Climate-Smart Agriculture in Ethiopia

Climate-Smart Agriculture in Ethiopia
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) considerations

A• The agriculture sector is the backbone of Ethiopia’s economy have been focused on restoring degraded lands through soil and
and livelihoods. Yet, heavy reliance on rain-fed systems has water conservation measures, agroforestry, farmer-managed
P
made the sector particularly vulnerable to variability in rainfall natural regeneration (FMNR), area closures, and dissemination
and temperature. Climate change may decrease national gross of improved varieties. Such CSA practices and technologies
domestic product (GDP) by 8–10% by 2050, but adaptation action are largely supported by the government and its development
in agriculture could cut climate shock-related losses by half. partners, through research and development, rural extension and
advisory services as well as direct implementation. Many of these
A• Climate risk management interventions and long-term adaptation
practices are implemented within the framework of the integrated
actions need to match localized vulnerabilities and impacts. The
P watershed management approach through projects such as the
drought-prone highland areas are likely to experience more
intense and irregular rainfall, affecting yields of slow maturing, Sustainable Land Management Programme (SLMP).
long-cycle crops; however, the higher altitude moisture-sufficient
parts of the highlands where cereal production is dominant are $• Adoption levels of some CSA practices and technologies, such
as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, among smallholder
expected to increase in suitability and productivity of some cereals. I farmers remain low. Increased public and private support
Increased temperatures and extended drought periods are likely
to enable access to improved inputs, equipment, credit and
to negatively affect the lowlands, posing particular challenges to
insurance schemes is needed to boost farmers’ ability to manage
already vulnerable pastoral and agropastoral populations.
risks and invest in long-term climate actions.
A• Smallholder farmers produce over 90% of the agricultural output
in Ethiopia. Despite high usage of traditional production methods, $• Highly fragmented land units are not suited for effective
P implementation of some CSA practices, while land tenure regimes
there is evidence of increased use of organic fertilizers, adoption I
M of crop varieties with higher resistance/tolerance to drought, can significantly hinder credit access for smallholders. Ethiopia
pests, and diseases, and improved livestock feeding practices, as has made great effort to issue land certificates to smallholder
attempts to increase productivity and resilience, but also with co- farmers, and such programmes should be accompanied by
benefits in terms of reducing agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) sensitization of farmers and microfinance providers on the costs
emissions. and benefits of investing in on-farm climate-smart and sustainable
land management practices.
$• Given the country’s poverty and food insecurity challenges,
M
priorities for economic growth and increased resilience have I• Through an ambitious policy framework built largely on the
pushed mitigation efforts backstage. Less than one-fifth of Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy and an
the climate finance is directed to mitigation efforts, mostly
$
enabling institutional infrastructure, Ethiopia has taken major
through renewable energy. Increased investments in agricultural steps towards mainstreaming climate change into agricultural
practices that bring about mitigation co-benefits would bring out planning. To demonstrate its unwavering commitments to green
agriculture’s role as a lead sector in low-emissions development. growth and food security and operationalize strategies and
plans, additional national and international resources need to be
I• A large proportion of the country’s land area is undergoing some
mobilized over the next years, to fill existing financial gaps.
form of soil erosion or land degradation, hence CSA-related efforts
A Adaptation M Mitigation P Productivity I Institutions $ Finance
The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition that address challenges in environmental, social, and economic
to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is
responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA
development goals under a changing climate and increasing food already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with
demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical
resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future,
require planning to address trade-offs and synergies between these and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This
three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created
to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry
The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected
points for investing in CSA at scale.
to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems
National context People, agriculture and livelihoods
Economic relevance of agriculture in Ethiopia [3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia’s economy and the primary
source of employment for its population. The agriculture sector
has contributed approximately 44% to the gross domestic product
(GDP) over the past 5 years1 [3] and employed more than three
quarters of the economically active population [4]. The livestock
sector, one of the largest in the world in terms of animal heads,
contributes 16–20% to the national GDP and represents a key
subsistence source for some 10 million pastoralists [5]. Roughly
90% of total exports earnings [4] come from agriculture, especially
through the commercialization of coffee, livestock products
(hides, skins), and seeds and pulses. Cereal production is mostly
for subsistence, with any excess sold to cater for other household
needs such as education and healthcare.
Economic relevance of agriculture

in Ethiopia [3, 6]
People, agriculture, and livelihoods

Ethiopia’s population has been increasing rapidly over the past
four decades, from 35 million in the 1980s to 99.4 million in 2015
[3]. The large majority of the population (82%) lives in rural areas,
in the country’s highlands. The lowlands are mostly populated by
pastoralists and agropastoralists.
Poverty rates in the country have decreased from 45% in 1995 to
29.6% in 2010 [3]. However, access to basic resources remains
tight. Roughly 65% of all households and 54% of rural households
have access to improved water resources; the rest of the population
relies on water from ponds, streams and rivers. Almost half (48%)
of all women in the country have no formal education, while 28%
of men are without a formal education [4]. Illiteracy levels among
farmers are high at 55% [4].
1 Taking into account 2011-2015 averages. It is worthwhile noting that agricultural GDP has been declining since 2012, from 48% to 40% in 2015.
2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Land use Land use in Ethiopia [3 , 6]
Ethiopia’s land area totals 1.1 million square kilometers (km2).
Agricultural area occupies around 35% of total land area. Through the
Constitution, the State owns all rural land and farmers have land-use
rights.
There are approximately 17.5 million agricultural land holders2 in the
country, occupying 18 million hectares of land. Women represent
only 19% of total agricultural land holders. Most farm holders are
smallholder (farm sizes less than two hectares [ha])3 and they produce
the large majority (over 90%) of the gross agricultural outputs in the
country [4]. As land has been fragmented to satisfy the needs of new
generations, most smallholder farms are between 0.5 and 2 hectares in
size. The small plot sizes in the country are often insufficient to enable
household food security or adequate income to invest in improved
farming methods [5]. Large, commercial farms (over 10 ha) are not
widespread; extending over 1.2% of the total agricultural land area and
contributing less than 5% of gross agricultural output [11].
There has been a steady increase in area under grain crops (cereals,
pulses, oilseeds) over the past decades, from 10 million hectares in Forests occupy approximately 12.3% of total land area, and some
2005/2006, to 12.4 million hectares in 2014/2015 [4]. Agricultural evidence shows between 1990 and 2005 deforestation rates averaged
expansion has been carried out at the expense of natural resources 140,000 hectares per year [13]. The decrease in vegetation cover and
availability and quality (particularly forests, water and soils). For disturbance of the natural ecosystem have caused widespread soil
example, in the highlands, where most Ethiopians live, over 40% of the degradation, contributing to decline in soil organic matter (SOM) and
land area is said to be undergoing some form of soil erosion, causing nutrient stocks [14]. In the lowlands4 and midlands, over 19 million
topsoil losses of over 1,493 million t/year and affecting regional and ha of fertile and uncultivated land is estimated to be available for
national crop production [12]. Unsustainable open grazing practices agricultural investments [15].
have also led to pasture degradation.
Agricultural production systems

Ethiopia’s proximity to the equator and its wide range of altitudes Faba beans are the most widely produced legumes across the country,
reflect distinct climate and agro-ecological conditions that favor the representing an important protein source for rural populations.
production of a diversity of agricultural goods, while at the same Chickpea production follows close behind, accounting for nearly 46%
time posing challenges for technology development and targeting, of the continent’s production, the highest in Africa [18]. Potatoes are
mechanization and agricultural input (e.g. fertilizer) recommendations. a high-potential staple root crop, and while production averages are
The most commonly used categorization of Ethiopia’s agricultural currently low, the crop remains a large contributor to food security.
production systems refers to five main agro-ecological zones (AEZs), Coffee is an important cash crop, contributing an average of 33% of
namely, “moisture reliable cereal-based highlands” (where the majority the country’s agricultural exports by value between 2009 and 2013 [6].
of the farmers live), “moisture reliable enset-based highlands,”
The majority of rural households (around 88%) hold livestock, especially
“drought-prone highlands,” “humid lowlands,” and “pastoralist areas”
local and indigenous cattle breeds [19]. Cattle heads are estimated
[16], Annex 1.
at 53.9 million [20], while other livestock types amount to over
Cereals such as barley, maize, sorghum, wheat, and teff extend over 100 million heads [21], making the country home to one of the largest
three quarters of the country’s cultivated land area and constitute livestock populations on the continent. Half of the country’s cattle
the main source of food and income for the majority of smallholder stocks and a quarter of other livestock are owned by approximately
farmers. Being a staple food for Ethiopians, teff accounts for 28% 10 million pastoralists that occupy the lowland peripheral areas [5].
of the total cultivated area; it has traditionally been cultivated in the Cattle rely greatly on natural pastures as livestock feed [22], although
highlands, but it is quite adaptable to lower elevations and a variety of in the highlands crop residues are a main source of livestock feed.
moisture, temperature and soil conditions. Maize is also grown by a Livestock are crucial in Ethiopia as a source of draught power, social
large majority of farmers for food, fodder and sales; with its production protection, and food and nutrition security (meat, milk and eggs),
volume being the highest among all crops. Sorghum and wheat each while leather and leather products from cattle, goat and sheep hides
occupy around 17% of the grain-cultivated land. Sorghum has high comprise major import revenue earners for the country.
tolerance to drought and high temperatures, but is less suitable for
The following infographic shows a selection of agriculture production
Ethiopia’s high-altitude areas due to the cold temperatures, which are
systems key for Ethiopia’s food security. The importance is based
not favourable for the crop. Cultivated areas higher than 2,500 m.a.s.l.
on the system’s contribution to economic, productivity and nutrition
are almost exclusively dedicated to barley and wheat, which represent
quality indicators. For more information on the methodology for the
key components of the country’s diet, and grown using many local
production system selection, consult Annex 2.
varieties [17].
2 “Holder” here is defined by the capacity to manage and make decisions over agricultural land [4].
3 Official statistics report 14.5–15 million farmers holding less than 2 hectares during the main season 2015/16 [4].
4 Lowlands are normally stated as lying between 500 m and 1,500 m.a.s.l., the midlands are said to be between approximately 1,600 and 2,000 m.a.s.l.
Ethiopia 3
Production systems key for food security in Ethiopia [3, 6, 23]
Fertilizers (organic and inorganic), supplied mainly by parastatals, Agricultural input use in Ethiopia [3, 6]
traders and private organizations, among others, were used
over a half of the cultivated area in the 2015/16 season. Almost
70% of the fertilizers used were inorganic,5 and were applied
for cereals; with high organic and inorganic fertilizer use being
recorded for teff, wheat and maize [4]. Overall Ethiopia’s average
fertilizer use stands at approximately 21 kg per hectare, above the
sub-Saharan average of 15 kg per hectare.
Although improved seeds of most cereals and pulses are available to
smallholders, use of purchased improved seed is quite uncommon
among smallholder farmers; in the 2015/16 season, improved
seed area accounted for only 10.7% of the total cereal growing
area, and this was mostly (83%) related to maize production [4].
Agricultural systems are almost exclusively rain-fed. Of an irrigation
potential of approximately 2.7 million hectares of land, only 2–3%
of the cropland is currently irrigated [5, 24]. In 2015/16, roughly
1.4 million farmers (180,000 ha of cultivated land) used irrigation
for crop cultivation, mainly from rivers and natural ponds, and, to
lesser extents, through installed water harvesting systems. Most of
this irrigated area was for maize, sorghum and coffee production,
[4] while sugarcane, potato and vegetables, such as onions and
tomatoes, are also among the commonly irrigated crops. However,
the country is endowed with huge water resources (springs and
rivers), and their irrigation potential is highly underused.
5 Urea; DAP – Diamonium Phosphate; and NSP – superphosphate.

Food security, nutrition and health Food security, nutrition, and health
in Ethiopia [3, 6, 32, 33, 34, 35]
Vulnerability to poverty and food insecurity varies across Ethiopia’s
regions and is related to factors such as distance to input and output
markets; access to productive assets; size, quality and productivity of
land; household education levels and climatic factors. Households
headed by women are particularly vulnerable, since, compared
to men, they are less likely to own land and receive education.
The moisture-reliable lowlands, pastoral areas and drought-prone
highlands are among the regions most vulnerable to food poverty.
Although it may seem counterintuitive that the moisture-reliable
lowlands are vulnerable to food poverty, the region is classified as
having the greatest proportion of poor people in the country [25]. In
the pastoral and drought-prone highlands, in addition to poverty, lack
of assets and low education; exposure to climate shocks is also high.
Pervasive poverty and food insecurity in rural households has also
triggered a relatively high dependence on emergency food aid, in
order to increase domestic food supply. Ethiopia is still one of the
largest recipients of food aid in Africa, with a 2014 estimate indicating
that the country receives around 27% of the global food aid given to
sub-Saharan Africa [26]. Most of the food aid has been channeled to
the country’s north and less so to the south and south-east areas [27].
Household surveys have however shown, that the share of food in
total expenditures is declining (fell from 60% in 1996 to 48% in 2011),
while the quantities consumed (per adult equivalent) have increased
by 55% [28].
In response to high poverty and vulnerability in the country, the
Government of Ethiopia has implemented the Productive Safety
Net Programme (PSNP), a component of the Government’s Food
Security program (FSP)6 to support between 7 and 12 million people
every year [29]. The programme is regarded as the largest social Uganda
protection programme in Africa and is based on a cash or food

for work principle. The programme has had some positive effects,
with poverty rates having fallen significantly and the Global Hunger
Index (GHI) score reduced from 43 in 2008 to 33 in 2016.7 However,
undernourishment rates remain high (at 32%) and 27% of children
under five are underweight. Roughly 57% of childhood deaths are
associated with malnutrition [30]. Ethiopia ranks 98th among the
113 countries in the Food Security Index (FSI),8 with a score that has
not changed significantly over the past 5 years. Recent efforts have
also been made to integrate climate-smart agriculture into the PSNP.
On the positive side, as of 2015, Ethiopia was one of 12 African
countries that had achieved the Millennium Development Goal (MDG)
1C target of halving the proportion of undernourished between 1990/92
and 2015, as well as making some progress to achieving the World
Food Summit (WFS) target of halving the total number of chronically
undernourished [31]. Despite making progress towards ending hunger,
malnutrition and poverty, as of 2011, 44% of children under five were
still stunted and 29 percent were underweight. From a nutrition quality
perspective, the diets of rural households are composed mainly of
cereals and tubers. Despite a large livestock population, consumption
of livestock products is low in rural areas, except for the pastoral areas,
where milk is a major component of the diet.9
6 The PSNP was launched in 2005 and it’s now in its fourth Phase. It targets three
main AEZs, namely enset lowlands, drought-prone highlands, and pastoral areas
and covers approximately 7.9 million individuals.
7 The GHI score takes into account undernourishment rates of the entire population
and stunting, wasting and death rates among children under the age of five. The
higher the GHI score, the higher the level of hunger.
8 The FSI takes into account aspects of food availability, affordability, quality and
safety of food.
9 FAO Nutrition Country Profile for Ethiopia http://bit.ly/2AmOZmy
Ethiopia 5
Greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas emissions in Ethiopia [3, 6]
Total annual emissions in Ethiopia amount to 144 Mt CO2eq,10
the equivalent of approximately 0.3% of global emissions, while
per capita emissions are similarly low, amounting to 2 tons of
CO2eq annually. The agricultural sector in the country is a major
contributor to national emissions, accounting for approximately
60% of total emissions. Given that Ethiopia has the largest
livestock population in Africa and has one of the largest livestock
herds in the world [11], most of the agricultural GHG emissions
emanate from livestock-related activities (methane and nitrous
oxide emissions from enteric fermentation and manure left on
pastures respectively), which account for almost 92% of agricultural
emissions. Crop-related emissions are associated primarily with
burning of natural vegetation, cultivation of organic soils and the
use of synthetic fertilizer. Most emissions from the forest sector are
associated with deforestation for the expansion of agricultural land
[6, 15, 36].
In 2011, in response to the need to reduce emissions, develop
a green economy and build greater resilience to climate change,
the Government of Ethiopia developed the Climate Resilient Green
Economy (CRGE) Strategy. One of the CRGE’s main objectives
is to reduce per capita emissions by a third by 2030, along the
larger goal of advancing the economy and bringing Ethiopia to a
middle-income status country [15]. Furthermore, according to the
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) prepared and
submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat in 2015, the country plans
to reduce its annual level of emissions by 64% by 2030 compared
to the business-as-usual scenario projection for 400 Mt CO2eq; a
significant portion of this being from the agriculture (90 Mt CO2eq
reduction) and forestry (130 Mt CO2eq reduction) sectors [37].
Challenges for the agricultural sector

The agricultural sector in Ethiopia is faced by a number of Low uptake of technologies is not only driven by a lack of financial
challenges, centered largely on increased pressure over natural resources for initial investments and/or maintenance, but also by
resources (driven by a rapidly growing population and demand the existing land tenure system. Farmers find few incentives and
for food), which has led to land degradation on over 40 million opportunities to invest in improved management practices on
hectares of land [21], declines in soil fertility and high rates of soil land that is insecure,11 whose area is constantly diminishing and
erosion, particularly in the highlands. fragmenting as a result of continuous population growth [38]. Some
farming practices, such as agroforestry, may not be suitable for
In addition, low agricultural yields have been associated with
implementation on small pieces of land as farmers aim to maximize
unfavorable climate conditions in some parts of the country
land under cultivation of the main crop. Additionally, small plot sizes
(including climate shocks such as droughts and floods), which
often impede credit access and at times may act as a disincentive
have had adverse effects on the natural resource base (e.g. soil
for the use of improved seeds and fertilizer [39]. Small land sizes
erosion caused by intense rains) as well as on the livelihoods of rural
also place a constraint on mechanization; smallholder investments
populations who have limited resources ability to invest in resilience
in mechanization and uptake of technological innovations therefore
building and adaptation strategies.
being low and insufficient to improve farm efficiency, and increase
Asked about the causes of crop damage in the 2015/16 crop survey, productivity and profitability.
most farmers reported shortage of rain (57% of all farmers reporting
Food losses, which contribute to decreased availability of food in
crop damage), diseases and pests (18%), frost or floods (9%), weeds
households and in markets, also result from inadequate storage
(7%), hailstone (7%), excessive rain (5%), wild animals (5%), and
facilities, pests and climate hazards. Some reports have indicated
other factors (20%) as the main contributors to crop damage and
post-harvest losses for horticultural crops of as high as 40%
even loss. Shortage of rain mostly affected cereals [4] but is also a
[40], posing a threat to food security, incomes and profitability of
significant factor in livestock production; affecting the availability of
producers.
water, fodder and pasture with impacts on animal health and the
nutrition and food security of pastoralists and agropastoralists.
10 This includes emissions from Land-Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) sectors.
11 In Ethiopia, land tenure insecurity is reflected by the Government’s ownership of the land resources and the subsequent distribution to farmers, without any contractual
arrangements. However, over the past years, land-use certificates have commenced to be issued.

These events led to crop damage, animal loss, loss of livelihoods,
Agriculture and climate change migration to urban areas and increases in malnutrition.
Temperature and rainfall vary across the main regions of Ethiopia.
In terms of future trends, projections using any of the four main
There is a trend of decreasing temperatures and increasing rainfall
GHG emissions scenarios used by the IPCC indicate a continued
from the lowlands in the south- and north-east to the central and
increase in mean temperature throughout the entire country, with
upper highlands; with rainfall reaching over 2000 mm annually in
the greatest increases expected to be experienced in the northern
the southwestern highlands compared to as low as 300 mm in
parts of the country. Higher variability of rainfall is also expected,
the lowlands. The regions also experience very different seasonal
with rains becoming more unpredictable, more unreliable, and more
regimes: while the June–September wet season (also known as the
intense [46]. Future climate projections indicate increases in annual
Kiremt season, with rainfall reaching as high as 350 mm/month) is
rainfall for Ethiopia as a whole, with these increases being greatest
common throughout most of the country, farmers and pastoralists
in the southern and southeastern parts of the country and least in
in the North and the Centre rely yearly on an additional short wet
the central and northern parts of the country. These increases are
season from February–May known as the Belg season. The South
largely a result of increasing rainfall during the short rainfall season
is exposed to rains between February–May and October–December
(October–December) in southern Ethiopia; however, changes in
(the Bega season), while rains are very scarce in the far eastern parts
precipitation were found to be variable, with some scenarios and time
of the country [41].
lines indicating decreases in rainfall. Intra- and inter-seasonal rainfall
Analyses of historic climate data (1981–2014) revealed the occurrence variability are also expected to increase.
of more frequent droughts, increases in mean temperatures, more
The possible impacts of these changes on agricultural production in
erratic rainfall, and more frequent heavy rains [42, 43]. These
the country include, among others, the following:
changes have had an impact on farmer livelihoods as well as on
national economic performance. For example, studies have shown a • Changes in water availability for crop and livestock production.
close relationship between annual rainfall variability and agricultural
GDP as well as affecting overall GDP growth.12 Droughts in particular • Increased competition and conflicts over pasture and water for
have had great impact on farmers’ livelihoods. In terms of impact livestock.
on livelihoods, the 1984 and 2003 droughts affected 7.5 and • Geographical shifts and reductions in areas suitable for
12.6 million people respectively [43]. Losses from the 2006 floods production of teff, maize, barley and sorghum [47].
amounted to US$3 million, 800 human lives, and 20,000 homes
[44]. More recently, the El Niño event in 2015/16 resulted in Ethiopia • Shifts from livestock rearing to crop cultivation, from nomadic
experiencing one of the worst drought in decades, with over to sedentary livestock keeping, and/or from pastoralist to
10.2 million people estimated to be in need of food aid [45]. agropastoralist [48].
Projected changes in temperature and precipitation in Ethiopia by 2050 [49, 50, 51]
Changes in annual mean temperature (°C) Changes in total precipitation (%)
Average temperature (°C) Average precipitation (%)
12 http://go.nature.com/2Bdh6FU
Ethiopia 7
Projected change in suitable area in Ethiopia based CSA practices also help build system’s resistance to pests and
(2040-2069) diseases, such as in the case of drought-tolerant crop varieties and
livestock breeds, and the use of rotations in crop production.
In the broader Ethiopian context, climate-smart practices and
technologies are being implemented within the framework of
integrated watershed management, which incorporate a broad range
of practices in crop and livestock production including agroforestry,
crop rotation and intercropping [11] as well as broader soil and water
conservation measures such as soil/stone bunds, terracing, infiltration
ditches, and tie-ridges among others. It is important to note that
although soil conservation practices, such as reduced tillage and
crop rotations, have long been practised by farmers in Ethiopia, the
promotion of conservation agriculture as a package with associated
benefits has experienced various challenges related to knowledge,
technology and awareness that still need to be addressed [53].
In terms of adoption, most of the CSA practices and technologies
identified have low-to-medium on-farm adoption rates, despite their
CSA technologies and practices potential benefits to adaptation, productivity increase and mitigation
efforts. Many of the key barriers to widespread adoption include
CSA practices present opportunities for addressing climate change
limited or no access to productive inputs (improved seeds and
challenges, while simultaneously supporting economic growth and
fertilizer), lack of access to credit, lack of adequate machinery and
development of the agriculture sector. For this profile, practices
technology (e.g. row planters), low access to formal markets to sell
are considered climate smart if they maintain or achieve increases
produce, and limited extension service quality and access particularly
in productivity as well as at least one of the other objectives of
in relation to climate-smart agriculture. Low participation in extension
climate-smart agriculture (adaptation and mitigation). Hundreds of
services programmes has also been noted; driven by factors such as
technologies and practices around the world fall under the heading
“suspicion of efficacy,” insufficient arable land, and unavailability of
of CSA [2].
programs that suit the farmers’ needs [4] as well as limited technical
Although traditional agricultural techniques such as repeated tillage, capacity by the extension agents on issues such as climate change
usage of ox-drawn wooden ploughs, low yielding crop varieties adaptation. Low access to and use of credit is mostly associated with
and traditional animal breeds are still common, Ethiopian farmers inability to repay the loan and lack of return on investments, both of
have begun to adopt new, improved technologies in both crop and which can be addressed through conducting of cost–benefit analysis
livestock production systems. For crop production, there are efforts of different CSA practices combined with sensitization of farmers
to promote organic fertilizer use and precise fertilizer application as and microfinance providers on which practices to invest in, the likely
opposed to the use of blanket fertilizer recommendations, while use returns and the required repayment periods.
of improved (drought- and heat-tolerant) cereal varieties (teff, maize,
Uncontrolled and free grazing, which limits implementation of
sorghum, wheat and barley) and crop rotations are increasingly
some climate-smart practices (e.g. mulching), has been part of the
being practiced. For pulses (faba beans and chickpea), the use of
tradition and routine of farmers for generations. Switching to new,
improved varieties, application of biofertilizers and development of
improved feeding systems would require a change in perceptions
cropping calendars informed by meteorological data are among the
and attitudes [54], and additional efforts of extension workers to
CSA practices being implemented. For coffee production, irrigation,
share and demonstrate to farmers the benefits of practices such
mulching and agroforestry (tree shade) comprise key climate-
as cut and carry. Capacity building of extension agents in the
smart practices. For agroforestry in coffee production, some key
on-field implementation of CSA technologies and practices, in
considerations for success include choice of tree, planting density
close cooperation with research institutions, becomes of utmost
and canopy management.
importance for effective knowledge transfer to farmers.
For livestock, the use of improved breeds (hybrids or crossbreeds),
The following graphics present a selection of CSA practices with
changing to more resilient animal types (goats), fodder conservation
high climate smartness scores according to expert evaluations. The
and feed production are common practices. These livestock
average climate smartness score is calculated based on the individual
management practices are also being combined with broader
scores of each practice on eight climate smartness dimensions that
sustainable land management practices such as improved rangeland
relate to the CSA pillars: yield (productivity); income, water, soil, risks/
management, controlled grazing, planting of fodder trees and area
information (adaptation); energy, carbon and nutrients (mitigation).
closures,13 which are implemented for environmental, economic and
A practice can have a negative/ positive/ zero impact on a selected
social benefits. For example, area closures in Ethiopia have been found
CSA indicator, with 10 (+/-) indicating a 100% change (positive/
to improve soils and natural vegetation, regulate floods, improve
negative), and 0 indicating no change. Practices in the graphic have
soil fertility, provide alternate income in the form of beekeeping
been selected for each production system key to food security, as
and provide a source of fodder (cut-and-carry system) for livestock.
identified in the study. A detailed explanation of the methodology and
These benefits are in addition to the carbon sequestration benefits
a more comprehensive list of CSA practices can be found in Annexes
that accrue as the land fills with vegetation [52]. Improved animal
3 and 4, respectively.
veterinary services and the training of community animal health
workers (paravets) are also being promoted as a means of supporting
overall livestock health and resilience to climate hazards, as well as
improved efficiency of production. Many of the crop- and livestock-
13 Sometimes also referred to as exclosures.

Selected CSA practices and technologies for production systems
key for food security in Ethiopia
Ethiopia 9
Case study of CSA in Ethiopia: the System of Teff Intensification (STI)
Teff (Eragrostis tef) is a staple cereal of Ethiopians’ diet, mainly grown by women and used primarily for making the
traditional fermented bread, injera. Planting involves the manual spread of very tiny seeds (approximately 2,500 per
gram) on repeatedly ploughed soil. This practice is labor intensive with low productivity (an average of just 1.5 ton
per hectare nationally).
In order to increase yields, the System of Teff Intensification (STI), an adaptation of the System of Rice Intensification
(SRI), was initiated in the 2008/09 season at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center, Central Ethiopia, by the
Sasakawa-Global 2000 program. In STI, young teff seedlings (20-days old) are transplanted at 20x20 cm spacing.
Organic and inorganic nutrients are also applied to the soil, to help improve yields and address inherent soil nutrient
deficiencies.
The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA), a federal government agency, conducted STI demonstration trials at
two major centers for agricultural research in Ethiopia, Debre Zeit and Mekele, in collaboration with the local partner,
the Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD), and with partial funding from Oxfam America. Positive results from
the trials encouraged efforts to increase the number of demonstration plots in major teff-producing regions of
Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and SNNPR (Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region) [55].
From applying STI methods, farmers obtained average yields of 2.7 t/ha in the 2011/12 season (higher than
the 1.5 t/ha national average for broadcasted teff), while maximum yields amounted to approximately 5 t/ha.
In the subsequent year (2012/13 season), a new, less intensified approach, for the STI was tested by roughly
160,000 farmers who replaced transplanting with direct seeding. This approach, which usually requires wider
row spacing and the utilization of a mix of organic (compost) and inorganic (urea and diammonium phosphate
[DAP]) fertilizers to increase soil organic matter, resulted in average yields of 2.1 t/ha [56]. While these yields are
slightly lower than those for full STI implementation, direct-seeded STI requires less labor for sowing and weeding
and improves the balance of moisture and air in the soil [57]. The choice of STI approach, however, depends on the
farmer’s capabilities. Following these trials, the Ethiopian Government scaled out the STI management area to over
1 million hectares in the 2013/14 season.
System of Teff Intensification (STI) in Ethiopia showing high tillering.

(Photo: Cornell University, SRI International Network and Resources Centre).

Table 1. Detailed smartness assessment for top ongoing CSA practices by production system as implemented in Ethiopia.
Region and Predominant

adoption farm scale
CSA
rate (%) S: small scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA pillars
practice
<30 30-60 60> M: medium scale
L: large scale
Teff (7.4% of total harvested area)
Productivity
Highlands Maintains or increases yield. Reduces
Precise production costs.
30-60%
fertilizer Adaptation
application: Adequate, timing, amount, and placement
type (organic/ of inorganic fertilizers can reduce negative
inorganic), effects of excessive fertilization. Reduces
time of soil salinity and nutrient leaching.
application, Mitigation
placement, Midlands Reduces emissions intensity. Precise
amount fertilizer management can reduce nitrogen
30-60%
fertilizer-related nitrous oxide (N2O)
emissions.
Midlands
Productivity
Increases in yield and quality at harvest.
30-60%
Adaptation
Reduces yield loss due to pests and
Use of diseases in periods of adverse climatic
improved conditions.
varieties Mitigation
Benefits from reduced use of chemical
Lowlands
inputs and energy consumed for pesticide
30-60% application.
Potato (0.2% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
<30% Increases in yield and income (reduced
Use of cost for fungicide application).
improved
Adaptation
varieties
Improves food security bridges during
(tolerance/
shortage months and/or when other crops
resistance to
are not mature.
heat, drought,
diseases) Midlands Mitigation
Reduces emissions intensity per unit of
<30% product.
Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient
Ethiopia 11
adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Potato (0.2% of total harvested area)
Precise
fertilizer Highlands Productivity
application: Maintains or increases yield. Reduces
<30% production costs.
type, time of
application, Adaptation
placement, Reduces the use of inputs. Reduces soil
and amount; salinity and nutrient leaching.
Integrated Mitigation
disease Reduces nitrogen emissions through
management Midlands efficient use of fertilizers. Reduces CO2
for bacterial emissions associated with fertilizer
wilt and late <30% transport.
blight
Sorghum (5% of total harvested area)
Highlands
<30% Productivity
Use of Increases in yield and income.
improved
Adaptation
varieties
Increased responsiveness to unpredictable
(tolerance/
weather patterns.
resistance to
heat, drought, Mitigation
diseases) Reduces emissions intensity per unit of
Midlands product.
<30%
Highlands Productivity
Increased crop productivity and farmer’s
<30% income.
Precise
Adaptation
fertilizer
Increases responsiveness to extreme
application:
weather events. Reduces environmental
type, time of
impact when inorganic fertilizers are used
application,
(leaching). Efficient use of scarce financial
placement,
resources.
amount
Mitigation
Midlands Contributes to reduced emissions per unit
<30% of product.

adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Chickpea (0.6% of total harvested area)
Contributes to an economically and
<30%
ecologically sustainable fertilization option.
Adaptation
Increases supply or availability of nitrogen
Bio-fertilizer
or other primary nutrients. Reduces
application
pollution in aquifers and soils due to
over-fertilization.
Midlands Mitigation
Reduces energy consumption and
<30% emissions intensity per unit of product.
Increases land and crop productivity per
<30% unit of product.
Cropping
Adaptation
calendar
Increases resilience to extreme natural
with access
events such as drought or floods, reducing
to timely
crop failure. Reduces soil erosion.
meteorological
information Mitigation
Midlands Some impact on fertilizers, water and other
inputs saving by enabling timely fertilizer
<30% application and other agronomic practices.
Cattle (Dairy and Beef) (20% of total harvested area)
Increases milk and meat yield and income.
<30%
Adaptation
Improves efficiency in natural pastures
Feed and management. Increases availability of
feeding pastures/forages during extreme weather
systems conditions.
improvement Mitigation
Increases in productivity reduce GHG
Midlands emissions per unit of product. Reduces
<30% methane (NH4) emissions related to enteric
fermentation.
Ethiopia 13
adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Cattle (Dairy and Beef) (20% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
30-60% Increases in productivity and income
through increased product (milk and meat)
quality.
Veterinary
Adaptation
services
Contributes to the development of optimal
improvement
nutritional alternatives for animals. Potential
reductions in post-harvest loss.
Lowlands Mitigation
Increases production efficiency reducing
30-60%
GHG emissions per unit of product.
Wheat (4.4% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
30-60% Increases in yield and income.
Use of superior Adaptation
seed varieties Increased responsiveness to unpredictable
(tolerance/ weather patterns. Local varieties can
resistance to present greater resistance to diseases and
heat, drought, heat stress.
pests) Mitigation
Midlands Reduces emissions intensity per unit of
30-60% product.
Productivity
Highlands Reduces financial vulnerability by
diversifying production. Medium- to long-
<30% term soil fertility increases can lead to
higher yields.
Adaptation
Crop rotation Improves soil quality (biological, physical
with pulses and chemical characteristics). Increases
efficiency in water and soil use.
Mitigation
Midlands Nitrogen fixation through leguminous
<30% plants reduces nitrogen fertilizer
requirements. Increases soil organic matter,
and soil carbon stock.

adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Barley (2.9% of total harvested area)
Productivity
Highlands Reduces financial vulnerability by
diversifying production. Medium- to long-
>60% term soil fertility increases can lead to
higher yields.
Adaptation
Crop rotation Conserves soil nutrients and moisture.
with pulses Improves soil fertility and reduces pest
and disease risks.
Midlands Mitigation
Nitrogen fixation through leguminous
>60% plants reduces nitrogen fertilizer
requirements. Increases soil organic matter,
and soil carbon stock.
Highlands
Productivity
<30% Greater yield stability and income under
adverse soil conditions.
Precise Adaptation
application In conditions of drought or excessive rains,
of soil favors crop adaptation to soil pH. Reduces
amendments crop failure risk.
for acidic soil Mitigation
Midlands
Increases in productivity reduce GHG
<30% emissions per unit of product.
2.4
Maize (5.5% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
30-60% Increases in yield stability despite climate
Use of variability and biotic stress. Greater income.
improved
Adaptation
varieties
Increases in crop resistance to pests and
(tolerance/
diseases. Reduction in water consumption.
resistance to
Greater product quality.
heat, drought,
diseases) Mitigation
Midlands
Improves emissions intensity levels due to
30-60% productivity increases.
Ethiopia 15
adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Maize (5.5% of total harvested area)
Productivity
Highlands Maintains or increases yield. Reduces
production costs.
Precise 30-60%
Adaptation
fertilizer
Reduce the use of inputs. Reduces soil
application:
salinity and nutrient leaching. Benefits
type, time of
in soil quality when integrating organic
application,
fertilizers.
placement,
amount Mitigation
Midlands Reduces nitrogen emissions through
efficient use of fertilizers. Reduces CO2
30-60% emissions associated with fertilizer
transport.
Beans (faba beans) (0.8% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
<30% Increases in yield and income. Minimizes
Use of yield loss.
improved Adaptation
varieties for Increases food availability and nutritional
heat and pest security. Minimizes damage risk due to
tolerance/ pests and diseases.
resistance Midlands Mitigation
Reduces GHG emissions per unit of
<30% product.
<30% Contributes to an economically and
ecologically sustainable
fertilization option.
Adaptation
Bio-fertilizer Increases supply or availability of nitrogen
application or other primary nutrients. Reduces
pollution in aquifers and soils due to
over-fertilization.
Midlands
Mitigation
<30% Reduces energy consumption and
emissions intensity per unit of product.

adoption farm scale
CSA
practice
L: large scale
Coffee (1.4% of total harvested area)
Highlands
Productivity
<30%
Increases in yields and reduces investment
Use of in pesticides and water use.
improved
Adaptation
varieties for
Maintains local coffee germplasm as well
heat and pest
as quality. Diminishes yield loss due to
tolerance/
reduced risk of pest and disease incidence.
resistance
Mitigation
Midlands Reduces GHG emissions per unit of
product.
<30%
<30% Crop diversification can improve yields,
product quality and income.
Improved
Adaptation
agronomic
Crop diversification can improve yields.
practices
Potential benefits for food and nutrition
(shade trees,
security and income diversification (trees
cover crop,
for timber and fruits). Maintains or improves
compost
soil fertility status.
application
and irrigation) Midlands Mitigation
Increases carbon capture and storage both
<30%
above- and below-ground. Benefits by
reducing chemical inputs.
Ethiopia 17
Enabling institutions and policies for CSA Ministry also implements the Managing Environmental Resources
to Enable Transitions (MERET) to More Sustainable Livelihoods
There are five tiers of government in Ethiopia, each with different roles Coordination Unit, which is a World Food Programme (WFP)-
and duties with regards to policy making and implementation: the supported project initiated in the 1980s, and includes activities such
federal government, the regions, zone administrations, woreda, and as water harvesting, reforestation, seedling production, soil fertility
kebele. The federal government is responsible for the formulation management and construction of farmland terraces [11].
and implementation of national policies, strategies and plans and
also allocates the budget to the regions, depending on population The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) is an institution
size and capacity to contribute to national budget through revenues. mandated to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. ATA
The Regional Councils are entitled to legislate and execute laws, but undertakes four major programmes that target: (i) agricultural
also to exercise judicial power. The regions design socio-economic production and productivity of smallholder farmers; (ii) processing
development plans that meet national-level targets and are also able and value addition in agribusinesses for improved market access;
to generate their own revenue, although dependency on federal (iii) sustainable and inclusive growth for improved farmers’ resilience;
budget is still high [58]. This illustrates a complex context not only (iv) and capacity building of agricultural institutions for project
for legislation and policy development, but also for budget allocation implementation and impact maximization. ATA has a broad portfolio
and management. of CSA-related work, including the training of extension actors
on CSA practices, such as conservation agriculture, enhancing
As weather variability and changes in climate have continued to affect agricultural decision making through enhanced access to climate
Ethiopia’s agriculture sector, people’s livelihoods and the economy information and weather station installations, supporting improved
as a whole, the CSA approach has gained a lot of momentum in the access to agrometeorological information.15
institutional and policy sphere over the years, in an effort to reduce
climate impacts and to help build a more resilient, food-secure and In terms of research, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
economically competitive agriculture sector. (EIAR) and its regional research institutes, federal and regional
research centers, as well as universities constitute the National
Most institutions surveyed facilitate information sharing and Agricultural Research System (NARS) in Ethiopia, whose principal aim
extension, and, to a slightly lesser extent, promote technology is to generate and promote the adoption of information, knowledge,
development and innovation. Allocation of funds towards mitigation improved practices and technologies that increase agricultural
is minimal across all institutions surveyed. productivity. The NARS collaborates with extension workers,
civil society organizations, NGOs, seed enterprises, international
Climate change action was previously under the mandate of the
research centers, and the private sector. EIAR’s work related to
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), established after the
climate-smart agriculture includes climate modelling; conducting of
Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in 2009. Following
on-farm trials of new varieties; and the testing of agrometeorological
the restructuring of governmental institutions, the Ministry of
tools such as Agro-weather Decision Support System (DSS)16 to
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) became the
improve farmers’ access to weather information and hence support
lead entity for the country’s climate framework, which is now also
adaptation efforts. Numerous international research institutes
in charge of the country’s legislation and coordination of activities
are also involved in CSA-related research in the country. CGIAR
related to environmental degradation and forests. MEFCC is the
Centers such as CIAT, International Crops Research Institute for the
overall coordinator of national climate-change-related activities in
Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), International Maize and Wheat
the country including being the focal point for the UNFCCC and
Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International Center for Agricultural
Global Environment Fund (GEF) as well as National Designated
Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), World Agroforestry Centre
Authority (NDA) for the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and Designated
(ICRAF), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and
National Authority (DNA) for the Adaptation Fund.
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), are working on
The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR) is a key topics such as biogas from dairy waste management, soil and water
institution promoting CSA practices in the country, mainly through conservation, agroforestry and conservation agriculture. For example,
various projects and programmes implemented by its different CIMMYT is implementing the project on Sustainable Intensification of
units including: the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Maize–Legume Cropping Systems for Food Security in Eastern and
Coordination Unit, the Sustainable Land Management Programme Southern Africa (SIMLESA), which is conducting research on and
(SLMP)14 Coordination Unit, the Soil Information and Fertility promoting maize–legume intercropping. The Farm Mechanization
Directorate, Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) Coordination and Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Intensification
Unit, and the National Agricultural Research System, among (FACASI) programme focuses on identifying appropriate small-scale
others [11]. CSA initiatives promoted by MoANR link to improved machinery (e.g. 2-wheel tractors) to improve planting, harvesting,
productivity and climate resilience of the agricultural sector, targeting milling and transport among smallholder farmers. Both projects
primarily practices such as soil and water conservation, conservation are funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural
agriculture, agroforestry systems, fodder production (cut and carry) Research (ACIAR) along with other partners. The Water and Land
and improved varieties. Apart from the above-mentioned SLMP, the Resource Centre (WLRC), associated with the Addis Ababa University,
14 The SLMP was launched in 2008 to address the challenges to agricultural production in the major agricultural potential regions of the Ethiopian highlands through watershed
rehabilitation and productive agricultural use of rehabilitated land. The Ministry has chosen CSA as a guiding paradigm to implement the second SLMP phase [59]. The
intention is to integrate climate-resilient production methods into the rehabilitated landscapes. On-farm soil conservation and re-vegetation measures as well as changes in
livestock management are an integral part of CSA, as they increase farmers’ capacities to adapt to climate impacts.
15 www.ata.gov.et/highlighted-deliverables/agro-meteorology/
16 http://bit.ly/2koPOFm

engages in research activities related to watershed and integrated providing institutional capacity building support to MoANR and
landscape management, including implementation of sustainable ATA, for on-field interventions targeting economic growth and
land management (SLM) practices to increase productivity, poverty reduction, climate change and environment vulnerability.
rehabilitation of degraded lands, and management of the natural The German Development Cooperation Agency (GIZ) has been
resources base. The Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research supporting the Government of Ethiopia’s CSA efforts, particularly
Institute (EEFRI), established in 2015, is also conducting research through involvement in the multi-stakeholder process to develop a
related to agroforestry, forest product utilization and climate change, CSA field manual for the Sustainable Land Management Programme
among others. Haramaya University (HU) is also set to become a (SLMP-II). The manual includes the identification of “baskets of
key CSA institution as the host for the soon to be established African options” that can be taken as climate-smart packages to farmers,
Center of Excellence in Climate-Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity under the premise that an integrated approach to CSA provides
Conservation, which will aim to produce research and technically greater benefits against the three CSA pillars than a single-practice
skilled personnel on CSA for the Eastern and Southern Africa approach.
regions; with master’s programs being established in Climate-Smart
The following graphic highlights key institutions whose main activities
Agriculture as well as Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management [53].
relate to one, two or three CSA pillars (adaptation, productivity and
The work of national and local NGOs on CSA relates mainly to mitigation). More information on the methodology and results from
building smallholders’ climate resilience and food security in the face interviews, surveys and expert consultations is available in Annex 5.
of climate-related hazards, particularly droughts. Ethiopia was also
one of the three initial pilot countries for the African Union-NEPAD
iNGO CSA Alliance, which comprises Oxfam, Concern Worldwide Institutions for CSA in Ethiopia
Ethiopia, World Vision, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and CARE
International and whose aim is to support the adoption of climate-
smart practices by 6 million farming households in sub-Saharan
Africa by 2021. Separately, these NGOs are conducting various
activities related to climate-smart agriculture. World Vision Ethiopia
(WVE), for example, has been implementing the Humbo Assisted
Natural Regeneration Project since 2006. This is a community-
managed afforestation and reforestation initiative covering
2,728 hectares and funded by the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund
under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
[11]. CARE International also leads a consortium of partners (SNV,
Farm Africa and Mercy Corps, among others) implementing the
Climate-Smart Initiative, which aims to better integrate CSA into
the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) and the Household
Asset Building Programme (HABP). Aspects of the initiative include
supporting development of climate information hubs; supporting
access to biogas technologies and efficient stoves; water harvesting
and efficient irrigation for vegetable production; livelihood
diversification through promotion of chickpea, lentil and faba bean
production as well as support for dairy production. As a whole, rather
than simply providing food or cash incentives, farmers are given
training on climate change and provided with a means to invest
in their own resilience. Organisations such as Food for the Hungry
(FH), Terepeza Development Association (TDA), and Sasakawa
Global (SG2000) have been specifically promoting conservation
agriculture and green manuring within their projects [11].
For international organisations, the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has a long history of
support for conservation agriculture and other climate-smart
practices in Ethiopia, through the organization of demonstration
plots and introduction of equipment (including jab planters and
oxen-drawn seed and fertilizer planters), as well as training of
extension agents for the development of conservation agriculture
farmer field schools [11]. Additionally, FAO, with funding from the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and
the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD),
has been supporting conservation agriculture awareness raising
and coordination through the Natural Resources Management
Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
(MoANR). Through the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP),
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been
Ethiopia 19
Ethiopia ratified the UNFCCC in 1994 and the Kyoto Protocol in The Ethiopian Programme of Adaptation to Climate Change
2005. The Government presented two National Communications (EPACC) from 2011, built on the National Adaptation Program
to the UNFCCC, in 2001 and 2016. Furthermore, as part of of Action (NAPA),17 aims to mainstream climate adaptation
its commitments as a member of the Comprehensive Africa into national-level decision-making processes, with a particular
Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), it developed the focus on poverty elimination, climate resilience, and sustainable
CAADP Compact in 2009. This endorsed the three main objectives development. Sectoral and regional programmes for putting
set by African Heads of States and Governments through EPACC into action have already been developed.
CAADP, namely agricultural growth, food security and improved
The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), now in its second
livelihoods, outlining the necessary instruments for using these as
phase (GTP II, 2016–2020), focuses on the gradual shift from
guiding pillars for future Government programmes and activities.
traditional to high-value crops and livestock production in the
The operationalization of the CAADP Compact is outlined in the
highlands and agricultural out-scaling in the lowland areas
Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment Framework (PIF, 2010-
(by converting rangelands into irrigation schemes), in order to
2020), which prioritizes research and development of crop varieties
accelerate growth in production. A concerted effort was also placed
and systems adapted to new (dry) climate conditions, water
on mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation
harvesting techniques, agroforestry, and improved information
issues across all GTP II pillars.
systems (weather forecasts). In 2016, FAO supported the screening
of the PIF for climate-smart agriculture, a process meant to identify The country’s vulnerability to climate change is also acknowledged
and enhance climate-smart components within the investment in the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE), issued in 1997. The
plan, coinciding with its mid-term review. This screening along with EPE serves as the overarching environmental policy framework
other findings of the PIF mid-term evaluation could be important in the country, with a particular focus on forestry and sustainable
in directing national-level funding for CSA in the country. natural resource management.
The Government submitted the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Overall, the country has a clear institutional and policy framework
Actions (NAMA) to the UNFCCC Secretariat in 2010, where key to support the mainstreaming of climate change action in
mitigation strategies for the agriculture sector included investments agricultural sector development. The Government, in collaboration
in compost production and application and agroforestry systems. with its development partners, has shown progress in bringing
Ethiopia also submitted its Intended Nationally Determined CSA on the policy arena and closer within farmers’ reach, through
Contribution (INDC) to the UNFCCC in June 2015, pledging a investments in research, capacity building of extension workers
64% reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to the business-as- and field demonstrations. As such efforts continue to grow in
usual scenario. The INDC is based on Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient number and scope, coordination of interventions and alignment
Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy established in 2011, which with existing policies will be key for effective resource spending
represents the first attempt to integrate climate change and green and value addition.
growth efforts across all sectors of the economy. The CRGE’s
Moreover, while efforts to increase productivity and adaptive
overall goal is to enhance the population’s adaptive capacity and
capacity are essential to the sector’s sustainable growth, exploring
climate resilience, while achieving middle-income status by 2025.
opportunities that current and potential policy innovations can
The strategy is based on four pillars, two of which relate to CSA,
bring for mitigation would increase the likelihood of achieving the
namely: 1) Agriculture: improving crop and livestock production
triple win: productivity, resilience, and low-emissions development
practices for greater food security and better income for farmers,
in agriculture.
while reducing emissions; and 2) Forests: protecting and
re-establishing forests for their economic and ecological values, The graphic on page 21 shows a selection of policies, strategies
including carbon stocks [11]. One of the strategies highlighted and programs that relate to agriculture and climate change topics
in the CRGE is the use of energy-saving stoves as a means of and are considered key enablers of CSA in the country. The
reducing deforestation. In agriculture, CSA-related strategies policy cycle classification aims to show gaps and opportunities
include soil fertility management, conservation agriculture, residue in policy-making, referring to the three main stages: policy
management, efficient irrigation and watershed management for formulation (referring to a policy that is in an initial formulation
crops, as well as controlled grazing and improved feed production stage/consultation process), policy formalization (to indicate the
for livestock. In total, 41 options are identified to facilitate the presence of mechanisms for the policy to process at national
attainment of the CRGE objectives in the agriculture and forestry level) and policy in active implementation (to indicate visible
sectors. progress/outcomes toward achieving larger policy goals, through
concrete strategies and action plans). For more information on
The Agriculture Sector Programme of Adaptation to Climate
the methodology and results from interviews, surveys and expert
Change (ASPACC) was also formulated in 2011 with the main
consultations, see Annex 6.
objectives of contributing to the country’s commitments to the
UNFCCC, through integration of climate change into sectoral
policies and development efforts. The development of a climate
change adaptation plan to minimize agriculture sector vulnerability
was another key objective set by the ASPACC [15].
17 The 2007 NAPA is considered to be the first attempt for inter-sectoral coordination on climate adaptation work [11]. Key priority actions and projects included in the NAPA
included, among others: promotion of a drought/crop insurance program; strengthening of drought and flood early warning systems; development of small scale irrigation and
water harvesting schemes; improvement of rangeland resource management practices; community-based sustainable use of wetlands; capacity building; and improved food
security through large-scale water development projects [60].

Policies for CSA in Ethiopia
Financing CSA
In Ethiopia, future expenditures on drought-related interventions the 41 forestry- and agriculture-related options outlined in the
to ensure food security of the population have been projected to CRGE, additional funding of US$400–600 million is estimated
range from US$7.3 million to as high as US$1.2 billion annually, to be required [40]. The CRGE Facility was set up through a
depending on the climate scenario (wet/dry).18 On the other hand, collaboration between the Ministry of Finance and Economic
very wet climate change shocks could bring about a drop in GDP Development (MoFED) and MEFCC to enable the implementation
by 8%, while the very dry climate scenario may decrease GDP of the priority actions identified by the CRGE strategy, through
by 10% by 2050.19 These would include costs for infrastructure a coordinated administration of funds allocated from domestic
repair and maintenance (especially in the case of floods and (public and private) and international resources [61].
heavy rains), and investments in hydropower generation, among
others. Adapting the agricultural sector to climate change through Ethiopia currently spends approximately US$440 million annually
investments in research and development and farm management on climate change action (primarily on adaptation actions), which
practices, coupled with irrigation and drainage infrastructure could represents almost 11% of total government expenditure and
reduce the impacts of climate hazards, however, estimates have almost 6% of the yearly financing required to implement the CRGE
placed the costs of adaptation investments between US$68 and Strategy.20 Most funding (approximately 80%) channeled through
US$71 million annually between 2010 and 2050 [45]. the national budget comes from domestic contributions, and not
international public resources, as one would expect.21 International
At present, annual investments in the agriculture sector in the public climate funds mainly come from the UK, Japan, EU, Ireland,
country amount to US$1 billion. Over a third (approximately and Norway and target areas such as food security (37% of total
40%) is public funding, through MoANR. However, to implement
18 The figures are based on projections for a wet scenario in 2040 and a dry scenario in 2030 respectively.
19 Compared to a scenario with no climate change.
Ethiopia 21
international public funds), education (13%) and agriculture (11%), In March 2017, the Adaptation Fund Board approved the first
among others [62]. ever regional Adaptation Fund project titled “Agricultural Climate
Resilience Enhancement Initiative (ACREI),” for which Ethiopia is
In 2011/12, three-quarters of the climate change expenditure
one of the target countries along with Uganda and Kenya, and which
was at the MoANR (for irrigation and land management projects)
focuses on enhancing access to climate information and scaling
and the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (MoWIE). The
up of CSA practices through farmer field schools and community
amount of international direct support to climate change projects
adaptation initiatives. The project will be implemented by the World
and programmes has yet to be estimated. It has also been observed
Meteorological Organization (WMO), FAO, the Intergovernmental
that spending is often vaguely reported, not offering much detail
Authority on Development (IGAD) and government departments
on the activities targeted by the funding.
and institutions in the three target countries.
Ethiopia has been accessing climate funds from various
In addition, agricultural insurance, particularly weather-index based
international sources, including the Scaling-Up Renewable
crop and livestock insurance, is limited. Some innovative financial
Energy Program for Low Income Countries (SREP) of the Climate
instruments, such as the Nyala weather index-based insurance
Investment Funds (CIF), the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
system; Oromia Insurance Company’s livestock insurance
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), among the most
schemes; Horn of Africa Risk Transfer for Adaptation (HARITA)
important ones. For agriculture- and food security-related projects,
insurance for work scheme, and other input and technology
funds are sourced from partners such as the Canadian International
financing programmes have been developed in Ethiopia. However,
Development Agency (CIDA), the International Fund for Agricultural
most are small scale and have been restricted to pilot programmes
Development (IFAD), the World Bank, and the Government of
rather than being rolled out at scale. Greater effort could be placed
Norway, among others. NORAD and the Norwegian Development
on expanding insurance services to smallholder crop and livestock
Fund (DF), for example, have been supporting national CSA
farmers, with an opportunity to both build the resilience of farmers
coordination and various studies through partners such as FAO.
and also encourage private sector involvement in CSA.
Some of the key initiatives include training of extension service
workers in crop and livestock production, farmers and pastoralists Despite various funds being accessed by the country for CSA-
on good agricultural practices, livestock management, non-cereal related activities, additional financing is required to help Ethiopia
(vegetable and fruit) production, and women in nutritious feeding prepare for and adapt to the effects of climate change. Although
practices, among others. large international climate financing instruments such as the
Green Climate Fund (GCF) exist, access is contingent upon
Banks and microfinance institutes also play an important role in
countries developing high-quality proposals and having adequate
financing CSA investments of smallholder farmers and value chain
mechanisms for monitoring and implementation. An example of
entrepreneurs. The Oromia Cooperative Bank of Ethiopia (OCBE),
the need for high-quality proposals is the Green Climate Fund
for example, established by the Oromia Regional Government,
(GCF) Board’s lack of agreement to fund Ethiopia’s US$100
supports local agri-businesses that need to finance activities
million project on “Responding to the increasing risk of drought:
related to agricultural production, in a context where commercial
building gender responsive resilience of the most vulnerable
banks largely finance export-related infrastructure. However,
communities” that aimed to build resilience of drought-affected
access to credit in rural areas is generally low. Bank coverage in
communities in the country. The project has since been approved,
these areas is poor – roughly 1% of the rural population has a bank
however this highlights the need for development of improved
account. Moreover, land cannot be used as collateral for credit,
proposals that better integrate CSA-related activities. Other funds
which further alienates smallholders from opportunities to finance
from bilateral and multilateral partners, while crucially important,
their farm investments [63].
are at the moment not adequate to address the scale of the climate
To encourage increased adoption of vital agricultural inputs change challenge in Ethiopia. Ensuring sustainable financing from
(particularly fertilizer and improved seed), the MoANR and ATA public and private sources will be necessary for the scaling up of
have developed an Input Voucher System (IVS), as part of an overall CSA efforts. Additionally, increased transparency in how funds
Rural Financial Services (RFS) strategy. According to this new are allocated and spent would foster more cooperation between
strategy, distribution of inputs is primarily financed by the regional actors and would increase the likelihood that commitments would
governments and distributed through multipurpose cooperatives be turned into results. The methodology and a more detailed list
by cash or partial credit. of funds can be found in Annex 7.
20 The total cost of the CRGE Strategy is estimated at US$150 billion up to 2030, equaling approximately US$7.5 billion annually [41].
21 For 2010–2013, financing for adaptation activities constituted 51% of total international public finding, while mitigation and mitigation + adaptation activities were financed by
19% and 31% of these sources, respectively [58].

Financing opportunities for CSA in Ethiopia Ethiopia’s agricultural sector is a key economic driver and a
source of livelihoods for over 80% of the country’s population,
yet its GDP share has been challenged by other sectors (such as
manufacturing), while the effects of weather variability and climate
hazards on agriculture have been shown to not only have an
impact on food security and agricultural GDP but also on national
GDP and overall economic growth. The sector and those who
rely on it for a living are, therefore, highly vulnerable to weather
variability and climate change and hence the need to continue
investing in resilience building of the sector, while pushing for
sustainable growth within the context of Ethiopia’s economic
development targets as elaborated in the Climate-Resilient Green
Economy Strategy.
Agriculture has been a key forerunner in the effort to mainstream
climate change into planning, receiving most of the climate
financing available through national and international public
funds. While this has been particularly beneficial for projects and
programmes targeting productivity increase and food security,
coordination with other sectors (health, environment) has not
been fully operationalized, leaving important integration potential
untapped.
A number of CSA-related practices have either been practiced,
are currently being practiced or are being promoted by various
organisations (private and public) or through various policies
and programmes. Improving the knowledge on the costs and
benefits of different CSA-related practices at local level could be
an important way of encouraging adoption of locally appropriate
practices that are aligned to both national and local priorities.
A commonly agreed upon principle in Ethiopia is that higher
economic and environmental returns from CSA practices and
technologies are most likely obtained if several measures are
implemented jointly, through an integrated (farm- or landscape-
level) approach to climate-smart agriculture rather than a single-
practice-based approach. A better understanding of how and
under which conditions various CSA practices can be associated
on farms, watersheds and landscapes would help maximize
benefits for farmers and incentivize farmers as well as public and
private sector actors to invest in these efforts.
Lastly, while various CSA-related programmes are being
undertaken and various institutions are involved in CSA-related
activities, there is still need for improved coordination of all actors,
particularly in linking government initiatives with civil society
initiatives. The conservation agriculture task force supported in
recent years could be expanded and given a more prominent role
and permanent seat as a climate-smart agriculture coordination
unit within the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. In
addition, moral, financial and technical support to the activities of
the Ethiopia Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance could help reach
farmers and locations not currently targeted under other CSA-
related programmes and projects in the country.
Ethiopia 23
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Ethiopia 25
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For further information and online versions of the Annexes, visit: http://dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/CSA-profiles/
Annex 1: Ethiopia’s agro-ecological zones
Annex 2: Selection of agriculture production systems key for food security in Ethiopia (methodology and results)
Annex 3: Methodology for assessing climate smartness of ongoing practices
Annex 4: Long list of CSA practices adopted in Ethiopia
Annex 5: Institutions for CSA in Ethiopia (methodology and results)
Annex 6: Policies for CSA in Ethiopia (methodology and results)
Annex 7: Assessing CSA finances
This publication is a product of a collaborative effort between the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) – lead Center of the
CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) – and the Bureau for Food Security, United States
Agency for International Development (BFS/USAID) to identify country-specific baselines on CSA in Africa (Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Niger,
Senegal and Uganda). The publication is based on the previous work commissioned and led by the World Bank Group to identify country-
specific baselines and entry points for scaling out CSA, through data analysis and a series of dialogues with national stakeholders. The
work complements the CSA Profiles series developed since 2014 by the World Bank, CIAT and CCAFS for countries in Latin America,
Asia, Eastern and Central Europe, and Africa (https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications/csa-country-profiles).
The document was prepared under the co-leadership of Evan Girvetz, Andreea Nowak, and Andrew Jarvis (CIAT); and Oumou Ly, Anne
Williams and Moffatt Ngugi (USAID). It is based on a methodology prepared by CIAT, the World Bank and the Tropical Agricultural
Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) in 2014 and revisited in 2015 by Andreea Nowak, Caitlin Corner-Dolloff, Miguel Lizarazo,
Andy Jarvis, Evan Girvetz, Jennifer Twyman, Julian Ramírez, Carlos Navarro, Jaime Tarapues (CIAT/CCAFS), Charles Spillane, Colm Duffy
and Una Murray (University of Galway).
Main author: Aweke Mulualem Gelaw (independent consultant)
Editors: Andreea Nowak (independent consultant), Miguel Lizarazo (CIAT/CCAFS) and Sebastian Grey (CIAT)
Original figures and graphics: Fernanda Rubiano (independent consultant)
Design and layout: Daniel Gutiérrez and Ximena Hiles (CIAT)
This document should be cited as:
CIAT; BFS/USAID. 2017. Climate-Smart Agriculture in Ethiopia. CSA Country Profiles for Africa Series. International Center for Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT); Bureau for Food Security, United States Agency for International Development (BFS/USAID), Washington, D.C. 26 p.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to representatives of the following institutions for providing information to this study: Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural
Research (EIAR) and its Centers (mainly Holeta, Debrezeit and Melkassa); Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR); Ministry
of Livestock and Fisheries (MoLF); Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA); Ministry of Water, Electricity and Energy (MoWEE); Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa; and Norwegian Development Fund in
Ethiopia.
This document has benefited from comments received from: Kindie Tesfaye Fantaye (CIMMYT), Lulsegad Desta (CIAT) and Zenebe
Adimassu (IWMI).
December 2017

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Climate-Smart Agriculture in Ethiopia

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) considerations

A Adaptation M Mitigation P Productivity I Institutions $ Finance

Economic relevance of agriculture

People, agriculture, and livelihoods

2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Agricultural production systems

5 Urea; DAP – Diamonium Phosphate; and NSP – superphosphate.

4 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

protection programme in Africa and is based on a cash or food

Challenges for the agricultural sector

6 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Average temperature (°C) Average precipitation (%)

8 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

System of Teff Intensification (STI) in Ethiopia showing high tillering.

10 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Region and Predominant

Teff (7.4% of total harvested area)

Potato (0.2% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

Potato (0.2% of total harvested area)

Sorghum (5% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

12 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Chickpea (0.6% of total harvested area)

Cattle (Dairy and Beef) (20% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

Cattle (Dairy and Beef) (20% of total harvested area)

Wheat (4.4% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

14 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Barley (2.9% of total harvested area)

Maize (5.5% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

Maize (5.5% of total harvested area)

Beans (faba beans) (0.8% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

16 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

Coffee (1.4% of total harvested area)

Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient

18 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

20 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

22 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

24 Climate-Smart Agriculture Country Profile

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