
9.3.2.2.4 Animal pests/diseases
and testing of models for predicting the spread of
The approach of the meteorologist to problems of virus based on: the predicted viral load at a source
animal disease is basically the same as for plant location; the predicted spread due to surface weather
conditions (Gloster et al., 2003; Mikkelsen et al., 24 hours. Ollerenshaw (1966) describes a wetness
2003; McGrath and Finkle, 2001); and latitude and index (Mt) based on monthly rainfall, potential
topography. McGrath and Finkle (2001) noted that transpiration and the number of rain days, which
older models depend on synoptic observations and was developed in England and Wales. Data for the
thus suffer error due to potential remoteness of index are accumulated over a season, and based on
observation stations from outbreak sources. comparison with historical disease statistics, thresh-
Mikkelsen et al. (2003) tested four dispersion olds for treatments can be established.
models: (i) 10 km Gaussian Plume (Gloster et al.,
1981); (ii) Nuclear Accident Model (NAME) (Ryall Part I of Weather and Parasitic Animal Disease (WMO,
and Maryon, 1998); (iii) RIsø Mesoscale PUFF model 1978c) provides an updated and through overview
(RIMPUFF) (Mikkelsen et al., 1984); and (iv) Danish of the use of weather information in the various
Emergency Response Model of the Atmosphere models of this disease in Europe, and states that the
(DERMA) (Sørensen, 1998). NAME and DERMA are most important meteorological factors in the emer-
long-range models driven by numerical weather gence of Fasciola hepatica are temperatures above
prediction (NWP) output, and produced similar 10°C for the development of the parasite inside the
results despite being driven by different NWP snail host and the presence of free water. Weather,
models. The local-scale models, driven by nearby Climate and Animal Performance (WMO, 1980d) also
observation data, were also used to analyse local lists several analytical and simulation models that
infection. It was concluded that 24-hour average predict parasite populations in pasture and in the
virus concentrations do not adequately represent host. It cites the use of analytical models for strate-
infection risk and that short-term high concentra- gic disease control policies and simulation models
tion levels are needed to account for the pattern of for tactical control procedures. Part II of Weather
infection that was observed (Gloster et al., 2003). and Parasitic Animal Disease (WMO, 1978c) contains
several examples of the use of weather information
For local-scale prediction, the most important to study and/or model nematodiriasis in sheep, as
observation/NWP output is 10 m wind speed, esti- well as tapeworms, ticks and nematodes.
mates of three-dimensional dispersion, the relative
humidity and the chance of rainfall occurring. For
regional-scale modelling, 1- to 3-hour NWP output
is preferred and should include wind speed, wind 9.4 OTHER APPLICATIONS
direction, relative humidity, cloud cover and
precipitation. There are many other applications of meteorology
for agriculture besides those already mentioned.
They are covered in other chapters in detail because
9.3.2.2.4.2 Facial eczema of sheep
of their importance. One important group relates to
A warning system for this fungal disease was devised the physiology and growth of plants, from germi-
in New Zealand (WMO, 1960, 1968a). Even before nation to final yield. These are affected somewhat
a definite link was established between the disease by the applications already dealt with, for example,
and fungus present in grass, soil temperatures and irrigation, shelter, cover and disease. Other applica-
rainfall were used for warning. High humidities and tions can be cited, including the use of degree-days
ambient temperatures in the 21°C–27°C range are or other indices to determine the phenological
favourable for the spores, and the discovery of the stages of crops, such as flowering, reproduction and
fungus reinforced the empirical approach. Spore maturity. These stages are very important for pest/
traps and counts are now being used to confirm the disease management. Typically, growing degree-day
meteorological evidence. or heat-unit calculations are made by subtracting a
threshold temperature from the average daily
temperature and then accumulating these units
9.3.2.2.4.3 Fascioliasis in sheep
over time to model plant and insect development.
Fascioliasis (commonly called liver fluke disease) is The simplest form on a daily basis is:
a parasitic disease that affects sheep and is caused
by Fasciola hepatica. The complicated life cycle Degree-day = [(Tmax + Tmin)/2] – Tbase
consists of the passing of fluke eggs in dung by
infected sheep, and these eggs then hatch into free- Hodges (1991) provides a good overview of
swimming larva in the open pasture and infect the modelling crop phenology for many crops. Weather-
fluke’s intermediate host, a snail, Lymnea trunculata. Based Mathematical Models for Estimating Development
This is the most sensitive stage of the life cycle. The and Ripening of Crops (WMO, 1983) describes these
larvae will die if they cannot enter a snail within calculations as temperature-remainder models
(TRIM) and lists many methodologies to calculate quality, and also creates problems for harvesting.
crop development. See Chapters 6 and 10 for a more Operation of harvesting units with lodged crops is
detailed review of these concepts. Another group of extremely difficult and their efficiency decreases
applications concerns field operations. Since by 25–50 per cent, which results in longer
cultivation, drilling, spraying and harvesting are all harvesting times. But even under optimum
highly weather-dependent, the meteorologist can harvesting conditions, the grain loss is in the range
give considerable help in assessing the probability of 10–25 per cent. Depending on the lodging
of weather suitable for these operations, which may conditions, biological losses are between 5 and 40
greatly affect the requirements for labour and per cent on average.
machinery.
In all applications meant for the farmer, it is of the
Fedoseev (1979) showed that lodging results in a utmost importance that the meteorologist work
significant crop yield drop (by as much as 20–30 closely with the specific experts on individual
per cent) and degradation of grain and straw problems.
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CHAPTER 9

APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY TO AGRICULTURE

9.1 INTRODUCTION to cite examples for the different climates and

Rusakova et al. (2006) describe the application of

European Union’s Monitoring Agriculture with European Union-sponsored European Cooperation

in the application of animal housing. It mentions 9.3.1.7.2 Grain

9.3.2.1.2 Hail from standard meteorological data or measured

Method Temperature Humidity Other Rainfall Reference

Phase 2: Maximum daily

Televis Norway 1957 Farmers, advisers Weather data Epidemiological data

Hansrudolf.forrer@ plant protection service Field data Field data

The 1968/1969 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic

18–21 January 2004. http://www.saspp.org/ ———, 1967: An Agroclimatology Survey of a Semi-arid

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