Photovoltaic cells 3

Inverter 3

Photovoltaic System 4

PV Power Station 4
Technology 5
System performance 5
Business Considerations 5
Single Line Diagram 5
Solar Panels 6
Inverter 7

Efficiency of Components 7
Solar modules 7
Monocrystalline 7
Polycrystalline 8
Thin film solar cells 8
Amorphous 8
CdTe 8
CIGS 8

Batteries 8
Alternatives to electrical batteries 9

PVSyst Report 9

Batteries 10
Lead Acid Batteries 10
Advantages of Lead Acid Batteries that are relevant to PV systems 10
Disadvantages, relevant to PV systems 10
Singularity University on Alternate Battery Options 11

MNRE Website - Reports 12

Renewable Energy Regulatory Framework 12
Policies 12
National Wind Solar Hybrid Policy 12
Introduction : 12
Aims and Objectives 13
Period of enforcement 13
Wind Solar Hybrid Systems 13
Implementation Strategy 13
https://singularityhub.com/2018/10/05/new-materials-are-powering-the-battery-revolution/
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/334/6058/928
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/356/6336/415
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/monocrystalline-silicon-cell

Cl wadhwa

Photovoltaic cells
PV cells convert light energy to electrical energy using the photoelectric effect. Works as a
power source in the fourth quadrant of its IV characteristic. Multiple can be used in series /
parallel to generate a given voltage / output power. In parallel however, less illuminated
branches may experience a reverse bias from the other branches, which can damage the
circuit. To prevent this, shunt diodes are used. Solar cells deliver DC output. Since the grid
works on AC, this output needs to be converted using an inverter.

Inverter
An inverter is a device that converts DC to AC. Depending upon its architecture, it may generate
a sinusoidal output, square wave output, etc. How well the output signal resembles a sine wave
is given by the total harmonic distortion (THD). IEEE Standard 519 recommends less than 5%
THD. Any system connected to the commercial power distribution grid is required to provide an
output of THD less than 3%. Due to the presence of transformers in the circuit, the output needs
to closely resemble a sine wave to avoid overheating.

The AC output also needs to be stepped up to a high voltage for transmission. This can either
be done after conversion (using a step up transformer to convert low voltage AC to high voltage
AC) or before conversion (using a boost converter to convert low voltage DC to high voltage
DC). *Boost converters are also used in electric vehicles or applications where too many
batteries cannot afford to be placed.

Solar power inverters particularly are designed in order to incorporate maximum power point
tracking (done with the use of a microcontroller) as well as anti-islanding. Micro-inverters are
modular and can be used with a single solar cell. This allows them to be operated more
efficiently and conveniently, with scalability.

Solar inverters can be classified into :

● Stand-alone : work with isolated systems, not required to have anti-islanding.
● Grid-tie : need to match their phase with the grid supply. Shut down upon loss of utility
supply
 ● Battery backup : draw energy from a battery, manage its charge and supply excess
energy to the grid. Required to have anti-islanding
● Hybrid : manage a solar cell array, battery storage and utility grid. Versatile, can be used
for the above mentioned types.

Photovoltaic System
A PV system is a power system used to supply electricity generated from solar cells to a local
network, or the grid. Range from rooftop mounted / building integrated systems that can
produce ~10kW to large scale power stations that can supply ~100kW. Most PV systems are
grid connected.

Background : solar energy is becoming cheaper and more viable, expected to become the
largest source of electricity by 2050. Efficiency is going up.

Grid connected systems : supply electricity to the grid after which power may be consumed by
residential and commercial buildings. Grid tie inverters required.

Scale of systems : residential rooftop, commercial rooftop, ground-mount utility-scale systems.

***

Components:
● Solar array
● Mounting
● Cables
● Tracking mechanism
● Inverter
● Battery
● Monitoring systems

PV Power Station
Large scale PV system, supplies power into the grid. Nameplate capacity can be rated in MW​P
(peak dc), MW​AC​ (nominal power output) or MVA. Most are developed at a scale of at least 1
MW​P​.

Land allocation : will depend on location, slope, climate and type of mounting used. Eg : fixed
tolt solar arrays are about 15% efficient and on horizontal sites, they generate about 1-2MW for
each hectare. For adjustable tilt arrays, 10% more area is reqd for single axis tracker and 20%
more for a 2 axis tracker.
Technology
ground mounted PV systems, may be fixed / tracking. Connection to utility grid is made through
a high voltage 3 phase step up transformer of 10 kV or more. Fixed axis tracking systems need
to correct for internal shading, and require more area and thus cost. However, the increase in
output is usually only a few percent => unjustified. Dual axis tracking increases the output by
~30%, more so in areas with high levels of direct radiation => commonly used in subtropical
regions.

Centralised inverters : have high capacity ~1 MW, can be used for solar arrays on about 2
hectares of area.
String inverters : lower in capacity ~10 kW. Enhance efficiency.
Transformers : typically applied to ip voltage of 480 V​AC​ coming from the inverters and amplify it
to 10s / 100s of thousands of volts.

System performance
Depends upon configuration, climate and also the type of solar cell used. Losses can be
classified into : light absorption losses, mismatch, cable voltage drop, conversion efficiencies,
and other parasitic losses. Performance ratio -> op ac power delivered vs total dc power solar
modules should be able to deliver. Should be around ~80% at least.

Business Considerations
Milestones : planning consent, grid connection approval, financial close, construction,
connection and commissioning.
● Grid connection approval : most stations are located within a few kilometers of a
grid connection point.
● Operation and maintenance : require less maintenance than wind, hydro, and
most other power stations because there are no rotating / moving mechanisms in
place.
***

Single Line Diagram

An SLD represents a system working on 3 phase power system. Useful for power flow study.
Standardised schematic symbols exist for circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors, bus bars
and conductors. Shown as a block diagram that depicts the path of power flow.
Solar Panels

More power can be generated using concentrators (lenses / mirrors). Cells using concentrating
mechanisms can reach about ⅔ times the theoretical efficiency limit.

A solar cell has an optimum range of wavelength of absorption, while the range of wavelengths
in sunlight is far wider. In order to generate more power, it can be split into separate ranges, so
that each is directed as a beam to a cell tuned to receive that wavelength. This can increase
efficiency to 50% (​https://www.technologyreview.com/s/513671/ultra-efficient-solar-power/​).

Another way of increasing efficiency is to use multi-junction solar cells, whose efficiency on avg
is more than 40%. Multi-junction cells are able to capture more ranges of wavelengths because
they tend to have multiple band gaps in their crystalline structure. The layer capturing the
shortest wavelength should be on the top. A transparent conducting layer is reqd too.

Both concentration and multi-junction PV cells can be used along with each other. The higher
cost of the PV cells is compensated by the reduction in the number of cells needed. However,
one disadvantage is that efficiency would drop significantly in case of lower lighting conditions.
Thus, a tracking mechanism is required to maintain lighting levels for a long period of time.

Monocrystalline silicon : 24.7% efficient, V​OC​ = 0.5 V, I​SC​ = 0.8 A, Power/Area = 63 W/m​2
Effective generation : 15.56
Polysilicon : 20.3% efficient, V​OC​ = 0.615 V, I​SC​ = 8.35 A, Power/Area = 211 W/m​2
Effective generation : 42.83
Amorphous silicon : 11.1% efficient, V​OC​ = 0.63 V, I​SC​ = 0.089 A, Power/Area = 33W/m​2
Effective generation : 3.66
Multi-junction :40.7% efficient, V​OC​ = 2.6 V, I​SC​ = 1.81 A, Power/Area = 476 W/m​2
Effective generation : 193.73
Thin film : CdTe, GaAs, amorphous Si, CIGS (copper indium germanium selenide),
PV Syst : software, simulation for power generation, optimisation
Inverter
Hybrid inverters provide an interface for batteries to be incorporated, and are thus more
expensive than conventional grid-tied inverters. However, since batteries may become
affordable only in the future when their compatibility specifications might be different, it doesn’t
make sense to invest in hybrid inverters as of now. It may make more sense to use conventional
inverters and buy battery specific inverters which are expected to become cheaper in the future.
They use AC in order to be connected to the grid.

Out of all the components in a PV system, the inverter is most likely to fail within the shortest
amount of time (5-10 years). Thus, it makes sense to purchase inverters with better quality for a
higher cost.

Micro-inverters can significantly boost performance. They optimise each PV module individually.
This can also ensure that if a module doesn’t receive enough lighting, or fails altogether, it does
not bring down the entire branch of modules it’s connected to. However, they are about 20%
more expensive to implement than centralised inverters.

DC Optimisers can be used in a similar way. They’re about as expensive as micro-inverters are.

***

***

Efficiency of Components

Solar modules

Monocrystalline
Mono - si is high purity silicon, made out of silicon ingots. It has the highest efficiency rates.
Typically 15-20%ish. They’re also more space efficient in comparison to other technologies.
They produce up to four times the amount of electricity as thin-film solar panels. They’re durable
and can perform better at low light conditions.

However, mono - si panels are the most expensive. Moreover a lot of the silicon raw material
used to manufacture these cells goes waste. They’re also susceptible to shade, wherein the
entire circuit would shut off if a certain section of the panel was left unilluminated.
Polycrystalline
Poly - si panels are less wasteful to manufacture, and are also cheaper than monocrystalline
panels.

However, they have less heat tolerance, less efficient, and less space efficient.

Thin film solar cells

Can be classified into 4 types : amorphous si (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper Indium
Gallium Selenide (CIGS) and organic photovoltaic cells (OPC). The advantages are that mass
production is simpler. Thus, they’re less expensive than crystalline solar cells. They’re more
flexible. More resistant to high temperature.

However, they are very space efficient. They also tend to degrade faster than mono and poly si
panels.

Amorphous
Only used for small scale applications. Stacking usually increases efficiency but not comparable
to crystalline panels.

CdTe
Not as efficient as crystalline panels.

CIGS
Most efficient thin film technology. However, they’re still being researched.

Batteries
There are primarily three types of batteries that are used for industrial applications, ie vented /
flooded lead acid batteries, sealed maintenance free batteries (valve regulated lead acid) and
nickel cadmium batteries.

***
Alternatives to electrical batteries
Flywheel technology : heavy flywheel rotated at an RPM. Ring structure, made of carbon fibre.
The flywheel is isolated from physical contact using magnetic levitation using electromagnets. It
is spun in a vacuum to eliminate losses due to air resistance. Advantages : lasts longer than
batteries that work for a limited number of cycles and face degradation and decomposition, no
waste generated. Disadvantages : as of now, not lightweight enough for electrical vehicles and
spacecrafts, but applicable to solar power plants. Eg : Nasa glenn research centre.

Compressed Air energy storage : air is compressed in a vessel to store energy. Temperature
and pressure go up. In order to be extracted, air can be released to drive a turbine / generator
which would generate electricity. Disadvantage : moving parts => mechanical losses, losses
due to air resistance. 4 Types : adiabatic, diabatic, isothermal, near isothermal. Eg : ADELE
(german) : ​https://www.modernpowersystems.com/features/featureintroducing-adele/

Molten salt energy storage : eg : Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project in the United States

***

PVSyst Report
PVSyst is a software used to simulate photovoltaic systems. It considers parameters such as
meteorological and geographical data to try and estimate performance of the system in real
time. In the sample report, the simulation parameters considered are :
● Geographical site and location (latitude, longitude and altitude)
● Meteorological data in separate meteonorm file
● Collection plane orientation
● Models used (?)
● Horizon
● PV array characteristics and loss factors
● Inverter characteristics
● Other system loss factors.

Based on these parameters, the simulation is carried out and the results for power generation
are recorded. The simulation yields results on the total produced energy in a year, the
performance ratio as well as month-by-month statistics for the same. The report generated also
comprehensively accounts for all the losses affecting the performance ratio. This is depicted in a
loss diagram that shows the percentage of power lost at each stage of energy generation.
Batteries

Lead Acid Batteries

These batteries are rechargeable and low cost, making them viable for common use. These
batteries are used for small applications such as automobile starting, lighting and ignition.
Battery operated electrical vehicles often rely on lead acid batteries since other technologies
aren’t as popular and economical.

Advantages of Lead Acid Batteries that are relevant to PV systems

● Low cost
● Reliable in the sense that they’re so extensively used that there are proper safety
standards that are maintained by manufacturers.
● Robust
● Tolerant to overcharging
● Low internal impedance
● Can deliver very high currents
● Wide range of capacities available
● Widely available, even in local markets

Disadvantages, relevant to PV systems

● Heavy and bulky, but can be implemented in PV systems as a one time stationary
installation
● Coulombic charge efficiency is ~70%
● Danger of overheating
● Not suitable for fast charging
● Typical cycle of 300-500 cycles
● If not stored in a charge state after the electrolyte has been added, there may be
deterioration of other chemicals.
Singularity University on Alternate Battery Options
The issues being looked at right now are increasing the number of charge / discharge cycles for
which the battery lasts. For PV systems, this is an important parameter as a system that is
designed to last for 5-25 years would complete one charge / discharge cycle everyday. The
current technologies in batteries would not allow the installation to last more than 1-3 years.

Another issue is that the cobalt used in the cathodes of batteries is expensive and makes
battery usage less viable commercially. Research is being done to figure out how the cobalt can
be replaced with nickel, and eventually nickel with manganese which is abundant and cheap.
The disadvantages of these materials that are being worked on right now is the fact that they
shorten the batteries’ lifetime.

Moreover, the operation of batteries with lithium ions are being developed to operate on sodium,
magnesium, zinc or aluminium instead. Further, materials such as graphene and other materials
with a two dimensional structure are being researched.

***

Batteries designed for use over a long period of time are different from SLI batteries. => Deep
cycle batteries.

Studied the DC and AC single line diagrams of the plant, listed the set of components and
safety mechanisms such as surge protectors and circuit breakers, summarised the path of
power flow through the system; Accounted for the 10MW generated breaking it down to 3 blocks
(rooms), inverters, string management units (SMUs) and finally individual PV strings; Briefly
looked at commercial aspects and revenue generation to understand the requirement of
metering, data storage and transmission; Looked at the standards and regulations enforced by
the government and international agencies for 1. photovoltaic energy generation and 2. power
supply to the grid; Analysed a computer generated report of the simulated performance
characteristics of the plant, (report generated by software : "PVSyst");

***

CAPEX Model : customer pays for equipment, design, installation and commissioning to benefit
savings on electricity consumed from the grid. The contractor makes a profit on the setting up of
the plant

OPEX Model : customer provides land to the contractor and pays a monthly amount for
electricity at a tariff rate (lower than the cost of electricity). The contractor pays for setting up the
plant, but receives regular payment from the consumer. Involves a power purchasing agreement
(PPA)
https://www.energetica-india.net/articles/indian-solar-rooftop-pv-projects-a-bright-investment---re
sco-vs-capex

OPEX model is growing, gaining market share. Risen to have 35% market share and has
provided 70% CAGR from 2012 to 2018.

Gensol analysed the economic profitability from the consumer’s perspective, for four regions,
one city each : New Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bhubaneshwar and Karnataka.
Factors analysed : specific yield i.e. : kWp/Year, state grid tariff : inr/kWh
Factors determined for comparison : IRR i.e. rate of return(equity/project), payback period, net
present value.
…=> OPEX appropriate for north and south zones, CAPEX appropriate for east and west zones

Solar OPEX market in India is about ~90MW.

http://www.solarmango.com/in/blog/2016/05/08/amplus-solar-accelerating-solar-opex-model-indi
a/

***

MNRE Website - Reports

Renewable Energy Regulatory Framework

Electricity Act, 2003 : provided regulatory interventions for promotion of renewable energy
sources by 1. Determination of tariffs 2. Specifying renewable purchase obligation (RPO) 3.
Facilitating grid connectivity and 4. Promotion of development of market.

National Tariff Policy 2006 requires the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) to
determine the percentage of RPOs

Policies

National Wind Solar Hybrid Policy

Introduction :
Set target of 175 GW by 2022 of installed renewable energy sources, includes 100 GW of solar
and 60 GW of wind energy. At the end of 17-18 : renewable : 70 GW. Hybridisation of wind and
solar energy, at least in india would help in minimising variability apart from optimal utilisation of
infra. Large areas where hybrid technology can be implemented viably. PV capacity can be
added to wind farms, battery storage can be added.
=> Policies reqd.

Aims and Objectives

^to provide a framework to promote large grid connected hybrid systems eventually achieving
better grid stability. Also, encourage new tech, methods, etc involving wind / PV systems.

Period of enforcement
^enforced until and unless withdrawn.

Wind Solar Hybrid Systems

^configured to operate at the same point of grid connection. fixed speed wind turbines => HT
side on AC output bus; variable => intermediate DC bus of the AC-DC-AC converter. Sizing
related : if wind power density is good in a region, solar PV capacity can be reduced, and if it’s
low, solar PV capacity can be increased. *Recognised as hybrid only if min rated capacity
percentage of the two is 25%.

Implementation Strategy
Provisions for new wind solar hybrid systems:
1. Additional power generated may be used for (a) captive purpose; (b) sale to third party
through open access; (c) sale to the distribution company/ies either at tariff determined
by the respective SERC or at tariff discovered through transparent bidding process; and
(d) sale to the distribution company (ies) at APPC under REC mechanism and avail
RECs.
2. power procured from hybrid project may be used for fulfilment of solar RPO and
non-solar RPO in the proportion of rated capacity of solar and wind power in the hybrid
plant respectively.
3. Parameters that may be considered for bidding could be capacity delivered at grid
interface point, effective CUF and unit price of electricity
4. Government entities may invite bids for new hybrid plants keeping qualifying criteria
based on tariffs
Existing:
1. No addnl connectivity/transmission capacity charges to be levied for hybridisation at
wind/solar PV plants if already granted transmission connectivity / access is being used.
Transmission charges may be applicable for the additional transmission capacity /
access granted as per prevailing regulation
2. If capacity margins are available at the receiving transmission substation additional
transmission capacity/access may be allowed subject to its technical feasibility. any
 transmission augmentation required up to the receiving transmission substation will be
the responsibility of developer
3. DC integration : assessment of power injected from the hybrid project in to the grid will
be worked out by apportioning the reading of main meter installed at the receiving
station on the basis of readings of DC meters installed at the DC output of the wind and
solar PV plant. Till such time the methodology for DC metering of hybrid systems and
standards & regulations are framed for DC meters, only AC integration will be permitted.
4. additional power generated may be used for (a) captive purpose; (b) sale to third party
through open access; (c) sale to the distribution company (ies) either at tariff determined
by the respective SERC or at tariff discovered through transparent bidding process; and
(d) sale to the distribution company (ies) at APPC under REC mechanism and avail
RECs. For bidding purpose, State or Central entities may bid for hybridization of existing
projects connected to InSTS or ISTS as the case may be.
5. The additional solar/wind power generated from the hybrid project may be used for (a)
captive purpose; (b) sale to third party through open access; (c) sale to the distribution
company (ies) either at tariff determined by the respective SERC or at tariff discovered
through transparent bidding process; and (d) sale to the distribution company (ies) at
APPC under REC mechanism and avail RECs. For bidding purposes, State or Central
entities may bid for hybridization of existing projects connected to InSTS or ISTS as the
case may be.
***
The total solar rooftop installation target is 40 gigawatts (GW) by 2022 -
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/energy/cabinet-panel-clears-rs-11-000-crore-for-rooftop-so
lar-programme-63307

***

Maximum Power Point Tracking

The IV characteristic of a solar cell lies in the 4​th​ quadrant

(shown in 1​st​ quadrant in the image). According to the
graph, the power delivered by the solar cell has a maxima
somewhere along this IV curve.

As the load changes, there is a shift of the output power

along the curve shown in the graph. Thus, for any solar
cell, maximum power can be delivered if the load is
optimised.