UNIT 5 URBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTION – TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Introduction
One possible solution to urban transport problems was identified and described in
the previous unit.

In unit 5 a second possible solution to urban transport problems will be identified and
described, namely Travel Demand Management (TDM).

The following topics will be addressed in this unit:

Topic 5.1: Importance of integration between transport and land-use planning

Topic 5.2: Definition of Travel Demand Management (TDM)
Topic 5.3: Travel Demand Management (TDM) initiatives (Local and
International)
Topic 5.4: Summary

Outcomes that will be covered in this unit

At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
1 Highlight the importance of integration between transport and land-use
planning
2 Define Travel Demand Management (TDM)
3 Identify and explain possible travel demand management (TDM)
initiatives that can be utilised to reduce urban transport problems in a
specific area

In unit 3 various urban transport problems were identified where after unit 4
proposed one possible initiative to reduce the negative effects of urban transport
problems. In this unit a second possible solution will be identified and evaluated,
namely Travel Demand Management (TDM).

Topic 5.1 Importance of integration between transport and land-use

planning

Urban land use is made up of two elements. Firstly the nature of the land use which
refers to what activities are taking place where, and secondly, the level of spatial
accumulation which points to the intensity and concentration of the activities. Central
areas typically have a higher level of spatial accumulation together with matching
land uses such as retail. On the other hand the peripheral or outlying areas tend to
have a lower level of accumulation.

Economic, social and cultural activities imply various functions taking place which
include production, distribution and consumption. All of these activities usually take
place at a specific location. It is therefore stated (Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack, 2009)
that various activities have a spatial imprint and some can be classified as routine
activities and other activities are known as institutional activities. Routine activities
are those activities that take place on a regular basis and can therefore be predicted,
e.g. commuting to work and shopping. Institutional activities are irregular activities
and are mostly guided by lifestyle (e.g. sports and leisure) or special needs
(healthcare). There is also production activities that are related to manufacturing and
distribution of goods and services and may have local, regional and global linkages.

It is however important to understand the different type of activities because the

behavioral patterns of the population have an imprint on land use. To understand the
imprint better, it is necessary to identify the typology of land use (Rodrigue, Comtois
& Slack, 2009). Typology of land use can either be formal land use or functional land
use. Formal land use refers to the qualitative attributes of space such the form,
pattern and aspect and descriptive in nature. Functional land use represents the
economic nature of activities (e.g. production, consumption, residence and transport)
and is therefore a socio-economic description of space.

Land use, whether formal or functional, implies that there is a relationship with other
land uses. For example, commercial land use involves a relationship between
suppliers and customers. A relationship with suppliers relates to the movement of
freight and a relationship with customers involve the movement of people. It is now
clear that each type of land use requires mobility, transportation is a factor of activity
location and is therefore closely linked with land use. Transport and land use
interactions reflect a retroactive relationship between activities which are land use
related, and accessibility which is transport related. This relationship between
transport and land use is a difficult relationship because it is never easy to identify
the trigger of change: do transport developments or changes precede land use
development or change or vice versa (Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack, 2009)?

Activities take up spatial locations thereby creating land use patterns. This is then
influenced by the current urban form and spatial structure. The urban form relates to
the three different types of activities as mentioned earlier: routine activities,
institutional activities and production activities. These activities emphasize the
importance of linkages between land uses, which in turn requires movement of
freight, people and information. These linkages result in land uses.

It is important to remember that both land use and transport form part of a very
dynamic system that is exposed to various external influences. Each part of this
system is continuously evolving because of changes in technology, policy,
economics, demographics and cultures or values. This means that the interactions
between land use and transportation can be seen as the outcome of several
decisions made by residents, businesses and governments. To end of this section it
is important to consider the most important components that make up urban
dynamics and interact with one another (Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack, 2009):

 Land use – the most stable component in urban dynamics and acts as a
generator and attractor of movements
 Transport network – rather stable component in urban dynamics and the
major provider of accessibility
 Movements – the most dynamic element of the entire system and movement
of passengers and freight reflect changes to the system almost instantly
 Employment and workplaces – significant component because most systems
or models consider employment as an important factor and this is relevant
because commuting is related to number of jobs and the location of the
workplace
  Population and housing – these are the generators of movement because
commuting usually start and end in the residential areas.

The objective of integrated transport planning is therefore to strike a balance

between spatial land use decisions and transportation planning so that the
economic, social, cultural and physical potential of the transport system, as well as
society as a whole, can benefit optimally from the planning and investment
decisions. It is of great importance that land use and transportation planning share
common objectives and desired outcomes.

Topic 5.2 Definition of Travel Demand Management (TDM)

With rising car ownership and use, pressure is mounting on the road networks’ ability
to accommodate increasing levels of single-occupant vehicle (SOV) trips in urban
areas in particular. The problem is aggravated by the poor quality of public transport
connectivity and coverage and the absence of real opportunities for modal shift.

In addition the road network continues to be expanded without considering how best
to integrate land use and transport planning in an effort to slow the pace of road
network expansion to accommodate growing demand. The result is an increase in
road based traffic congestion, unacceptable levels of air pollution, and a reduction in
human productivity.

Lessons from all over the world suggest Transport Demand Management (TDM) is a
useful tool in conjunction with Land Use Management (LUM) and Transport Supply
Management (TSM) measures to effectively manage the persistent growth in motor
vehicle traffic.

TDM can be defined as strategies that increase overall system efficiency by

encouraging a shift from SOV trips to non-SOV modes, or shifting car trips out of
peak periods by influencing driver behaviour. The main objective of TDM initiatives
are to influence travel behaviour for the purpose of reducing and or redistributing
travel demand.

Travel/transportation Demand Management can also be seen as a range of policies,

programmes and planning strategies focused on making the current transport
system function more efficiently and guiding the users of the system to more efficient
use thereof.

Topic 5.3 Travel Demand Management (TDM) initiatives or strategies (Local

and International)

Various cities around the world have been able to alleviate traffic congestion by
employing travel demand management. This leads to a reduced demand to travel
with private motor vehicles and encourages use of public transport modes or non-
motorised transport. Interventions that can be used are wide ranging (Suzuki,
Cervero & Iuchi, 2013).

5.3.1
Strategies utilised in travel demand management can be grouped into four
categories (Schiller, Bruun & Kenworthy, 2010):

i. Improving and expanding travel options

Within this strategy it would be necessary to bring about some improvements (e.g.
performance, security, information and user comfort) for public transport modes as
well as better connections between the modes. This would make the public transport
modes more attractive for users and it could expand mobility options such as
walking, cycling and ride-sharing. The idea is to encourage people to avoid the need
to use or own their own motor vehicle.

ii. Incentives to use efficient modes

In order to encourage the use of efficient modes, options such as dedicated bus
lanes, transit priority (e.g. high occupancy vehicle lanes) and different types of
pricing and incentives can be explored. Dedicated bus lanes will increase transit
time, allowing passengers to travel faster with a bus than private car. Transit priority
can be employed together with dedicated bus lanes because vehicles carrying more
than one person may also be allowed to use the dedicated lane. It is important to
note that when transit service is unacceptable in terms of time, users may be
unwilling to change to public transport.

iii. Land-use solutions to transport problems

As seen in the first section of this unit, land-use patterns and urban form influence
transport. For this reason it is important that policies and programmes are designed
to create more accessible and multi-modal communities. It forms an essential
component of travel demand management and mobility management. Frequently the
solution to a transport problem can be found in land-use. This can be seen where
areas are specifically constructed to create traffic reduction and is known as ‘smart
growth’, ‘new urbanism’, or ‘location efficient developments’ (Schiller, Bruun &
Kenworthy, 2010). Features included in such developments are specifically intended
to improve access and reduce per capita travel with private motor vehicles. Some of
the elements considered in these type of developments can include:

 The community has an activity center within walking distance from there
residence
 Streets are designed for walking and cycling
 Special attention is given to protecting the public territory, creating a quality
public space
 Shops and services are sufficient to meet general household needs
 Schools should preferably be within walking distance

iv. Implementation programmes

Mobility management programmes can be organised and implemented by local

governments and transport agencies. Successful TDM requires an arrangement of
resources and professional skills such as planning and evaluation, programme
management and marketing skills. Various benefits (for individuals and society) can
come from travel demand management programmes. Specific strategies have
specific effects, e.g. a car share programme can result in lower per capita vehicle
ownership. Parking controls and congestion pricing may discourage people to use
their own cars and rather make use of public transport modes.

5.3.2 Active Transportation Demand Management (ATDM)

Many countries are faced with mounting pressure to do more with less resources
and at the same time address congestion challenges more effectively. Promoting a
more dynamic approach to manage the transport network is proposed in many
regions. Such an approach will try to enhance performance and increase efficiency
throughout the entire trip from a traveler’s viewpoint. This approach is known as
Active Transportation and Demand Management (ATDM). With this approach, it is
possible to manage, control, and influence travel demand, traffic demand and traffic
flow of transportation facilities (US Department of Transport, 2013).

As illustrated in Figure 5.1, ATDM is seen as a proactive and dynamic management,

control and influence of travel demand, traffic demand and traffic flow of
transportation facilities. With this concept, the performance of the transportation
system is continuously assessed, dynamic actions are constantly evaluated and
implemented in real time in order to achieve performance objectives which can
include improving safety, endorsing sustainable travel, minimising emissions or
increasing system efficiency. Once actions are implemented, it is monitored
continuously in order to determine the effect on the system and the impact on the
performance of the system. This approach is cyclical and it can be executed at
various intervals, e.g. it can be done as part of a long-term strategic approach or
form part of a short-term tactical decision (US Department of Transport, 2013).

As countries move towards a more active management style, various approaches

(strategies) can be embraced:

 Active Traffic Management: A strategy that actively manage traffic on a

specific route or road space by means of variable speed limits, dynamic
shoulder use, queue warning and lane control strategies
 Active Demand Management: This strategy aims to reduce or redistribute
travel demand to alternate modes of transport or routes by means of dynamic
ride-sharing, pricing and incentive methods.
 Active Parking Management: A strategy intended to affect the demand,
distribution, availability and management of parking. For example, making use
of dynamic parking pricing, real-time parking availability and reservation
systems

Countries can choose to set up only one of these approaches (or strategies) in order
to benefit from a specific benefit or deploy a multi-strategy approach to achieve
further benefits across the entire transport system.
Figure 5.1 The ATDM Approach (US Department of Transport, 2013)

The purpose of active transportation demand management is to influence travel

behaviour of individuals in real time and goes further than the traditional approach of
travel demand management (TDM) and make use of information and technology to
dynamically manage demand, comprising redistribution of travel to less congested
time of the day or routes, or decreasing the overall vehicle trips by influencing a
mode choice (US Department of Transport, 2013).

ATDM seek out to encourage more flexible travel choices by users on a daily basis
or even an hour to hour basis. This approach builds on the success of its
predecessor, TDM, by using new technology to inform and influence travel choices.
Financial levers play an important role and can be an incentive or a deterrent (e.g.
higher tolls for single-occupancy vehicles or peak period travel). As incentive it can
include the following:

 Travel time savings (making use of high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) or

high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT))
 Direct financial incentives for avoiding peak hour travel

5.3.3 Active Traffic Management (ATM)

The purpose of active traffic management is to manage recurrent and non-recurrent

congestion based on current and forecasted traffic conditions. Active traffic
management can be implemented by means of (amongst others) the following
approaches (US Department of Transport, 2013):

 Adaptive ramp metering: deployment of traffic signal(s) on ramps to control

the rate at which vehicles enter a freeway. In principle this will smooth the flow
of traffic onto the freeway allowing efficient use of the existing capacity
 Adaptive traffic signal control: continuously monitoring arterial traffic
conditions and the queuing at intersections as well as the adjustment of the
signal timing to optimize operational objectives, e.g. phase length and cycle
length of traffic signals can be remotely controlled.
  Dynamic lane reversal or contraflow lane reversal: Reversal of lanes in order
to assign capacity of congested roads. This allows capacity to better match
traffic demand throughout the day. It can be executed swiftly and
automatically in response to or in advance of anticipated traffic situations.
 Dynamic lane use control: Involves the closing and opening of traffic lanes as
needed and providing advance warning of the closure in order to safely merge
traffic into adjoining lanes. Real time data is used to regulate the use of lanes
ahead of closures.
 Dynamic speed limits: Adjusting speed limits based on real-time traffic,
roadway and weather conditions. With ATDM real-time and anticipated traffic
conditions are used to change speed limits in order to meet objectives for
safety, mobility or environmental impacts.
 Queue warning: Real-time display of warning messages along the road to
alert drivers that possible congestion are ahead.

From the preceding discussion it emerged that the two essential concepts of active
traffic management are firstly active management of the capacity and secondly the
direct interaction with motorists. ATM is not just reacting to changing conditions but
also anticipating the changing conditions and managing the system actively before
the change take place.

Before the end of this unit please watch this video Active Transportation and
Demand Management Program (ATDM) in addition to the preceding discussion on
ATDM:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qd8xy0ozSXI

Topic 5.5 Summary

The aim of this unit was to introduce the concept of travel demand management and
to explain that it is mainly strategies that can be utilised to reduce motor vehicle trips
by increasing travel options to users and incentivizing their modified travel behaviour.
It also aims to reduce the need to travel. TDM strategies can be seen as a cost
effective methods in which new developments can take place without increasing
traffic demand (Tumlin, 2012). Unfortunately these strategies are not always
implemented or followed as they are not fully understood.

The unit that follows will deal with rural and long distance transport.
REFERENCES:

 The Geography of Transport Systems (2nd edition) by J Rodrigue, C Comtois and

B Slack (2009)
 Transforming cities with transit by H Suzuki, R Cervero and K Iuchi (2013)
 An Introduction to Sustainable Transport by P L Schiller, E C Bruun and J R
Kenworthy (2010)
 Sustainable Transportation Planning – Tools for creating vibrant, healthy and
resilient communities by J Tumlin (2012)
 The Active Transportation and Demand Management Program (ATDM): Lessons
Learned by US Department of Transport, Federal Highway Administration (2013)
Available online https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/ [Accessed 12 June 2019]