Alternating voltage and current (AC) theory:

• Direct currents (DC) can have their magnitude that varies,

but the direction of current never changes with time
time.
Hence the voltage never changes polarity. DC currents
and voltages are unidirectional
• Alternating
g currents ((AC)) have their direction which
reverses continuously along the time. Hence the voltage
chagnes polarity continuously. AC currents and voltages
are bidirectional
• In some circuits alternating voltages may be
superimposed on a dc voltage level. Resulting voltage
may be unipolar (always positive or negative) or partly
positive and partly negative. In such case the ac voltage is
said to have a dc offset
• Waveform: A graph showing the variation of voltage or
current with time. A waveform can be Sinosoidal
(Sinewave) square,
(Sinewave), square ramp (sawtooth)

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Electronics Principles
Advantages and reasons why using AC:
• Voltages easily transformed using transformers which work only with ac
• Voltage generated by power station transformed up to 132000V – for more efficient
transmission
• Voltage transformed down to 11000V for local distribution (sub-station)
• Final transformer p
produce 400V for industrial and 230V for domestic consumers
• Generator in power station rotates in circular motion producing an alternating sinosoidal
waveform constantly changing from zero to maximum, first in one direction (positive half cycle)
and then in opposite direction (negative half cycle). Cycle repeated for every rotation.

Sinewave
Generator
produced

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Electronics Principles
Characteristics of the ac waveform
Frequency:
q y
• Number of cycles of a waveform which occurs in one second. Expressed in Hertz (Hz): 1Hz = 1
cycle per second
• The value of the voltage at a given time t is given by:
v = Vmax x sin (2π x t)

Periodic Time (Period):

• Time taken for 1 cycle to complete. Relationship
between Periodic time (T) and frequency (F) is
given by: F = 1/T
Average, Peak, Peak to Peak and r.m.s. values:
• Average value of an ac waveform which swings
symmetrically above and below zero will be zero
over a long period of time. Hence average
values are taken over one complete half cycle.
• Amplitude or Peak is the maximum magnitude
of voltage or current, extending from the zero
line. Can be positive or negative
• Peak to Peak extends from the maximum
magnitude of a waveform to the minimum
magnitude of a waveform. In a pure ac
waveform the peak to peak is twice the peak
value
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Electronics Principles
• r.m.s. (Root mean square) or effective value is the value which would produce the same
power in a resistor as a dc value of same magnitude
magnitude. For waveforms with unknown shape
(complex waveforms), obtaining the r.m.s. value becomes very complicated. Hence r.m.s.
values are normally assumed for pure ac waveforms

• Multiplying factors for Average, peak, peak to peak, and r.m.s values are given below:

r.m.s = 0.707 x peak

peak = 1.414 x r.m.s.

peak to peak = peak x 2 (pure ac waveform only !!)

Average value = 0.318 x peak

Average value = 0
0.636
636 x peak to peak

• And regarding the time of a waveform:

Frequency = 1
Periodic time

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Electronics Principles
Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance in ac:
• Resistance is the opposition
pp to current flow – From Ohm’s law: R = V/I ((Ω))
• In ac circuits resistance is only part of the opposition to current flow
• Inductance and capacitance in ac circuit cause opposition to current flow called Reactance
• Inductive Reactance (XL) – Opposition to ac current by an inductor. Causes circuit current
to lag behind the applied voltage
• Capacitive Reactance (XC) – Opposition to ac current by a capacitor. Causes circuit
current to lead ahead of the applied voltage
• Combined resistance and reactance in an ac circuit is called Impedance
p

Pure Resistance in ac ((R)) Pure Inductance in ac ((L)) Pure Capacitance

p in ac ((C))

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Electronics Principles
• Pure resistance in an ac circuit: Current and voltage waveforms remain together, starting and
finishing at the same time
• Waveforms
Wa eforms are in phase
• Pure inductor in an ac circuit: Current lags behind voltage waveform by 90 degrees
• Pure capacitor in an ac circuit: Current leads ahead of voltage waveform by 90 degrees
• Waveforms are 90 degrees out of phase
• CIVIL rule:
• In a Capacitor current (I) leads Voltage leads current (I) in an inductor (L)

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Electronics Principles
Reactance:
• In a capacitor or an inductor the values of current and voltage varies with time (or frequency).
• Effective
Effecti e resistance of a capacitor or ind
inductor
ctor to ccurrent
rrent with
ith time is called reactance.
reactance
Reactance can be referred also as the ac resistance of a component.
• In a resistor magnitudes of current and voltage does not vary with time. So the effective
resistance will be the same for both ac and dc currents and voltages
• For a capacitor or inductor the effective resistance however is affected by frequency
Capacitive reactance:
• Capacitors and dc: Source of dc applied between the plates, capacitor voltage starts to rise
exponentially and current initially is high an then start to decay exponentially as voltage rises,
until it becomes zero
• Hence at the beginning the capacitor exhibits a low resistance. The resistance increases with
time until it reaches almost infinity at the end of the charge cycle.
cycle
• Capacitors and ac: A capacitor needs time to charge and discharge. At low frequency the
capacitor has enough time to follow the applied alternating voltage, but at high frequency the
capacitor will not have enough time to follow the applied voltage and will not have enough time
to charge up. The capacitor has low reaction to the applied voltage Hence the resistance of the
capacitor at high frequency will be low.
• This depends also on the capacitance value. The reactance XC of a capacitor is given by:
XC = 1 where f = frequency (Hz) C = Capacitance (F)
2πfC
• Hence capacitance reactance decreases as Frequency and capacitance increases
• A capacitor is said to block dc,
dc but allows ac to pass
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Electronics Principles
Inductive reactance:
• Inductors and dc: Source of dc applied between the coil terminals, magnetic field starts to
build up exponentially, inducing an emf which opposes current flow. As magnetic field increases
the value of the induced voltage
g decays
y at the same rate. Hence current will increase
exponentially until it reaches a maximum when coil field becomes saturated and induced
voltage is zero
• Hence at the beginning the inductor exhibits a high resistance. The resistance decreases with
time until it becomes almost zero after some time.
• Inductors and ac: Like a capacitor an inductor needs time for the magnetic filed to build up and
collapse. At low frequency the inductor has enough time to follow the applied alternating
voltage but at high frequency the inductor will not have enough time to follow the applied
voltage,
voltage and will not have enough time to build up a full magnetic field. The induced voltage
hence remains always high, opposing the current flow. The inductor offers a high reactance to
the applied
pp voltage.
g Hence the resistance of the inductor at high
g frequency
q y will be high.
g
• This depends also on the inductance value. The reactance XL of an inductor is given by:
XL = 2πfL where f = frequency (Hz) L = Inductance (H)
• Hence
H iinductive
d i reactance iincreases as F Frequency and
d iinductance
d iincreases
• An inductor is said to block ac, but allows dc to pass

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Electronics Principles
Single Phase and Three Phase ac voltage:
• In single phase the generator has one winding which generates one single ac sine waveform
• In three phase the generator has three separate windings, each separated by 120 degrees
• Generated voltage in 3-phase will be three identical sinosoidal waveforms, each separated by
120 degrees.

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Electronics Principles
Connections in 3-phase:
• Three phase motors, generators or transformers may be connected in two ways:
• STAR or DELTA
• Delta connection: Used for electrical power transmission since only 3 conductors are required.
No neutral connection – require 3 exactly balanced loads as no neutral point is available
• Star connection: Two voltages are available – Line voltage between two phases
phases. Phase voltage
between Line and Neutral. In star connection Neutral connection is taken from the ‘Star Point’.
Star connection system is also called ‘3-phase 4-wire system’ – Allows us to connect single
phase loads to a three
three-phase
phase system.

‘Star’ or
Neutral
Connection

Star connection: Delta connection:

Line current = Phase current Line current = √3 x Phase current
Line voltage
g = √3 x Phase voltage
g Line voltage = Phase voltage

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Electronics Principles
Filters:
• What is a filter?
• Attenuates some frequencies while allowing others to pass with minimum attenuation
• Low pass filter – allows low frequencies to pass. Blocks high frequencies
• High pass filter – allows high frequencies to pass. Blocks low frequencies
• Band pass filter – Allows a certain range of frequencies to pass.
pass Blocks all other frequencies
• Band stop filter – Blocks a certain range of frequencies. Allows all other frequencies to pass

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Electronics Principles
Passive Filters:
• Employ reactive components (inductors, capacitors, resistors)
• Called RC or LR filters according to the components forming them
• Passive filter limitations:
• They attenuate signals they are designed to pass
Keep in mind that:
• Roll-off or slope is always too gentle
• Introduce phase change which alters with frequencies Capacitor reactance:
• Seriously affected by any load connected
• Physically they are ‘bulky’, especially when using inductors XC = 1
2πfC

Inductor reactance:

XL = 2πfL

I
Impedance:
d

z = √ R2 + (Xc or XL)2

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Electronics Principles
Low Pass Filters:
• RC low pass filter:
• As frequency increases capacitor
reactance decreases.
• Voltage drop on Capacitor becomes
less
• Voltage output from filter becomes less
and less as frequency increases.
• Inversely occurs as frequency
decreases
• LR low pass filter:
• As frequency increases Inductor
reactance increases.
• Voltage drop on inductor becomes
more
• Voltage drop on resistor decreases
• Voltage output from filter becomes less
and less as frequency increases
• Inversely occurs as frequency
decreases

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Electronics Principles
High Pass Filters:
• RC high pass filter
filter:
• As frequency decreases capacitor
reactance increases.
• Voltage drop on Capacitor becomes
more
• Voltage drop on resistor decreases
• Voltage output from filter becomes less
and less as frequency decreases.
• Inversely occurs as frequency
increases
• LR high pass filter:
• As frequency decreases Inductor
reactance decreases.
• Voltage drop on inductor becomes less
• Voltage drop on resistor increases
• Voltage
g output
p from filter becomes less
and less as frequency decreases
• Inversely occurs as frequency
increases

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Electronics Principles