TCM 301/05 Advanced

Construction Technology
 About The Tutor

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 Course Outcome

After completing this course, you should be able to:

• Identify various common and advanced types of floor and roof systems
• Describe the design considerations and constructions of various types of
ramps and stairs
• Explain the construction techniques for deep basement
• Identify the types of earth retaining structures
• Examine the stability of various types of earth retaining structures
• Explain the types of high rise structures
• Describe the common Industrialised Building System (IBS) practiced in
Malaysia
 Course Outcome (Cont’)

• Describe the installations of various types of services for high rise

buildings
• Determine the stability of cables subjected to point loads and uniform
loads
• Determine the stability of arch structures
• Explain the applications of cables and arches in construction
• Describe the design concept, equipment and machinery as well as safety
and health concerns of tunnels, dams and embankments and jetty
constructions.
• Explain the factors and implications that affect design concept, equipment
and machinery and health concerns for various civil works.
 Unit 1 Flooring and Roofing
Construction
1.1 Reinforced Concrete Floors
1.2 Steel Floors
1.3 Stairs
1.4 Ramps
1.5 Roofs
Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
• Identify the types of advanced reinforced concrete floor systems;
• Describe the common types of steel floors;
• Describe the design considerations of various types of stairs;
• Describe the design considerations and constructions of ramps for
car, pedestrian, and handicap access; and
• Describe the common types of roof systems.
1.1 Reinforced Concrete Floors

• Main function – To withstand loads that will be imposed

upon them.
• Main floor materials include reinforced concrete, timber,
steel etc.
• Reinforced concrete floors can be constructed in situ or
by precast elements.
• Advanced reinforced concrete floor systems i.e. solid
concrete floor, lift slab system, waffle slab vary by the
method of construction to serve their specific functions.
Discussion:
Why advanced types of reinforced concrete floors are required?
 Definition & Design of a Floor

• Definition: Surface of a room on which one stands.

• The terms of floor and slab sometimes are used
interchangeably.
• Used to support dead load including the selfweight of
floor and their finishes, and the anticipated live loads
imposed by the occupants and other movable furniture
and equipments.
Discussion:
What are the main design codes for reinforced concrete floors
adopted in Malaysia?
 Definition & Design of a Floor
(Cont’)

• One-way slabs (Ly/Lx > 2) - designed to transfer their

loads to only two opposite support beams / walls. The
reinforcements provided will be along the longer
direction.
• Two-way slabs (Ly/Lx ≤ 2) are designed to transfer their
loads to all the four support beams / walls. The
reinforcements will be placed along both the
longitudinal and transverse axes.
Definition & Design of a Floor
(Cont’)

(a) One-way slab (b) Two-way slab

Ly

Lx
Ly
Lx
 Solid Concrete Floor

• Cast in-situ / precast slabs supported directly by

columns without the use of beams.

Floor
Floor
Beam Column
Column

(a) Normal floor system (b) Flat slab system

Discussion:
Differentiate the construction procedures of cast in-situ & precast slabs.
 Solid Concrete Floor (Cont’)

• Solid concrete floor with flared head – flat slab floor

• Solid concrete floor without flared head – plate floor

(a) Plate floor (b) Flat slab floor

Discussion:
What are the functions of flared head?
 Solid Concrete Floor (Cont’)

• Advantages of solid concrete floors:

– One of the quickest methods available
– Reduction in selfweight of the structure
– More flexibility in room layout
– Saving in building height
– Can also be used as an exposed flat ceiling which could
eventually save the cost of cladding and plaster finishes.
 Lift-Slab System

• Used for office buildings, apartments, parking garages,

hotels or other structures that characterized by
repetitive framing from floor to floor.
• Casting of floor slabs at the ground level or lower floor
and jacking them up to their designated levels.
 Lift-Slab System (Cont’)

• To lift the slabs, a special lifting collars or shearheads

are provided in the slabs at the positions of columns.
• After the slabs have cured long enough to reach a
prescribed strength, powerful hydraulic jacks mounted
on top of the columns lift the slabs into their respective
positions.
 Lift-Slab System (Cont’)

• Another new lift-slab system has evolved in which

concrete bearing walls are lifted simultaneously with the
slabs.
 Lift-Slab System (Cont’)

• Advantage of lift-slab system:

– Elimination of most formwork
– Reduced cost of handling and hoisting of materials and
supplies

Web Reference:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwAZ9e1aV-o
 Waffle Slab

• Used in airports, parking garages, commercial and

industrial buildings, bridges, residences and other
structures requiring large column-free spaces.
• Monolithic-poured concrete slab with a flat top surface
and an under-surface made of a rectangular grid of
deep concrete beams running at right angles.
• The floor area between the grid beams is a thin flooring
section.
• However, the construction of this slab requires complex
formwork, making it a less favourable choice.
Waffle Slab (Cont’)

Typical waffle slab Lightweight waffle slab

 Waffle Slab (Cont’)

• Advantages of waffle slab:

– Allow long span
– Capable of carrying heavy loads without causing large
deflection
– Excellent vibration control which can be an important factor for
laboratory or hospital
– Attractive exposed ceiling.

Reading:
http://www.concretecentre.com/technical_information/building_solutio
ns/frame_elements/slabs.aspx
1.2 Steel Floors

• The use of steel as a construction material is highly

promoted in view of its recyclable feature.
• Steel sheeting normally works in conjunction with
concrete to form a stable composite floor system.
• As concrete is weak in tension, the steel can provide
the required tensile reinforcement for the concrete. In
return, the concrete provides the required stiffness and
stability to the steel sheeting to resist buckling.
 Steel Deck Floor

• A composite floor slab that formed by steel profiled

sheeting / decking with a concrete topping.
• The steel profiled sheeting acts as permanent
shuttering and tensile reinforcement for the concrete
topping to form a strong composite panel.
 Steel Deck Floor (Cont’)

• Advantages of steel deck floor:

– Thinner and lighter than most of the concrete floors of
equivalent strength
– Easy to be installed, and can provide a stable working platform
instantly. These features have significantly reduced the
construction time.

Reading:
http://www.rapidsteeldecking.co.uk/
 Slimfloor

• An innovative type of composite slab developed

between the 1980’s and 1990’s.
• The system combines prefabricated concrete slabs with
steel beams to form a strong composite structure.

Steel beam

Prefabricated
concrete slab
 Slimfloor (Cont’)

• Slabs are supported by beams encased in floor depth

• Steel beam has a lower flange wider than its upper
flange to fit the floor slabs directly onto the lower flange
of the beam.
• Advantages of slimfloor:
– Reduce total floor construction depth
– Allowing for elimination of secondary beams
– Fast and easy construction.
Reading:
http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/design_guidance/structural_d
esign/fire/partially_exposed_steelwork/slim_floor_beams/
1.3 Stairs

• Stairs or stairways are the name given to a series of

steps rising between floors as one or more straight
flights of steps.
• They are used to access between floors in a building.
• Stairs must also be designed to pose sufficient strength
and stability, ease of use and movement for the users,
adequate fire resistance, safety in use, and aesthetics.
 Components of Stairs

• Flight
• Thread
• Riser
• Landing
• Pitch
• Newel Post
• Stringer
• Spindles
• Handrail
• Headroom
 Components of Stairs (Cont’)

• Some of the design parameters adopted for domestic

properties:
– Minimum tread length = 220 mm
– Maximum rise = 220mm
– Maximum pitch angle = 42o
– Slope: 0.59
– Minimum headroom = 2m
– For a stairway width < 1m, 1 handrail should be provided
– For a stairway width > 1m, two handrails are required
– Maximum number of risers in a flight = 16
– Height of the handrail: 900 - 1000 mm
Types of Stairs

Reading:
http://www.buil
Straight flight stair Quarter turn stair d-home-
building-
house.com/stai
r_types.html

Half turn stair Geometrical stair

 Reinforced Concrete Stairs

• Commonly used because of their high degree of fire

resistance and ease of construction.
• The reinforcement design of the reinforced concrete
stair is similar to that of reinforced concrete slab.
 Reinforced Concrete Stairs
(Cont’)

• Common types: span between landing type, cranked

slab type, string and trimmer type, and cantilevered
from a central spine type.
• The selection of the type of reinforced concrete stairs,
in turn, depends on the structural form of the building
and the convenience in casting the stair.
 Timber Stairs

• Used where the need for fire resistance does not

dictate the use of concrete.
• They are constructed by putting together the timber
boards the same way as box or case.
1.4 Ramps

• Used for the passage of vehicles or pedestrians.

• Also essential for access by disabled persons, and
trolleys in commercial buildings.
 Car Ramps

• Used for the access of vehicles to the underground or

upperfloor car parks.
• They should have a slope of about 1V:10H.
• For safety reason, slip resistant surface should be
provided to all car ramps to give a good hold for tyres.
• For the one-way traffic, a minimum width of 3.65 m is
required, while 7.30 m is required for the two-way
traffic.
Discussion:
How the slip resistant surface is constructed?
 Pedestrian Ramps

• Pedestrian ramps could probably provide a safer

means of pedestrian movement than the stairs because
the ramps do not require accurate placing of the foot.
• A 2m long ramp should have a maximum gradient of
1V:12H, while a ramp with 10 m in length is limited to a
maximum gradient of 1V:20H.
• Disadvantages: Occupy great area of room due to its
allowable maximum gradient.
• The minimum width of a ramp should be the same as
that for stairs.
 Handicap Access

• The width of handicap access should not be less than

1200 mm, and there should be a kerb at least 100 mm
high on any open side.
• A landing at least equal in width and length to the width
of the ramp should always be placed at a change of
direction in the ramp.
• Each flight of ramp should not be longer than 10 m with
horizontal landings of 1.5 m long between each flight.
• Handrails between 900 and 1000 mm in height are
required on ramps rising more than 600 mm.
 Handicap Access (Cont’)

• Curb ramp is another type of handicap access that can

be normally seen along sidewalk.
• It is a landing that allows disabled persons to move
completely off the and onto the sidewalk.

Flare sides
 Handicap Access (Cont’)

• The change of slope gradient of sidewalk should not

exceed 13%.

Reading:
http://www.rcrv.org/WRAP/rampguidelines.pdf
1.5 Roofs

• Provides protection from the weather and has a

significant role to play in building insulation.
• Typically, roofs are supported by purlins and steel /
timber truss.
• The structure of the roof systems should have the basic
requirements of strong, durable and resist to water
leakage over a long service life.
• In modern building design, the aesthetic value of roof is
also an important requirement.
 Pitched Roofs

• One or more roof surfaces is pitched for more than 10o.

• The slope serves the function of excluding or
redirecting rain.
• Most of the pitched roofs are constructed with
symmetrical geometry of equal slopes pitched to a
central ridge.
 Pitched Roofs (Cont’)

• 2 basic methods of pitched roof construction:

‘Cut roof’ ‘Truss roof’

Reading:
http://www.ultimatehandyman.co.uk/roofing/build-pitch-roof.htm
 Pitched Roofs (Cont’)

• Advantages of pitched roof system:

– Rapid construction.
– No weather covering and water proofing treatment required.
– Less issue with drainage of rainwater.
– Can be used for long span industrial sheds.
– More economical than flat roof in case of industrial shed.
• Disadvantages of pitched roof system:
– Not durable.
– Cannot be used for upper floor.
– Rusting problem may arise.
– False ceiling is required for thermal comfort.
 Flat Roofs

• Have a slope of 1 – 5o.

• Act much in the same way as a slab to support load,
but differ from slabs with respect to their top finish
called as ‘terracing’, which is used to protect roof from
adverse effects of rain and heat.
• Tend to become unstable as their size increases and
will turn out to be more expensive than pitched roofs.
• Have a characteristic of modern design.
Reading:
http://www.flatroofs.org/
 Flat Roofs (Cont’)

• Advantages of flat roof system:

– Comparatively safer than other types of roofs.
– Simpler construction
– Provide better light, ventilation and architectural appearance.
– More economical than pitched roof for normal residential
buildings
– Pose modern building design characteristic
• Disadvantages of flat roof system:
– Not suitable where rainfall is heavy.
– Require heavy maintenance to prevent leaking.
– Can be more expensive than pitched roof for large commercial
buildings.
Thank you