Fluvial Design Guide

Fluvial Design Guide
R&D Technical Report W109 (W5-027 Version 11/01)
Binnie Black & Veatch

Grosvenor House
69 London Read
Redhill
Surrey
RH1 1LQ
Publishing Or ganisation
Environment Agency
Rio House
Waterside Drive
Aztec West
Almondsbury
Bristol BS32 4UD
Tel: 01454 624400 Fax: 01454 624409

ISBN: 1 85705 7082
© Environment Agency November 2001
All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Environment Agency.
The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the Environment Agency. Its officers,
servants or agents accept not liability whatsoever for any loss or damage arising from the interpretation or
use of the information, or reliance upon the views contained herein.
Dissemination status
Internal: Released to Regions
External: Released to Public Domain
Statement of use
The report is provided for consultants and Agency officers preparing engineering designs for fluvial flood
defence works. The document directs those undertaking design work to appropriate references to be
consulted when considering design of any part of a fluvial defence scheme.
Resear ch Contr actor
This document was produced under R&D Project W5-027 by:
Grosvenor House
69 London Read
Redhill
Surrey
RH1 1LQ
Tel : 01737 774155 Fax : 01737 772767
Envir onment Agency Pr oject Manager
The Environment Agency’s Project Manager for R&D Project W5-027 was:
Mark Hagger, North West Region
R&D TECHNICAL REPORT W109 W5-027 Version 11/01

CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
KEYWORDS 1
PART 1 BASIC TECHNIQUES 3
Chapter 1 RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY 5

1.1 SCOPE OF THE CHAPTER 5
1.2 RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY 5
1.3 RIVER CATCHMENTS 5
1.4 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY 5
1.5 RIVER CHANNEL CLASSIFICATION 6
1.6 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND RIVER ENGINEERING 6
1.7 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND RIVER ECOLOGY 6
1.8 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND RIVER RESTORATION 6
1.9 EMERGING PRACTICE IN THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY 7
1.10 REFERENCES 9
Chapter 2 RIVER FLOW PREDICTION 11
2.2 ESTIMATION OF MEAN FLOW 11
2.3 FLOOD ESTIMATION 11
2.4 REFERENCES 17
Chapter 3 RIVER HYDRAULICS 19
3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS 19
3.3 HYDRAULICS OF RIVERS AND CHANNELS 21
3.4 HYDRAULICS OF RIVER STRUCTURES 22
3.5 HYDRAULICS OF OTHER FEATURES 22
3.6 REFERENCES 23
Chapter 4 TIDE AND SURGE LEVEL PREDICTIONS 25
4.2 BASIC CONCEPTS 25
4.3 WATER LEVEL PREDICTIONS 25
4.4 JOINT PROBABILITY (TIDAL LEVEL AND FLUVIAL FLOW) 27
4.5 REFERENCES 28
Chapter 5 DATA COLLECTION 31
5.2 OVERALL APPROACH 31
5.3 DATA SOURCES 31
5.4 DATA MANAGEMENT 32
5.5 TOPOGRAPHIC AND BATHYMETRIC SURVEYS 32
5.6 FLOW AND WATER LEVEL SURVEYS 32
5.7 WATER QUALITY DATA 33
5.8 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENT DATA 33
5.9 ASSET CONDITION SURVEYS 33
5.10 ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE INVESTIGATIONS 33
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5.11 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS 33
5.12 REFERENCES 34
Chapter 6 FLUVIAL MODELLING 35
6.2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND COMMON CONCERNS 35
6.3 HYDROLOGIC MODELLING 35
6.4 RIVER SYSTEM MODELLING 36
6.5 ESTUARINE SYSTEM MODELLING 36
6.6 MANAGEMENT OF MODELLING 37
6.7 PHYSICAL MODELLING 37
6.8 REFERENCES 38
PART 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 39
Chapter 7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 41

7.2 DESIGN PROCESS 41
7.3 HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 42
7.4 RISK ASSESSMENT 42
7.5 EXPERT ADVICE 42
7.6 REFERENCES 43
Chapter 8 CHANNEL MODIFICATIONS 45
8.3 REFERENCES 47
Chapter 9 FLOOD STORAGE ARRANGEMENTS 49
9.2 OPERATION 49
9.3 ON-LINE STORAGE WORKS 49
9.4 OFF-LINE STORAGE WORKS 49
9.5 KEY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 50
9.6 REFERENCES 52
Chapter 10 FLOOD WALLS AND EMBANKMENTS 53
10.3 PARTICULAR DESIGN ISSUES AFFECTING STRUCTURES 54
10.4 REFERENCES 56
Chapter 11 RIVER & CANAL STRUCTURES (CIVIL ASPECTS) 59
11.3 TYPES OF STRUCTURE 60
11.4 REFERENCES 62
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Chapter 12 RIVER & CANAL STRUCTURES (M&E ASPECTS) 63
12.1 SCOPE OF CHAPTER 63
12.2 POWER SUPPLIES 63
12.3 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 63
12.4 TYPES OF INSTALLATION 63
12.5 REFERENCES 66
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R&D TECHNICAL REPORT W109 W5-027 iv Version 11/01
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY design is followed, in which specific design
This Environment Agency Research and criteria are established, often using a probabilistic
Development document provides access to the approach (to determine flood levels, for
information needed to design river works example), following which the works are
procured by the Agency. It is aimed at those designed deterministically to satisfy these
involved in managing design projects as well as criteria. It is recognised that other approaches are
those undertaking the design and is therefore possible (using a fully probabilistic approach, for
intended for use by both Agency and consulting example), but they are not covered here. Expert
engineers. Its use, however, does not diminish assistance should be obtained if such approaches
the designer’s responsibility to ensure any are proposed.
information utilised is both correct and approp-
The philosophy of the Guide is not to give
riate for the conditions to which the works are
detailed information about each topic, but to
subjected.
identify the important issues and to provide a list
The Guide is intended to cover only the process of references from which the information can be
of design, not the full process involved in obtained. Each chapter is in three parts: a brief
procuring works, which includes project commentary on the topics covered, a list of
identification, appraisal and implementation. references and a table which cross-refers the
This process is set out in the Agency’s references to the topics. The references include
procedures, details of which are given in the list textbooks, R&D reports produced by the Agency
of references appended to Chapter 8. It is and others, and individual papers.
important to note that many of the documents
The reference lists are intended to be
produced in satisfying these procedures,
comprehensive, but are not necessarily
particularly the Project Appraisal and the
exhaustive. As a result, designers should not feel
Environmental Assessment documents, will
constrained to use only those references listed; if
contain much of the information needed during
they wish to use others with which they are
the design process. It is essential, therefore, that
already familiar, they are free to do so.
these documents and any supporting information
Furthermore, they should not be put off if their
should be made available to the designer before
favoured texts are not included. The original lists
design work starts.
were finalised in November 1997 and are being
It is also important that the designer should be updated annually. The Guide will be reviewed
aware of any other issues which may affect the five years after publication in 2003 and feedback
function or operation of the works being from regular users will be sought at that time.
designed. These issues include the Agency’s
Finally, those using the Guide and the references
general policies on matters such as access,
it contains are reminded that this use does not
sustainability, environmental sensitivity and
remove from them their responsibility to check
enhancement. Local matters, such as public
that the designs they produce are effective, safe
feeling about the work, the risk of vandalism,
and appropriate.
security requirements, operating procedures and
maintenance procedures, particularly frequency KEY WORDS
of maintenance and plant used, also need to be
Channels, channel classification, channel
borne in mind. Some, but not all, of these items
modifications, control structures, fish passes,
will be contained in the Project Appraisal or
flood embankments, flood storage, flood walls,
Environmental Assessment documents.
flow prediction, fluvial modelling, gates,
Following this introduction, the Guide is divided geomorphology, hydraulics, pumping plant, river
into two parts. The first of these, covering restoration, river engineering, sediment
Chapters 1 to 6, describes the basic techniques movement, sea level rise, tides, tidal surges,
used to identify and define a problem. The telemetry, trash screens.
second, covering Chapters 7 to 12, addresses the
matters to be considered when designing
particular types of river works. It is assumed
throughout that a conventional approach to
R&D TECHNICAL REPORT W109 W5-027 1 Version 11/01
PART 1 BASIC TECHNIQUES

1. RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY
1.1 Scope of the chapter 1.4 Geomor phology and the

This chapter sets out the role that geomorphology Envir onment Agency
plays in the design of fluvial works for the The Environment Agency and its predecessor,
Environment Agency. the NRA, have invested substantially in
geomorphological research and development
1.2 River geomor phology
(R&D). Much of this is available in R&D
River geomorphology is the study of sediment Reports and R&D Notes, although specific
sources, fluxes and storage within a river project examples are frequently only available
catchment and of their effect on floodplain and from individual offices. Geomorphology has
channel forms (morphology) over short, medium been used to some extent in all Agency regions,
and long time-scales. The phrase is also used largely in association with river maintenance,
colloquially to describe the development of a capital and restoration works. Although in-house
river system under the influence of these natural expertise exists, this is comparatively rare, and in
processes. most cases expert advice must be sought from
Geomorphology is a specialist subject and one outside the Agency. Some in-house expertise
that is increasingly required as a component of remains necessary in order to engage and manage
fluvial design projects. It is most useful during consultants effectively.
the scoping and feasibility stages to: The advantages of applying geomorphology
include:
· determine whether a project is morph-
ologically sustainable; · water management – identifying how to work
with natural river processes, rather than
· ensure that the resulting morphology and
against them, wherever possible;
substrate are appropriate for the river type;
and · sediment management – establishing cause
and effect in river erosion and sedimentation
· predict project impacts, with the aim of
problems;
avoiding the need for additional works after
the scheme is built. · ecology and conservation – providing the
practical and technical guidance relevant to
1.3 River catchments
the Agency’s duties to further conservation
River catchments are the fundamental unit of a of natural beauty and physiographic features
river’s water and sediment transport system. when exercising its powers, and to consider
River management therefore requires an under- the effects of works on the river landscape;
standing of the physical nature of the catchment.
· flood defence – producing schemes which
Broadly, a river catchment may be divided into are secure, do not require excessive main-
areas relating to the supply (from valley slopes), tenance and avoid unnecessary disruption to
transport (via the river system) and storage (in natural river processes and habitats;
the valley floor) of sediments. River channels and
their sensitivity to environmental (or other) · fisheries – designing enhancement and res-
changes depend on this functional division. The toration schemes which provide the habitat
way in which water and sediment are supplied to diversity needed to support a range of fish
the river channel can be strongly affected by land populations;
cover and land management. Appreciation of this · recreation – improving river channel, riparian
link between the land within a catchment and the corridor and floodplain aesthetics and attract-
river network is an important starting point in the iveness for a wide range of recreational
planning of river projects. purposes;

· navigation – ensuring that the Environment A recent review of flood defence works and river
Agency’s navigation duties and maintenance maintenance practice revealed that in most cases
programmes are performed with due regard little allowance for sediment movement is made.
to landscape, nature and conservation; and As a result, the river maintenance undertaken
often treats the symptoms of a problem (erosion
· water quality – identifying sources of fine or deposition) rather than its cause (channel
sediment causing troublesome turbidity instability). Geomorphological advice can assist
and/or sediment deposition. in establishing this cause; detailed procedures for
1.5 River channel classification assessing bank erosion, sedimentation and
general instability are now available and are
Two important river classifications exist in the discussed below.
UK for the assessment of the conservation value
of a river reach: 1.7 Geomor phology and r iver
ecology
· the Environment Agency’s ‘River Habitat
Survey’; and The physical habitats found in a river channel are
largely determined by the form of the river
· the Scottish Natural Heritage ‘SERCON’
(planform, cross-section form, long-profile) and
(System for Evaluating Rivers for
its substrate. Habitats are influenced by the rate
Conservation).
at which this form and substrate change, as the
Of the two, the river habitat survey has been resulting erosion and deposition dislodge
established to allow the calculation of a ‘Habitat vegetation and benthic organisms and encourage
Quality Index’ for the national evaluation of river recolonisation. A degree of channel mobility is
habitat, based on the presence or absence of therefore integral to the preservation of habitat
ecological and geomorphological features for a diversity. The type and amount of mobility varies
particular channel ‘type’. The SERCON depending on the type of river. River habitat and
approach uses map-based data for longer river corridor surveys can provide a first
‘segments’ of the river network, and a set of rules approximation of river types, but information on
to establish ‘conservation values’ for a segment. channel mobility should be obtained from a
Problems occur with all such classifications, qualified geomorphologist. Geomorphology
which essentially ‘smooth out’ the uniqueness of provides functional reasons for the creation
each river reach. Such classifications should and/or preservation of physical habitats and can
therefore only be used to assess the potential predict the morphological impacts of their
management options for a given reach or segment removal and/or creation.
(e.g. restoration or conservation) with the
understanding that no works should be 1.8 Geomor phology and r iver
undertaken without more detailed study. r estor ation
1.6 Geomor phology and r iver Geomorphology has a significant role to play in
the design of river enhancement, rehabilitation
engineer ing
and restoration schemes. The nature of this
The nature of a river channel has a major impact involvement is fourfold:
on river engineering practice. A steep upland
· establishment of the degree of physical
gravel-bed river, for example, is very mobile
habitat degradation - what should be present
during floods, with large volumes of sediment
and what is missing (catchment baseline
being moved during such (relatively rare) events
survey);
causing major changes to the channel morph-
ology. Lowland fine-sediment rivers, on the other · establishment of what channel morphology
hand, are not so violent and so generally adjust and substrate is appropriate under current
progressively rather than intermittently. water and sediment transport regimes,
Engineering practice reflects these differences, including the use of historic sources to
both in terms of the strengths of the materials determine the channel response to extreme
used for river works and in the timing of river events (fluvial audit);
maintenance measures.
· design of appropriate channel morphology · provide the first stage in planning reach
(see Chapter 3); and rehabilitation or restoration.
· post-project appraisal. Its basis lies in understanding the sediment
budget of a reach in the context of the river
Restoration of physical habitat diversity does not
catchment and thus focuses on the sources,
guarantee biological diversity, as poor water
transport and deposition of sediments. A fluvial
quality may impair biological recovery, despite
audit is a stand-alone procedure that uses a
apparent physical naturalness. Physical habitat
combination of field and archive data. Three
restoration should not be undertaken without
products are produced:
prior assessment of the cause of environmental
degradation. · a time chart of catchment and river channel
changes that may have affected the geo-
1.9 Emer ging pr actice in the morphology of the system;
Envir onment Agency
· a catchment map which indicates the location
Standard procedures on geomorphology have of those features important to the
now emerged from the Agency R&D programme. development of the river channel; and
A comprehensive guidance document was
published in 1997, which includes example · a detailed map of the reach.
briefs for the four procedures mentioned above These are then used to identify and assess the
and outlined further below (reference 10). A processes that have led to the current status of the
standard Agency training course should also be reach in question, and to develop
available. Further advice can be obtained from geomorphologically based solutions to the project
the Agency headquarters at Bristol. requirements. Cost is dependent on the level of
1.9.1 Catchment baseline sur veys information required and can range from 0.1 to
10% of the project cost.
A catchment baseline survey is a strategic tool for
assessing the geomorphology of river channels 1.9.3 Bank er osion assessment
throughout a river network. Existence of a The central tenet for appropriate river bank
catchment baseline survey provides information management is to identify the cause and probable
on the restoration potential and physiographic rate of bank erosion. The procedure focuses on
conservation value of rivers affected by identifying erosion processes, the mechanism of
development proposals, and therefore allows failure and the processes responsible for weaken-
rapid and consistent response to such requests for ing the bank, so leading to failure. Erosion may
information. Estimated costs are £110 per km for only be a temporary adjustment, or may be
a survey plus report. The survey data takes the occurring at such a low rate as not to require
form of a series of 1:10 000 scale maps of the intervention. Increasingly, it is recognised that
river network with reaches classified according to eroding banks have important conservation value,
their susceptibility to degradation from human providing habitat and landscape quality.
activity, restoration potential and conservation
value. The second principle of appropriate bank
management is to gauge whether retreat can be
1.9.2 Fluvial auditing allowed to continue, or should be treated. Carried
A geomorphological assessment of channel out in conjunction with a fluvial audit, bank
stability and sediment sources, termed a ‘fluvial erosion assessments provide solutions that tailor
audit’, is critical when assessing the cause of an management to the cause of the problem and can
erosion or siltation problem. The technique is be used to provide guidance on appropriate
used to: mitigation techniques. The reconnaissance
method for addressing river bank management
· assess the causes of a perceived management issues comprises a series of guidance sheets for
problem prior to proposed capital, main- compiling field evidence.
tenance or conservation work; and

1.9.4 Post-pr oject appr aisal work is under review and a publication
summarising all the work to date is due out early
Post-project appraisals (PPA) are an integral part
2002.
of the environmental assessment process, and
without them it is difficult to improve future
operations. Specifically PPA can contribute to
project regulation, facilitate impact management
and aid development of practice.
Geomorphological PPAs can be envisaged as a
combination of:
· a ‘compliance audit’ - checking the degree to
which the existing project and its design
were compatible; and
· a ‘performance audit’ - to what extent the
aims of the project have been met in terms of
channel stability, erosion, deposition;
from which an evaluation of the project can be
made on two grounds:
· whether the geomorphological performance
of the scheme was met at the design and
implementation phase; and
· whether there have been subsequent adjust-
ments that invalidate the project and require
remediation.
1.9.5 Collection and ar chiving of
geomor phological data
For each project, it is essential that consideration
is given to the collection and archiving of
geomorphological data. Information on erosion
control, gravel trap maintenance and the
subsequent removal of sediments should be
considered as part of the maintenance
procedures. Similarly, much can be achieved by
monitoring key cross sections, or by repeat
photography.
1.9.6 Accessing R&D r epor ts
Much of the guidance on applied geomorphology
is contained within internal EA reports. Contacts
for these include The Centre for Options
Appraisal and Risk Assessment, Steel House,
London (Dr Andrew Brookes), and The National
R&D offices located at EA Head Office, Bristol.
Further guidance on the value of River Habitat
Survey in geomorphological survey and river
channel assessment, may be found by contacting
the RHS Lead Region based at Richard
Fairclough House, Warrington, Cheshire. At the
time of writing, much of the National EA R&D
1.10 Refer ences Environment Agency Survey Report Nº 1
(Bristol) 40pp
Topic Refer ences
River morphology 9, 10, 17, 19, 20 9. Environment Agency (1997)
River classification 8, 10, 12, 19 Geomorphological approaches to river
management Environment Agency Project
River engineering
2, 5, 9, 10, 17, 18, 21 Record 661, Bristol, 125pp
and geomorphology
3, 4, 10, 11, 13, 14, 10. Environment Agency (1997)
River restoration Geomorphology; a practical guide
15, 16, 20, 19
Scoping and Environment Agency, Bristol
feasibility using 1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 21, 22 11. Hydraulics Research (1992) Morphological
geomorphology effects of river improvement works:
Designing using Recommended procedures HR Report
4, 15, 16, 19
geomorphology SR300, HR Wallingford; UK, 132pp
12. Kondolf, G M (1995) Geomorphological
1. Brookes, A & Long, H J (1990) Stort stream classification in aquatic habitat
catchment morphological survey: Appraisal restoration: Uses and limitations Aquatic
report and watercourse summaries National Conservation, Marine & Freshwater
Rivers Authority, Thames Region Ecosystems, Vol 15, pp127–141
2. Brookes, A (1988) Channelised rivers: 13. Kondolf, G M & Michelli, E R (1995)
perspectives for environmental management Evaluating stream restoration projects
J Wiley & Sons Ltd; Chichester Environmental Management Vol 19, pp1–15
3. Brookes, A & Shields, F D (Eds) (1996) 14. Kondolf, G M & Downs, P D (1996)
River restoration: Guiding principles for Catchment approaches to channel
sustainable projects J. Wiley & Sons Ltd; restoration in Brookes, A & Shields, F D
Chichester (Eds) River channel restoration J Wiley &
4. Brookes, A & Sear, D A (1996) Sons; Chichester pp129-148
Geomorphological principles for restoring 15. National Rivers Authority (1993) River
channels in Brookes, A & Shields, F D (Eds) engineering works in gravel bed rivers
River restoration: Guiding principles for National Rivers Authority R&D Project
sustainable projects J Wiley & Sons Ltd, 387/1
pp75-101
16. National Rivers Authority (1994)
5. Department of the Environment (1995) The Development of geomorphological guidance
investigation and management of erosion, notes for use by Thames Region staff
deposition and flooding in Great Britain prepared by the GeoData Institute for the
HMSO, London National Rivers Authority, Reading
6. Downs, P W, Skinner, K S and Brookes, A 17. Newson, M D and Sear, D A (1998)
(1997) Developing Geomorphic Post Project Sediment and gravel transportation in rivers;
Appraisals for Environmentally-Aligned a geomorphological approach to river
River Channel Management. In: Water for a maintenance, National Rivers Authority
Changing Global Community, IAHR XXVII Report 384, for the National Rivers
Congress, New York, ASCE, pp430–435 Authority; Bristol, 44pp
7. Downs, P W & Thorne, C R (1996) The 18. Sear, D A & Newson, M D (1994) Sediment
Utility and Justification of River and gravel transportation in rivers: a
Reconnaissance Surveys. Transactions of the geomorphological approach to river
Institute of British Geographers, Vol 21, 3, maintenance: Policy and implementation
pp455-468 recommendations, National Rivers Authority
8. Environment Agency (1996) River habitats R&D Note 315, National Rivers Authority,
in England & Wales: A national overview, Bristol, 28pp

19. Sear, D A (1996) The sediment system and
channel stability in Brookes, A & Shields, F
D (Eds) River restoration: Guiding
principles for sustainable projects J Wiley
& Sons Ltd; Chichester pp149-177
20. Sear, D A et al (1994) Geomorphological
approach to stream stabilization and
restoration: A case study of the Mimmshall
Brook, Hertfordshire, UK Regulated Rivers,
Vol 9, pp205–223
21. Sear, D A et al (1995) Sediment related river
maintenance: The role of fluvial
geomorphology Earth Surface Processes and
Landforms, Vol 20, pp629–649
22. Thorne, C R et al (1993) A Procedure for
assessing river bank erosion problems and
solutions National Rivers Authority, Bristol,
Report 28, prepared by National Rivers
Authority; Bristol, 34pp

2. RIVER FLOW PREDICTION
2.1 Scope of the chapter · the MORECS estimates of actual evapo-

transpiration for defined 40 ´ 40km grid
This chapter covers the main problems faced in
squares produced by the Meteorological
dealing with surface runoff. Issues to be resolved
Office (1981); and
most often concern average and flood flows
which are both considered. Problems stem from · an estimate of catchment average annual
the need to determine the magnitude and duration potential evapotranspiration (see Smith 1967
of runoff from catchments with respect to time. and MAFF 1976) and the adjustment factors
These can be resolved either by direct analysis of recommended by Gustard et al (1992).
existing records for the study catchment, by
It should be noted that the above approach deals
transposing data from gauged catchments with
only with natural losses, whereas over one-half of
similar characteristics, or from the use of
rivers in the UK now have a non-natural flow
generalised relationships derived from the
regime. When calculating the mean flow of a
analysis of records from gauged stations.
catchment by the above approach, or when
2.2 Estimation of mean flow deriving a representative series of annual runoff
values for a water resource application, it is
Mean flow is the arithmetic mean of the daily
essential that any major water supply abstractions
mean flows over a specified period. The
and/or effluent returns to or from adjacent
estimated mean flow of a study catchment
catchments are dealt with separately. Guidance
provides a measure of the available resource. By
on the topic of streamflow naturalisation can be
expressing the flow characteristics of gauged
found in ‘Flow naturalisation using hydrological
catchments as a percentage of their mean flow,
models’ (British Hydrological Society, 1994).
the values for a range of different sized
catchments in a region can be compared and 2.3 Flood estimation
transposed to ungauged catchments.
2.3.1 Gener al
For ungauged catchments, an estimate of the
mean flow can be obtained using a catchment There are several alternative ways for estimating
water balance approach. The average annual a design flood, with some having advantages
runoff depth for a catchment is given by the over others in certain circumstances. The two
difference between average annual rainfall most commonly used approaches for estimating
(SAAR) and losses. A catchment SAAR value a design flood at a particular site are:
can be obtained either from the map of average · through the direct statistical analysis of the
annual rainfall for the standard period 1941 to flood peaks recorded at a nearby gauging
1970 published by the Meteorological Office station on the same river, or by transposing
(1977) or from the Flood Estimation Handbook the results of analyses of data from more
CD-ROM (see Section 2.3.2). This CD-ROM remote sites draining areas with similar char-
holds values of SAAR for the standard periods acteristics; and
1941 to 1970 and for 1961 to 1990. An estimate
of catchment losses due to evapotranspiration can · through the use of a flood event model such
be obtained from a variety of sources including: the Flood Studies Report (FSR) unit
hydrograph rainfall-runoff approach, or by
· the losses recorded in similar gauged the use of a distributed, general runoff and
catchments, many examples of which are streamflow routing model such as RORB
published in the various editions of the (Laurenson and Mein, 1988).
Hydrometric register and statistics (IoH
1988, 1993 and 1998); The choice between these two types of approach
is often made purely on the basis of whether only
an estimate of the design flood peak is required,
or if the detailed shape of the whole design flood 2.3.3 FEH CD-ROM
hydrograph is needed.
The FEH makes use of new catchment
2.3.2 Contents of the Flood Estimation descriptors derived from digital data sets. Among
Handbook the descriptors given are drainage area, average
annual rainfall for the standard periods 1941 to
In late January 2000 the Institute of Hydrology,
1970 and 1961 to 1990, and urban extent in 1990
now renamed the Centre for Ecology and
as derived from satellite data.
Hydrology (CEH), distributed the first copies of
the Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH). The FEH Use of the CD-ROM should help to minimise
contains the results of a five-year program of errors in defining catchment characteristics,
research supported by the Ministry of Agric- which were common with the manually derived
ulture, Fisheries and Food, the Environment values obtained from Ordnance Survey maps and
Agency, the Scottish Office and the Northern the maps in Volume V of the FSR. It should be
Ireland Office. Although there are differences in noted, however, that the Institute of Hydrology
content, character and emphasis, the Flood digital terrain model (IHDTM) is based on
Estimation Handbook largely supersedes the 1:50 000 scale mapping and that, for some areas,
Flood Studies Report (NERC, 1975). the generation of IHDTM-drainage paths is
flawed. For these areas, the IHDTM may provide
The FEH, which is intended to provide clear
a catchment area that differs significantly from
guidance to those concerned with rainfall and
the area enclosed by the topographic boundary
flood estimation in the UK, consists of the
drawn manually from the pattern of contours on
following volumes:
1:25 000 scale Ordnance Survey maps. It is
· Volume 1 – Overview; therefore advisable to confirm that the topo-
graphic boundary obtained from the digital data
· Volume 2 – Rainfall frequency estimation; adequately portrays the study catchment.
· Volume 3 – Statistical procedures for flood The boundaries of small catchments (ie less than
frequency estimation; 5km2) are most prone to error, and especially so
· Volume 4 – Restatement and application of when urbanised. Fenland districts are also partic-
the FSR rainfall-runoff method; and ularly difficult areas, and in some cases detailed
local knowledge may be required to ascertain the
· Volume 5 – Catchment descriptors. direction that floodwater will drain.
Chapter 5 of Volume 1 of the FEH provides 2.3.4 Design r ainfall estimation
guidance on the various factors influencing the
choice between the statistical and rainfall-runoff Volume 2 of the FEH provides a new generalised
approaches to design flood estimation. procedure for obtaining rainfall depth-duration-
frequency estimates for mainland sites in Eng-
Use of the FEH is supported by three software land, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland plus
packages: sites in Anglesey and the Isle of Wight. The new
· The FEH CD-ROM that provides digitally procedure, which is implemented by the FEH
derived catchment descriptors for any CD-ROM, provides design rainfall estimates for
drainage area greater than 0.5km2 in main- durations of up to 8 days and for return periods
land Britain and Northern Ireland and also of up to 10 000 years. The CD-ROM can also be
implements the rainfall frequency estimation used to estimate the return period of a recorded
procedure contained in Volume 2; rainfall event.
· WINFAP-FEH which facilitates the applic- Overall, the new procedure represents an advance
ation of the statistical procedures of Volume on the corresponding rainfall estimation methods
3; and provided by the 1975 Flood Studies Report;
partly due to the improved data analysis and
· The Micro-FSR package designed for the mapping techniques employed and partly due to
Flood Studies Report (FSR) unit hydrograph the larger database of rainfall records now
rainfall-runoff method. available. The FEH rainfall frequency estimates

show greater local variations, with increased data series for the 1000 stations listed have a
depths in parts of southeast England, the east typical end date of 1993/94 and the peaks-over-
midlands and western upland areas. Figures 11.7 threshold series have a typical end date in the
and 11.8 of Volume 2 of the FEH are maps that 1980s. Where possible, data series should be
show the ratio of FEH to FSR 100-year rainfall extended/updated before use. It is also important
estimates for durations of 1 hour and 1 day. to check locally for additional gauged catchments
not in the FEH flood data sets.
It should be noted, however, that the FEH depth-
duration-frequency model was fitted jointly: Unreliable flood estimates are likely to result:
· to selected durations between 1 hour and 8 · if incorrect flood peak data are used, possibly
days, and due to an inappropriate flood rating curve for
the gauging station;
· to return periods between 2 and 1000 years.
· if there are significant differences between
Outside these limits the rainfall estimates
the characteristics of the gauged and study
provided by the FEH CD-ROM should be used
catchments; or
with caution, as they may prove to be less
reliable. For example, the 10 000-year rainfall · if the return period of the design event is
estimates provided by the CD-ROM, for many more than twice the length of record
areas of England and Wales, are larger than the analysed.
corresponding Probable Maximum Precipitation
The statistical approach recommended by the
estimates contained in the Flood Studies Report
FEH is to construct the flood frequency curve as
(Babtie, 2000).
the product of the index flood QMED (ie the flood
2.3.5 Statistical methods with a return period of 2 years) and the flood
growth curve.
A statistical approach is usually employed where
only an estimate of the design flood peak is The choice of method for estimating QMED
required. For sites close to a gauging station with depends on the length of gauged record available.
a long-term record it has long been common If there are more than 13 years of record the FEH
practice to base the design flood estimate on the recommends that QMED is computed directly from
results of a flood frequency curve derived from the recorded annual maximum flood peaks. For
an analysis of the recorded annual maximum shorter records QMED should be computed from
flood peaks. A number of PC-based software peaks-over-threshold data.
packages are available to perform a frequency If only a few years of data are available, the
analysis using annual maximum flood flows, estimate of QMED should be adjusted for climatic
including WINFAP marketed by the Institute of variability, which can result in some periods
Hydrology. being particularly flood-prone, by correlation
Chapter 15 of Volume 3 of the FEH provides up with comparable catchments in the general area
to date guidance on the choice of statistical with longer term records.
distribution and fitting procedure. Estimates of QMED can also be made by
The flood frequency estimates obtained from the transposing data from hydrologically similar
analysis of the gauging station record can be gauged catchments, referred to as ‘donor’ or
transposed to the site of interest by scaling the ‘analogue’ catchments, depending on their geo-
flood estimates by the ratio of the respective graphical proximity to the site of interest.
catchment areas. For those sites for which no local flood peak data
The flood peak data sets used in the research for are available, QMED may be calculated from
the FEH Volume 3 are included on the flood data regression equations that use values of catchment
CD-ROM and are also supplied with WINFAP- descriptors provided by the FEH CD-ROM. The
FEH. The FEH CD-ROM displays the sites of equations recommended by the FEH for a wholly
the gauges to help with the location of potential rural catchment are listed in Section 3.3 of
donor catchments. These data sets provide a very Volume 3. For partly urbanised catchments, the
convenient data source, but the annual maximum rural value of QMED needs to be adjusted using
the equations set out in Section 9.2.3 of Volume · determine the catchment response to
3. It should be noted that these calculations, effective rainfall (NB the unit hydrograph
which can be carried out automatically within shape is dictated by the time-to-peak); and
WINFAP-FEH, provide estimates for QMED that
tend to be less reliable than those based on local · calculate the quantity of flow in the river
flood data. prior to the event (baseflow).
To derive flood estimates for return periods other Volume 4 of the FEH provides a comprehensive
than 2 years, it is necessary to construct a flood technical rewrite of the FSR unit hydrograph
growth curve. In FSR methodology, there were rainfall-runoff method incorporating the
fixed flood growth curves for specified Hydro- numerous enhancements contained in 18 Flood
metric Areas. The FEH advocates a more flexible Studies Supplementary Reports and other
approach whereby a flood growth curve is relevant research published in the Institute of
tailored to the site of interest, based on an Hydrology (IH) Report series, various technical
analysis of the pooled annual maximum data for journals and conference proceedings. Whilst the
hydrologically similar gauged catchments. Catch- basic unit hydrograph rainfall-runoff method-
ment similarity is initially judged in terms of size, ology is not greatly altered from these earlier
wetness and soils as represented by the publications, some of the model parameter
descriptors AREA, SAAR and BFIHOST. estimation equations have been updated in the
FEH. Tables B.1 to B.3 of Volume 4 of the FEH
Routines within WINFAP-FEH can provide an summarise the various changes to the model
initial pooling group of gauged catchments parameter estimation equations and provide the
whose annual maximum flood data can be details for the equations currently recommended.
analysed to provide a growth curve for the site of
interest. Some stations may need to be deleted
from this initial pooling group if it is strongly
heterogeneous, while other stations may need to
be added to ensure that there are sufficient years
of record to adequately define the growth curve
up to the target return period.
For partly urbanised catchments, the as-rural
growth curve needs to be adjusted for
urbanisation using the equation given in Section
9.2.4 of Volume 3. This adjustment is carried out
automatically within WINFAP-FEH.
2.3.6 Rainfall-r unoff methods
If the complete design flood hydrograph is
required for a study catchment, then this is most
often calculated using the FSR rainfall-runoff
model. The figure opposite illustrates the main
steps in the FSR unit hydrograph rainfall-runoff
method. In summary, a design storm rainfall
profile is converted to a flood hydrograph using
a deterministic unit hydrograph and losses model.
The main steps in the approach are:
· construct a total rainfall hyetograph for the
design event;
· assess the proportion of rainfall which
contributes directly to the flow in the river
(constant percentage runoff);

data should be used to provide more reliable
estimates for the time-to-peak of the instant-
aneous catchment unit hydrograph and for the
parameter SPR. Appendix A of Volume 4 of the
FEH which lists the UK Flood Event Archive
(Houghton-Carr & Boorman, 1991) is an excel-
lent source of these data for over 200 stations
listed.
2.3.7 Other consider ations
Different sites within a river basin will be
sensitive to different flood events. It is
impractical, therefore, to construct a design event
that will yield a flood of fixed rarity at all sites
within a basin.
Extensive urbanisation has a marked effect on
catchment flood behaviour. The increase in the
amount of ‘impervious’ area and the decrease in
storage capacity of a catchment present particular
difficulties for accurately predicting flow.
Experimental studies indicate that the gross effect
of urbanisation is generally very marked at the
small-catchment scale typical of many
development-control applications. These studies
have not been fully generalised, however, and it
remains necessary to apply engineering judge-
ment to assess the expected (gross) effect of
urbanisation on flood runoff. The subject is
Flood estimation using the FSR r ainfall- considered in greater detail by Packman (1980),
r unoff method (copied from Volume 4 of Hall (1984) and Hall et al (1993).
Flood Estimation Handbook) Flood flows can be significantly attenuated by
storage in lakes and reservoirs, or on the flood-
The FSR unit hydrograph rainfall-runoff model plain. Such storage delays the timing and
may provide only coarse flood estimates, part- distribution of flood flows, so that the volume of
icularly when key model parameters are derived water is discharged over a longer time period. A
from catchment descriptors rather than local very useful review of UK experience in reservoir
flood event data. For example Boorman et al flood estimation is contained in IoH Report 114
(1990) showed that with estimates of unit (Reed and Field, 1992). Chapter 8 of Volume 4
hydrograph time-to-peak (Tp) and catchment of the FEH currently provides the most up to date
standard percentage runoff (SPR) based on guidance on the use of the FSR unit hydrograph
catchment characteristics, the mean annual floods method for reservoir flood estimation.
of a sample of 74 gauged catchments were
overestimated by 22% on average, and the 25 In many situations attention needs to be focused
year floods by 41%. on flood volumes as well as flood peaks, to
ensure that flood alleviation schemes are
The FEH team did not attempt to recalibrate the sufficiently robust to cope with multiple storms
FSR rainfall-runoff model. Wide discrepancies or long duration events. The direct analysis of
have been found to exist between the flood peak flood volumes can sometimes provide valuable
estimates obtained when both the FSR rainfall- results, particularly for catchments larger than
runoff model and FEH statistical approach are 500km2 where major floods last for two or three
applied to smaller catchments and no local data days or more, and where the application of the
are used. Whenever possible, actual flood event FSR rainfall-runoff method becomes less valid.
Archer et al (2000) provide one approach to the
analysis of flood volumes.
2.3.8 FEH guidelines
The Environment Agency is committed to the
implementation of FEH methods where suitable
and has issued guidelines (Spencer and Walsh,
2000) to assist Agency staff and its consultants to
apply FEH correctly, including the systematic
recording of the methods and data used.
Flood frequency estimates by whatever method
are subject to change as methodologies evolve
and as additional data become available. It is
essential that engineers/hydrologists provide an
audit trail of how they arrived at their final
design flood estimate.

2.4 Refer ences 11.Houghton-Carr, H A and Boorman, D B
(1991) A national archive of flood event data
Topic Refer ence for the UK, BHS 3rd National Hydrology
6, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, Symposium at Southampton
Basic hydrology
25, 26, 27
12. Institute of Hydrology (1996) Micro-FSR
Estimation of mean 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, (version 2.2) Operation manual, IoH
flow 17, 18, 19, 23, 24 Wallingford
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13. Institute of Hydrology and British Geological
Flood estimation 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, Survey (1988) Hydrometric register and
16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25 statistics 1981–5, IoH Wallingford
14. Institute of Hydrology and British Geological
1. Archer, D et al (2000) The synthesis of Survey (1993) Hydrometric register and
design flood hydrograph, CIWEM/ICE statistics 1986–90, IoH Wallingford
Water Environment 2000: ‘Flood Warning 15. Institute of Hydrology and British Geological
and Management’, ICE, London Survey (1998) Hydrometric register and
2. Babtie Group (2000) Clarification on the use statistics 1991–95, IoH Wallingford
of FEH and FSR design rainfalls, 16. Laurenson, M and Mein, R G (1988) RORB
http://www. Version 4 Runoff routing program user
defra.gov.uk/environment/rs/01/index.htm manual, Department of Civil Engineering,
3. Boorman, D B et al (1990) A review of Monash University
design flood estimation using the FSR 17. Meteorological Office (1977) Maps of
rainfall-runoff method, Institute of average annual rainfall in Britain for the
Hydrology Report Nº111, IoH Wallingford international standard period 1941-70,
4. Boorman, D B et al (1995) Hydrology of soil Meteorological Office
types: a hydrological classification of the 18. Meteorological Office (1981) The Meteorol-
soils of the United Kingdom, Institute of ogical Office rainfall and evaporation
Hydrology Report Nº 126, IoH Wallingford calculation system – MORECS Hydrological
5. Gustard, A et al (1992) Low flow estimation Memorandum 45, Meteorological Office
in the United Kingdom, Institute of 19. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
Hydrology Report Nº 108, IoH Wallingford (1976) Climate and drainage Technical
6. British Hydrological Society (1994) Papers Bulletin 34, MAFF, London
presented at National meeting on Flow 20. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
Naturalisation Using Hydrological Models (1999) Flood Estimation Handbook Five
held at Institution of Civil Engineers, 17 volume report, MAFF, London
March, 1994
21. Natural Environment Research Council
7. Packman, J C (1980) The effects of (1975) Flood Studies Report NERC, London.
urbanisation and flood magnitude and
22. Reed, D W and Field, E K (1992) Reservoir
frequency, Institute of Hydrology Report Nº
Flood estimation: another look, Institute of
63, IoH Wallingford
Hydrology Report Nº 114, IoH Wallingford
8. Hall, M J (1984) Urban hydrology, Elsevier;
23. Searcy, S (1959) Flow-duration curves, US
London
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper
9. Hall, M J et al (1993) The design of flood 1542-A
storage reservoirs, CIRIA Report RP393
24. Smith, L P (1967) Potential transpiration
10. Institute of Hydrology (1983) Some Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
suggestions for the use of local data in flood Technical Bulletin Nº 16
estimation Flood Studies Supplementary
Report Nº 13, IoH Wallingford

25. Spencer, P and Walsh, P (2000) Flood
Estimation Handbook: Guidelines Parts 1
and 2, Environment Agency
26. Twort, A C et al (2000) Water supply, 5th
edition, Edward Arnold, London
27. Wilson, E M Engineering hydrology 5th
edition, Macmillan; Basingstoke

3. RIVER HYDRAULICS
3.1 Scope of the chapter coefficient which depends on the velocity

distribution in the cross section, often taken as 1,
This chapter describes the hydraulic design and
and V is the average flow velocity.
analysis of natural and artificial channels and the
structures found in such channels. The object of The total energy along a channel can be plotted
this design is to determine how flow conditions as a line, which will always be above the line of
(water depth, flow velocity and sediment the water surface. This is the level to which the
movement in particular) are related to the water would rise in a pitot tube placed into the
discharge and the physical characteristics of the flow and facing directly into the flow at a point
channel or structure. where the velocity is representative.
3.2 Basic concepts 3.2.4 Cr itical ener gy
This section covers the basic concepts behind For a given discharge and energy level, the flow
river hydraulics, including the forces and energy in a channel can be either slow and deep
involved, the laws of continuity and ‘control’. (subcritical) or fast and shallow (supercritical).
There is, however, a minimum energy level at
3.2.1 For ces which this discharge can be passed through a
The most important forces acting on flow in open particular cross-section. This is referred to as the
channels are gravity and inertia. The ratio of ‘critical’ energy, and the corresponding depth of
these forces is represented by the ‘Froude flow as the critical depth. Under critical flow
number’ (Fr) which identifies the flow as being conditions, the Froude number, Fr = 1. This
either: marks the transition between supercritical and
subcritical flow.
· subcritical (as in a deep, slow-moving river),
for which Fr < 1; or 3.2.5 Contr ol sections
· supercritical (as in a steep chute), for which In subcritical flow (Fr < 1) surface waves travel
Fr > 1. faster than the flow, so any disturbance can be
propagated upstream. Conditions are therefore
The identification of these two flow regimes is of controlled by what happens downstream. In
fundamental importance in open channel flow supercritical flow (Fr > 1), waves are swept
computations. downstream, so that control is from upstream. As
3.2.2 Continuity a result, any structure or channel geometry which
causes the flow to pass through critical depth acts
The total mass of water entering a channel reach as a ‘control section’, preventing the transmission
also leaves that reach, in one form or another. In past itself of any disturbance in the flow. An
most practical problems, compressibility and important feature of such controls is that the
temperature effects (including evaporation) can critical depth (and hence the energy level
be ignored, so the total volume of water entering upstream) is defined solely by the discharge and
a reach must also be the same as that leaving it. the channel cross section. This enables a control
3.2.3 Ener gy level section to be used as the starting point for the
computation of flow profiles.
The ‘total energy’, H, associated with a cross-
section in an open channel can be expressed as: Common critical-depth control sections include
weirs, flumes and drops in bed level. Other
V2 features, such as sluice gates, can also act as
H =Z + y+a (Bernoulli’s equation)
2g control sections. Control sections only operate as
where Z is the elevation of the bed relative to a hydraulic controls, however, for as long as they
given datum, y is the water depth (so that Z + y is remain ‘undrowned’: if they become ‘drowned’,
the control moves further downstream. They are
the elevation of the water surface), " is a
also not the only type of control. Water levels in occurs in natural channels, due to irregularity of
an estuary, for example, are controlled by the cross-section, and does not always occur in
tide, while uniform flow at ‘normal depth’ (see artificial channels, due to the presence of
below) can be a convenient control for comput- controls. The concept is important, however, as
ational purposes. it defines a depth/discharge relationship and
hence the state to which the flow tends to
3.2.6 Hydr aulic jump converge in a long uniform channel when no
The transition from supercritical to subcritical other controls are present. Uniform flow can
flow is referred to as a ‘hydraulic jump’. The therefore be considered in itself as a control.
characteristics of a hydraulic jump (location,
In steady non-uniform flow the discharge is
length and stability of position) depend on a
constant with time, but the depth varies along the
number of factors, including the Froude number
channel. If the depth varies gradually, as
of the upstream flow and the tailwater level
generally occurs some distance from a control
provided by the downstream control. These
structure, the pressure distribution over the
characteristics can be determined by considering
channel section can be taken as hydrostatic and
changes in momentum. Hydraulic jumps are
the water surface profile can be calculated from
generally highly turbulent and dissipate consid-
the control to the point where flow conditions are
erable energy. As a result, they are likely to cause
approximately uniform. This ‘backwater
considerable damage if they take place in
analysis’ can be done by hand, dividing the
unprotected channels, particularly if the material
channel into sections and using an iterative step-
in the bed and banks is erodible.
by-step method to carry the computation from
3.2.7 Ener gy losses one section to the next. When doing this it is
important to proceed from a control where
Any flow along a channel is resisted by shear conditions are known in an upstream direction if
forces, or friction, acting on the wetted perimeter, the flow is subcritical and downstream if the flow
and by the turbulence generated by irregularities, is supercritical. The calculation is tedious,
changes in size and cross-section and other however, and many computer software packages
obstructions in the channel. Overcoming this are available to carry out such analyses. When
flow resistance results in a progressive loss of using any package it is important to appreciate
energy along the channel. Various formulae for the assumptions on which it is based and the
determining this loss of energy have been resulting limits of applicability: some packages
developed, the most common being the Manning are not good at representing particular hydraulic
equation, which incorporates an experimentally features such as bridges or transitions.
derived roughness factor (Manning’s ‘n’) that
can be related to the channel’s physical char- If the flow depth varies rapidly along the
acteristics. Manning’s ‘n’ is generally used as a channel, the pressure distribution can no longer
‘lumped parameter’, taking account of the effects be assumed to be hydrostatic. This complicates
of variations in channel cross section, as well as the analysis, with the result that there is no
the surface texture. The Colebrook-White equat- general solution. Individual solutions to specific
ion can also be used, but is perhaps more suited problems are available, however, generally based
to lined channels with uniform cross-sections on a theoretical approach supported by
than to natural channels. experimental results.
3.2.8 Unifor m and non-unifor m flow 3.2.9 Steady and tr ansient flow
Uniform flow occurs in a channel with a constant The above description assumes steady flow
cross-section when the gravity forces just balance conditions, implying a constant or near-constant
the resistance forces. Under these conditions, the discharge (with time) along the channel. If the
energy lost along a reach is the same as the fall in discharge varies rapidly, as can happen during
bed level, with the result that the depth, cross- the passage of a flood or during operation of
sectional area and velocity of the flow are gates, for example, ‘transient’ flow conditions
constant and the energy line, water surface and occur. The analysis of these conditions is
bed are all parallel. True uniform flow rarely complex, needing to take into account such

matters as the transfer of water from the main · stage and discharge.
channel to storage areas and possibly dynamic
Seasonal variations can occur due to vegetation
effects. Advice from a hydraulic specialist should
growth and die-back, while maintenance pro-
therefore be obtained.
cedures can have a major impact if they involve
significant dredging or weed-cutting. Guidance
3.3 Hydr aulics of r iver s and
on the value of Manning’s ‘n’ is available from
channels a number of sources, with Chow (1959)
There are, in effect, two problems to be providing a useful set of photographs. The choice
addressed in the hydraulic design of natural and of ‘n’ value is important as flow velocity and
artificial channels. In existing channels the hence discharge, is directly proportionate to ‘n’
problem is to determine the discharge capacity value.
and hence what water levels will occur with The situation is considerably more complex if the
different flows. In new channels the problem is to flow is out-of-bank because of interaction
determine the cross-section required to pass a between the in-channel and over-bank parts of
given flow without the water rising to unaccept- the flow (noting that out-of-bank flow can occur
able levels. in an embanked river if the floodbanks are set
In both cases, the overall approach is similar. The back from the bank of the normal channel). This
first step is to identify the control sections and is particularly so if the channel meanders
likely flow régime (subcritical or supercritical) significantly, since at places the over-bank flow
under the full range of conditions that will be may be directed across the in-channel flow. The
encountered. It is important to note that control effective resistance to flow, and hence the
may move from one place to another as the flow conveyance/water level relationship, is very
changes and control sections become drowned difficult to determine in such cases and it is
out. advisable to seek specialist advice.
In most UK rivers, bed slopes are such that the 3.3.2 Sediment movement
flow is generally subcritical. Some rivers, part-
Sediment can be transported in open channel
icularly in hilly or steeply sloping areas, may
flow either as ‘bedload’, which remains largely in
have supercritical sections, separated by tranquil
contact with the bed and is carried forward by
pools under low-flow conditions. During floods,
sliding or hopping, or as ‘suspended load’, which
the pools can be drowned out, so that the whole
is maintained in suspension by turbulence for
flow is nominally supercritical.
considerable periods of time and moves with
3.3.1 Flow r esistance practically the same velocity as the water. Some
of the suspended load (the larger material) falls
The main difficulty with hydraulic calculations
back to the bed at intervals, but very fine material
for channels is determining the appropriate
is carried as ‘washload’ and is transported
roughness factor (Manning’s ‘n’) to represent the
without intermittent deposition.
resistance to flow that will occur over the full
range of discharges. If the flow remains within The size of the material transported in each mode
the channel (in-bank), factors affecting Man- depends on the flow velocity and the grading and
ning’s ‘n’ include: erodibility of material on the bed and brought
down from upstream. A large number of methods
· the bed and bank material; for predicting sediment movement have been
· vegetation, in the channel and on the bank; developed (see, for example, Gomez and Church,
1989 and Fisher, 1995) but care is needed in
· variations in cross-section, size and shape of their application. Some methods, such as those
channel; by Meyer-Peter and Muller, Bagnold and
· the frequency and sharpness of bends; Einstein, cover only bedload, so are only
appropriate where the mobile bed material is
· silting, scouring and bed sediment forms; coarse, such as gravel and cobbles. Other
· the degree of obstruction (bridge piers, log formulae, of which the best known are the
jams etc); and Ackers and White and the Engelund and Hanson
equations, cover the total sediment load, so · losses at bends; and
should be used where there is significant
suspended sediment transport. Formulae covering · the effects of steps, baffles and drops.
only the suspended load are generally As always, it is important when applying these
inappropriate for sands, as some of the sand results to appreciate the range of conditions for
generally travels as bedload. Methods of Arora, which they apply. For particularly complex or
Raju and Garde and by Westrich and Juraschek unusual structures there may be no results
are available for estimating silt washload. available, in which case model testing may be
Flow over a bed of widely graded material can necessary. Specialist advice should always be
result in the finer fraction being removed, leaving obtained in these circumstances.
the surface ‘armoured’ with coarser material 3.5 Hydr aulics of other featur es
which is stable at that flow. If the flow sub-
sequently increases significantly, this coarse The hydraulic analysis of environmentally sens-
material may become unstable and move, leaving itive features, such as meanders, bays, pools,
the bed unprotected and resulting in very rapid riffle-pool sequences and fish spawning or
erosion. nursery areas can generally be undertaken using
the approaches described above. For some
The movement of bedload in particular is features, it may be necessary to ensure that the
intimately connected with the development and flow depth does not fall below a certain value or
movement of bed features such as ripples and that the velocity lies within a certain range. This
dunes in sand beds and riffles and runs in gravel can often be achieved, since such requirements
beds. These features, which are transient and are generally established on the basis of naturally
depend inter alia on the size of the bed material occurring conditions, but may not always be
and the velocity and depth of the flow, can have possible. If it is not, the advisability of imposing
a major impact on the effective roughness of the such a feature on the channel needs careful
channel. consideration.
In all unlined channels, natural and artificial, the The hydraulics of flow at river confluences,
long-term rate of sediment transport depends on bifurcations and along parallel channels (around
a wide range of factors, including the time islands, for example) can be complex, but again
distribution of flows, the slope and nature of the are generally solvable applying the approaches
channel and the characteristics of the catchment. outlined above. The main difficulty is often
These matters are discussed in Chapter 1. determining the division of flow that will occur
3.4 Hydr aulics of r iver str uctur es when a channel bifurcates. Frequently this can
only be determined by trial and error, balancing
As discussed earlier, the flow at structures the head losses that will occur along the channels
generally varies rapidly (with respect to location), so that the energy levels in each are the same at
with the result that only in special cases can a the beginning and end of the section. The
purely theoretical result be obtained. Most division may, of course, vary as the total flow
solutions are therefore based on a theoretical varies.
approach supported by experimental results.
Typical problems for which results are available
include:
· flow over weirs and spillways;
· flow through constrictions and expansions,
including past bridge piers;
· discharge through and over gates;
· flow through culverts and so-called ‘inverted
siphons’;
· the hydraulic jump and energy dissipation;

3.6 Refer ences 11. Hydraulics Research (1988) International
conference on river régime, White, W R
Topic Refer ences (Ed.) J Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester
Basic concepts 3, 5, 6, 9, 15
Hydraulics of rivers 1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 12. Hydraulics Research (1990) International
and channels 17, 19 conference on river flood hydraulics, White,
W R (Ed.) J Wiley & Sons Ltd; Chichester
Hydraulics of river
2, 5, 18
structures 13. Hydraulics Research (1992) Assessment of
Sedimentation 7, 8, 15, 19, 20 flows in meandering compound channels,
Hydraulics of other Report EX 2606, HR Wallingford
4, 14, 21
features 14. HR Wallingford (in press) Handbook for
assessment of hydraulic performance of
1. Ackers, P (1992) Hydraulic design of two- environmental channels, HR Wallingford
stage channels, Proceedings Institution of 15. Hydraulics Research (1990) Sediment
Civil Engineers, Water, Maritime and Energy transport: The Ackers and White theory
Vol 130 Issue 2 revised, SR 237 HR Wallingford
2. Ackers, P et al (1978) Weirs and flumes for 16. Izbash, S V and Khaldre, Kh Yu (1970)
flow measurement, J Wiley & Sons Ltd; Hydraulics of river channel closure,
Chichester Butterworths, London
3. Brater, E F, King, H W, Lindell, J E and 17. Lambert, M F and Myers, W R (1998)
Wei, C Y (1996) Handbook of hydraulics Estimating the discharge capacity in straight
(for the solution of hydraulic engineering compound channels, Proceedings Institution
problems), 7th edition, McGraw Hill, New of Civil Engineers, Water, Maritime and
York Energy Vol 130 Issue 2
4. Brookes, A & Shields F D (1996) River 18. Miller, D S (Ed) (1994) Discharge
channel restoration – guiding principles for characteristics, IAHR Hydraulic Structures
sustainable projects, J Wiley & Sons Ltd; Design Manual 8, Balkema, Rotterdam
Chichester
19. Raudkivi, A J (1976) Loose boundary
5. Chow, V T (1959) Open channel hydraulics, hydraulics, 2nd edition, Pergamon Press
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
20. Thorne, C R et al (1987) Sediment transport
6. Davis, C V and Sorenson, K E (1989) in gravel bed rivers J Wiley & Sons Ltd;
Handbook of applied hydraulics, 3rd edition, Chichester
McGraw-Hill
21. US Army Corps of Engineering (1970)
7. Fisher, K R (1995) Manual of sediment Hydraulic design of flood control channels
transport in rivers, HR Wallingford Engineering Manual EM1110-201601
8. Gomez, B and Church, M (1989) An
assessment of bedload sediment transport
formulae for gravel bed rivers, Water
Resources Research, Vol 25, Nº 6, pp1161–
1186
9. Henderson, F M (1966) Open channel flow
Macmillan, New York
10. Hicks & Mason (1992) Roughness
characteristics of New Zealand rivers, Water
Resources Survey; DSIR Marine and
Freshwater

4. TIDE AND SURGE LEVEL PREDICTIONS
4.1 Scope of the chapter 4.2 Basic concepts

This chapter describes the sources of available Downstream water levels are composed mainly
data and the methods of calculating design water of two superimposed parts:
levels at the downstream limit of the fluvial
· the tidal variation; and
system, which are influenced by factors other
than fluvial flow. These include both predictable, · the meteorological surge.
regularly occurring events, such as tidal
Tides are produced by the gravitational inter-
variation, and random events, such as meteor-
action of all heavenly bodies with the earth,
ological surges. Superimposed upon these short-
although the main influences for tidal movements
term variations are longer-term variations, such
are the moon and the sun. All the heavenly
as sea level rise and tectonic changes, which also
bodies, including the earth, move in regular,
have to be considered.
predictable orbits. Their influence upon each
Many of the methods described here are common other and therefore upon the earth is also
to both fluvial and coastal systems. Flood predictable and can be estimated to a high degree
defences within the downstream reaches of a of accuracy for any time, either in the past or the
fluvial system, however, also have the further future. The tide-producing forces have a repeat-
dimension of freshwater flow influencing the ing cycle of approximately 18.6 years. The relat-
design level. ionship between astronomical force and the local
Downstream water levels can significantly affect tide for any particular place on the globe, how-
the discharge capability of a river and hence ever, has to be determined by on-site measure-
upstream flood water levels. It is therefore ments.
important to understand fully the influence of one Surges are produced by the passage of high or
on the other. low-pressure weather systems, causing a
River flow may be considered as a random lowering (negative surge) or raising (positive
variable, depending upon random rainfall events surge) of the water level respectively. The surge
and the catchment characteristics. Tidal variation, is therefore the difference between measured and
on the other hand, is predictable and is predicted tide level. Meteorological surge is
independent of the factors affecting river flow. superimposed upon the astronomical tide. In
Meteorological surges are dependent upon the theory, the surge peak can occur at any time
weather, which may or may not, depending upon within the tidal cycle, as the two are totally
locality, be related to the factors affecting river independent. This will be discussed further later.
flow. The only way to relate all these variables is In some cases, wind and wave ‘setup’ could also
through the use of probability analysis and be relevant. Wind setup is a tilting of the water
statistics. surface due to the action of wind stress on the
The level of effort required in determining the water surface, resulting in a rise in water level at
relationships between the different variables, for the downwind end of a water body and a fall at
any particular project, depends upon the locality the upwind end. Wave setup is a rise in water
of the project, the degree of acceptable risk and level near a sloping shore, due to the conversion
an assessment of the sensitivity of design flood of wave energy to potential energy.
level to changes in any, or all, of the parameters. 4.3 Water level pr edictions
In most cases, the accuracy of any prediction will
be determined by the quality and quantity of data Water levels have been measured and recorded
available, and the time (and budget) within which on a systematic basis, mainly at ports, around the
the assessment needs to be carried out. coast of the United Kingdom, for over 100 years.
The data are held both locally at the port and
centrally at the Institute of Oceanographic high-waters. Although the form of the tide is
Sciences (IOS). constant around the UK, the range of the tide is
significantly different; varying from over 13m on
The quality and therefore useable quantity of data
spring tides off the Bristol Channel to 2.7m at
for any particular locality is highly variable, and
Portland and 2.6m at Lerwick.
reference therefore needs to be made to IOS at
an early stage. Changes in measurement tech- Offshore, the shape of the tide is approximately
nology have led to the establishment of a series sinusoidal, but as it approaches the shore it is
of ‘A’ class stations, which produce high quality modified by shallow water effects as a long
continuous water level recordings, and other period wave. The distortion of the tidal curve is
lower class stations which produce either inter- most pronounced within estuaries, as it is
mittent readings or less reliable data. All coastal modified not only by the bed but also by the
locations around the UK can however be related banks. The ‘flood’ (incoming) tide generally
with sufficient accuracy for most projects to an becomes shorter further up an estuary, with the
‘A’ class station. Localities within estuaries and ‘ebb’ (outgoing) tide being lengthened. The
within the fluvial system cannot usually be extreme case of this is the ‘bore’ formed during
related with as much confidence. high spring tides in the Severn Estuary.
If time permits, it is highly desirable to obtain Surges are the variation between measured and
measured water level data at the site, or sites, of predicted (astronomical) tidal levels. Minor
interest for a period of preferably at least 28 days. variations occur most days, but the levels are
If continuous recordings are not practicable, then generally within 0.2m of the predictions. Larger
intermittent readings at hourly intervals can variations may be caused by a prolonged period
suffice. For a small fee IOS will analyse the of high pressure, causing a reduced tidal level (or
readings and relate the site to the nearest ‘A’ negative surge), which can be of concern for ship
class station. The longer the period of record and navigation. For flood defences positive surges are
the closer the time interval between readings, the of concern. These are generated by the passage of
more accurate the relationship between the site low pressure weather systems.
and the ‘A’ station is likely to be. The readings
The effect of these weather systems varies around
should be taken at times of low river flow;
the coast of the UK. Maximum surges occur in
otherwise a longer period of record will be
the South East off the Thames Estuary, and are
required, together with records of river flow.
caused by low pressure systems passing to the
Tide Tables are published annually, in four north of Scotland and then down the East Coast,
volumes, by the Hydrographer of the Navy, for a forcing a mass of water into the southern North
series of ‘standard ports’ around the world. These Sea. The maximum surge with a return period of
predict the time and level of high and low waters 50 years at this location is about 3m.
and a series of tidal parameters, depending upon
Extreme low pressure weather systems occur
the nature of the tide at that locality. Also
predominantly during the winter, so large pos-
included are factors to be added to or subtracted
itive surges are also a function of the season, with
from the times and levels at the standard port to
surges likely to affect flood defences occurring
determine the corresponding data for various
between November and February.
‘secondary ports’.
The shape of the surge is a function of locality
The tides around the coast of the UK are
and the speed and depth of the depression. They
semidiurnal in nature; there are generally two
can vary from short, very intense events, when
high waters and two low waters each day, of
water levels are raised by 2 to 3m for a period of
approximately the same amplitude. Each tidal
only a few hours, with the whole event over
cycle lasts about 12.5 hours. The tides vary from
within 12 to 24 hours, to long duration low
day to day on a ‘spring–neap’ cycle of about
intensity events, when the water level is raised
14.6 days. The ‘spring’ tides are of high amplit-
only by 0.5 to 1m, but for a period of three to
ude, with low low-water levels and high high-
four days. Either can be critical to the design of
water levels, whereas the ‘neap’ tides are of low
a flood defence. The former is likely to be critical
amplitude, with higher low-waters and lower
closer to the estuary mouth or on the coast,
whereas the latter could influence water levels a chance of, for example, a 50-year return period
considerable distance upstream. event occurring in any one year, is 2%.
Although, in theory, astronomical tides and With rising, or falling, sea levels, as discussed
meteorological surges are independent, being above, the return period does not remain constant
caused by forces which are unrelated, there is when designing for a life of say 50 years to 100
evidence that surge peaks do not coincide with years. Depending upon the relationship between
the time of highest high water, which would design water level and return period, a sea level
often be the worst design condition. The most change of only 0.2m during the design life (for
likely reason is that, because the tide, and hence example, 50 years at 4 mm/year) can alter the
the tide plus surge, acts like a long period wave, ‘standard of service’ from the original 100-year
it is influenced by shallow water effects, partic- return period upon scheme completion, to
ularly shoaling and bottom friction. These tend to perhaps a 20-year return period or less by the end
exaggerate surges occurring at lower water levels of the scheme’s design life. Looked at another
and to suppress surges at higher water levels. It way, to achieve a standard of service equivalent
is, however, generally good practice to consider to a 100-year return period at the end of a 50-year
surges and tidal level as totally independent, and design life, may require an initial design to a
to design for an adverse combination. return period of 500 years or even longer.
There is strong evidence that sea levels are rising Although there is no direct correlation between
worldwide. At present, the rise is of the order of meteorological surges and rainfall, both are
1–1.5 mm/year around the UK, although there caused by low pressure weather systems, so there
are concerns that this may increase due to ‘global is likely to be some degree of correlation. Surges
warming’. Opinion is divided regarding the likely are the direct result of low pressure, whereas
rate of rise. Guidelines have been issued by fluvial flow depends upon rainfall runoff and the
MAFF (now DEFRA) for various regions of the time delays inherent in the river basin, which
country. may delay the peak fluvial flow to long after the
peak of the surge. Each situation therefore needs
During the last Ice Age, the north of the British
to be assessed individually.
Isles was covered by an ice sheet down to about
a line between the Wash and the Bristol Channel. At the mouth of an estuary, tidal effects normally
The land beneath the ice sheet was depressed and dominate for the design of flood defences,
the south of England tilted upwards. Since the whereas in the upstream reaches fluvial flow
retreat of the ice, the land has been recovering, becomes more important. In between, the two
with the north rising and the south falling relative effects interact. The best method of predicting
to the sea. flood levels of varying return period along a river
or estuary is to analyse data from a series of
The combined effect of the geodetic change and
locations with long term water level records.
the sea level rise is for the sea level in the south
Without those, the next best solution is a
east of England to be rising relative to the land at
dynamic mathematical model of the system,
somewhere in the region of 4–6 mm/year, where-
proven against a series of known events. The
as in the north of Scotland the sea is falling
model needs to be run for a number of different
relative to the land by a similar amount.
combinations of fluvial flow and tidal conditions
4.4 J oint pr obability (tidal level and of known return periods.
fluvial flow)
The probability of a particular sea level due to a
combination of tide and surge can be computed
by considering the two events as mutually indep-
endent. The result can then be expressed as a
‘return period’, which is the average time in
years which elapses between events of equal, or
worse, intensity. In terms of probability, the

4.5 Refer ences change, Department of the Environment and
the Meteorological Office
Topic Refer ences
9. Dixon, M J and Tawn, J A (1994) Extreme
Basic concepts 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12,
sea levels at the UK A-class sites: site by site
13, 14, 17, 18, 19,
analysis, Proudman Oceanographic
20, 23, 24, 25, 26,
Laboratory, Internal Document 65
27, 28, 30, 31, 32,
33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 10. Dixon, M J and Tawn, J A (1995) Estimates
40, 41, 42, 43, 45, of extreme sea conditions; extreme sea levels
46, 48 at the UK A-class sites: optimal site by site
Water level 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, analyses and spatial analyses for the East
predictions 15, 16, 22, 29, 35, Coast, Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory,
39, 47 Internal Document 72
Joint probability 21, 29, 32, 36, 44 11. Dixon, M J and Tawn, J A (1997) Extreme
sea levels around the UK coastline Paper B3,
MAFF conference of River and Coastal
1. Alcock, G (1989) Research on tides, surges Engineers; Keele University
and waves in Coastal Management:
Proceedings of a conference organised by the 12. Dixon, M J and Tawn, J A (1997) Spatial
Maritime Engineering Board of the analyses for the UK coast, Proudman
Institution of Civil Engineers, Bournemouth, Oceanographic Laboratory, Internal
9-11 May 1989, Thomas Telford, London Document 112
2. Amin, M (1988) Surge prediction at Barrow- 13. Doornkamp, J C (Ed) (1989) The greenhouse
in-Furness, Proudman Oceanographic effect and rising sea levels in the UK,
Laboratory; Birkenhead including a selection of papers presented at
the MAFF Conference for River and Coastal
3 Arnell, N W et al (1994) The implications of Engineers, Loughborough, 11-13 July 1989,
climate change for the National Rivers M1 Press, Nottingham
Authority, Institute of Hydrology for the
National Rivers Authority, R&D Report 12 14. El-Jabi, N et al (1992) Stage discharge
relationships in tidal rivers, ASCE Journal of
4. Boorman, L A et al (1989) Climatic change, Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
rising sea level and the British coast, Natural Engineering, Vol 118 Nº 2, March/April
Environment Research Council ITE 1992, pp 166-174
Publication 1, HMSO, London
15. Environment Agency (1999) 1:10,000
5. Bray, M J (1992) Sea level rise and global Indicative flood plain maps for England and
warming: Scenarios, physical impacts and Wales, Environment Agency
policies, University of Portsmouth,
Department of Geography for the Standing 16. Flather, R A (1982) The west coast surge
Conference on Problems Associated with the prediction experiment 1981-82, Institute of
Coastline (SCOPAC) Oceanographic Sciences, Godalming
6. Cooper, A J and Dearnaley, M, Flow (1996) 17. Graff, J (1981) An investigation of the
Guidelines for the use of computational frequency distribution of annual sea level
models in coastal and estuarial studies, HR maxima at ports around Great Britain,
Wallingford Sediment Transport Models Academic Press, London
Supplementary Report Nº 456 18. Graff, J et al (1977) The analysis of annual
7. Co-tidal and Co-range lines (1971) Admiralty extreme tidal levels at certain ports on the
Chart Nº 5058, British Isles and Adjacent south coast of England, Parts 1 and 2,
Waters, Hydrographer of the Navy Institution of Oceanographic Sciences,
Godalming
8. Department of the Environment and
Meteorological Office (1990) Global climate
19. Havno, K (1996) Flood mapping and risk 31. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
assessment based on joint probability (1999) Flood and coastal defence project
extreme value analysis, Proceedings 31st appraisal guidance, FCDPAG3, MAFF,
MAFF Conference for River and Coastal London
Engineers, pp 3.4.1–3.4.12
32. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
20. Hedges, T and Reis, M T (1999) Risk (1993) Strategy for flood and coastal defence
assessment of coastal defences, Proceedings in England and Wales, P61471, 39pp,
34th MAFF Conference River and Coastal MAFF, London
Engineers
33. Morris, D G and Flavin, R W (1996) Flood
21. HR Wallingford/Lancaster University risk map for England and Wales, Institute of
(1998), The joint probability of waves and Hydrology Report Nº 130
water levels – JOINSEA – a rigorous but
34. National Rivers Authority (1993)
practical new approach, HR Wallingford
Methodology for collating tidal water level
Report SR 537
data, Note 197, National Rivers Authority,
22. Hydrographer of the Navy (1999) Admiralty Bristol
Tide Tables 2001, Vol 1: United Kingdom
35. Ovadia, D C (1980) A regression model for
and Ireland
the statistical prediction of extreme sea levels
23. Institution of Civil Engineers (1953) at Liverpool, Institute of Oceanographic
Conference on the North Sea floods of 31 Sciences, Report Nº 102
January to 1 February 1953, Institution of
36. Owen, M, Hawkes, P, Tawn, J, and Bortot, P,
Civil Engineers, London, December 1953
(1997) The joint probability of waves and
24. Institution of Civil Engineers (1996) Land water levels: a rigorous but practical
drainage and flood defence responsibilities, approach, Proceedings 32nd MAFF
3rd edition, Thomas Telford, London Conference of River and Coastal Engineers
25. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 37. Pugh, D T (1987) Tides, surges and mean
(1990) Climate change: the IPCC scientific sea level: a handbook for engineers and
assessment, Cambridge University Press, scientists J Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester
Cambridge
38. Pugh, D T (1990) Is there a sea level
26. Irish Sea Forum (1993) Seminar on rising problem? Proceedings ICE, Part 1, Vol 88,
sea level and coastal defences, Ulster June 1990, pp347-366
Museum, Belfast, 22 April 1993, Irish Sea
39. Roberts, L E J & Kay, R C (Eds) (1990) The
Forum, Liverpool
effects of sea level rise on the UK coast,
27. Lennon, G W (1965) Storm surges on the Environmental Risk Assessment Unit,
west coast of the British Isles in 1965, University of East Anglia
Institute of Coastal Oceanography and Tides,
40. Samuels, P (1996) The effects of climate
Internal Note Nº 29
change on flood and coastal defence in the
28. Macmillan, D H (1966) Tides, C R Books UK, Proceedings 31st MAFF Conference for
Ltd, London River and Coastal Engineers, pp 2.2.1–2.2.10
29. Mantz, P A & Wakeling, H L (1979) 41. Smith, J A (1994) The operational storm
Forecasting flood levels for joint events of surge model data archive, Proudman
rainfall and tidal surge flooding using Oceanographic Laboratory; Birkenhead
extreme value statistics, Proceedings ICE,
42. Taylor, D R (1995) An analysis of sea level
Part 2, Vol 67, pp 31-50
change in the Severn Estuary, University of
30. Meadowcroft, I (1996) Risk assessment for Bristol
coastal and tidal defences, Proceedings 31st
43. The United Kingdom Climate Change
MAFF Conference for River and Coastal
Review Group (1991) The potential effects of
Engineers, pp 3.3.1–3.3.12
climate change in the United Kingdom, The
Stationery Office, London
44. Thompson, G (1995) The use of joint
probability analysis for the design of flood
defences, Proceedings 30th MAFF
Conference for River and Coastal Engineers,
pp 3.2.1–3.2.12
45. University of Liverpool (1992) The Irish Sea:
global warming and climatic change,
Seminar held on 26 April 1992, University of
Liverpool, Liverpool University Press
46. Warrick, et al (1993) Climate and sea level
change: observations, projections and
implications, International Workshop on
climatic change, sea level, severe tropical
storms and associated impacts held in
September 1987, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge
47. Westerink, J J et al (1992) Tide and storm
surge predictions using finite element model,
ASCE Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol
118, Nº 10, October 1992, pp 1373-1390
48. Woodworth, P L (1999) Trends in British
Isles mean sea level, CCMS Proudman
Oceanographic Laboratory, Proceedings 34th
MAFF Conference of River and Coastal
Engineers

5. DATA COLLECTION
5.1 Scope of the Chapter · observations by flood defence staff

This chapter considers the type of data that may · river flow data
be needed for a project and the problems that
· water quality data
may encountered in its collection. Briefs for the
collection of such data should be written to · ecological data
reflect the specification requirements of the
projects. · fisheries data
· sediment (including suspended sediment)
5.2 Over all Appr oach
data
The following factors need to be taken into
account when planning a data collection
programme:- Meteorological Office
· rain gauge data
· the availability, reliability and form of
existing data; · wind data
· the accuracy and amount of the data required · evaporation data
by the project;
· the cost of collecting the data; and
Institute of Hydrology
· the management, storage and use of the data
· river flow data
after collection.
· evaporation data
In general it is advisable to:-
· identify the need for data as early as possible;

British Geological Survey
· search for and use existing data wherever
· geological maps
possible;
· geological memoirs
· design data collection programmes in detail;
· borehole information
· assess data handling requirements and
consider the use of innovative handling
techniques. English Nature, RSPB, County Wildlife Trusts
5.3 Data Sour ces · ecological data
The Agency will often hold much of the baseline · designated sites
data required for a project. Other organisations
will also hold useful information, however. The · biological action plans
types of data held by different organisations are
· amenity and recreation
listed below.
Environment Agency
Angling Clubs, MAFF, Sea Fisheries Committees
· rain gauge data
· fish species and stocks
· river and tide levels
· shell fish
· river cross-sections and bank levels
· flooded area (section 105) plans

Local Authorities, Countryside Commission 5.4 Data Management
· aerial photography Data management problems may include the
sheer volume of the data, its format and consist-
· recreation and amenity
ency. Data management may be helped by:
· nature conservation
· using standard data formats;
· local heritage
· storage of data in standard spreadsheets or
databases, possibly linked to a GIS system;
Local Libraries, Historical Associations · use of statistical checks on data consistency
· records of flooding and trends; and
· historic land use · archiving of data in open locations for future

use by others.
Ordnance Survey When storing data it is important to include

information about its source, date and scale of
· maps capture and reliability.
· aerial photographs
5.5 Topogr aphic and Bathymetr ic
Sur veys
National Monuments Archive Traditional or innovative methods, including
· aerial photographs (historic) those below, should be considered, as appropriate
to the project:
· traditional land survey techniques;
Water Companies
· ‘total station’ techniques;
· abstractions and returns
· aerial photographs and photogrammetry;
· effluent discharges
· echo sounding;
· stormwater outfalls
· global positioning systems (used on land or
water); and
Industrial Companies · LIDAR (Laser Instrument Doppler Airborne
· abstractions and returns Reconnaissance).
· effluent discharges
The national framework for Section 105 Flood
Mapping has produced a number of standard
Port/Navigation Authorities survey and data formats. These represent best
practice and should be considered for survey
· bathymetry work.
· tidal records
5.6 Flow and Water Level Sur veys
· currents
Much of the data on discharges and water levels
· sediment movement and dredging will come from existing flow gauging stations.
· ship sizes and constraints However, the accuracy and reliability of these
stations should always be checked, as should the
· ship movements and pilotage applicability of the data for the purpose intended.
The measurements from gauging stations may be
affected by vandalism.

There are often problems in recording maximum it will be necessary to commission more detailed
flood levels properly, as they are beyond the surveys.
range of the equipment, so reliance may have to
be placed on separate human observations. The 5.11 Geotechnical Investigations
rating relationships used to convert levels to
A sound understanding of local ground
discharges may also be unproven at the highest
conditions is essential for good design. Site
levels.
investigations should be properly structured and
In some cases, where there is an adequate ‘lead planned, with sufficient time allowed to carry out
time’ for a study, consideration may be given to the tests needed and prepare reports, as set out in
the installation of new gauges. Such data would BS 5930. It is recommended that specialist
probably not be of sufficient duration for use in geotechnical advice is obtained as set out in
its own right, but may be useful for correlating Reference 8. For many projects this will require
with data at neighbouring stations with a longer the appointment of a geotechnical adviser with a
record. minimum of 8 years relevant post charter
experience.
5.7 Water Quality Data
It should be remembered that significant local
variation of parameters may be found in the field.
Parameters should always be compared with
‘textbook’ values, and carefully reviewed, before
assuming values outside the usual range.
5.8 Geomor phology and Sediment

Data
Surveys of river geomorphology are discussed in
Chapter 1. Sampling of bed sediments is
relatively easy to arrange but meaningful
information about sediments in motion is difficult
to collect as much of the transport occurs only
under flood conditions.
5.9 Asset Condition Sur veys

Preliminary condition surveys will provide
information about the superficial appearance of
the asset but cannot examine conditions below
ground or (normally) below water, The need for
additional information should be considered
carefully and it is recommended that, if there is
any doubt, expert advice should be sought.
Record drawings are invaluable but are not
always available for older structures.
5.10 Envir onmental Baseline

Investigations
Information for environmental baseline surveys
should be identified through consultations carried
out as part of the scoping process. Much of the
information is generally available through the
Agency or from external consultants. Sometimes

5.12 Refer ences
Topic Refer ences
Basic concepts 2, 3, 4, 5, 9
Specialist advice 1, 6, 7, 8, 10
1. British Standard (1999) Code of practice for

site investigations BS 5930
2. Environment Agency (1997) Flood Defence
Management Manual (implemented by the
Flood Defence Management System)
Environment Agency Pin Volume 29
3. Environment Agency (various) Regional
Environmental Databases
4. Environment Agency (1999) National
Standard Contract and Specification for
Surveying Services Environment Agency
5. McCrae, R U (1996) Quality Assurance for
Surveying for the Environment Agency,
R&D Project 679
6. National Rivers Authority (1995) Asset
Management Planning National Rivers
Authority R&D Note 199
7. Seed, D J, Samuels, P G and Ramsbottom, D
M (1978) Quality Assurance in
Computational River Modelling, Institute of
Hydrology Report SR 374, HR Wallingford
8. Site investigations in Construction Part 1
‘Without site investigation ground is a
hazard’. Thomas Telford 1993
9. White, W R, Forty, E J (1999) Open Channel
Flow Gauging Stations: Extension of
Permissible Flow Conditions, Department of
the Environment, Transport and the Regions
(DETR)
10. Environment Agency (1999), National
Standard Contract and Specification for
Surveying Practices, Volume 1 Best Practice
Manual.

6. FLUVIAL MODELLING
6.1 Scope of the Chapter · limits imposed by the physical size of the
model and the scale available;
This chapter covers the key factors involved in
the computational and physical modelling of · the time taken for model construction and
river systems. testing; and
· the time needed for making revisions and
6.2 Basic Concepts and Common
repeating testing.
Concer ns
6.2.3 Calibr ation and ver ification
6.2.1 Types of model
The accuracy of a model is generally examined
Two types of model are available for modelling through a process of calibration and verification.
river systems: The model is first calibrated, using data recorded
· computational models, for reach and basin- during a number of events covering the range of
wide analysis; and conditions for which it is to be operated. It is then
verified using data from other, independent,
· physical models, for detailed analysis of local events to show how well the conditions predicted
hydraulic features. match those that occurred.
6.2.2 Uses and concer ns
When examining calibration and verification
Computational models enables the engineer to: results the limitations and uncertainties inherent
· consider basin-wide impacts of fluvial works; in the way physical reality is represented in the
model must be recognised. Uncertainty in para-
· examine a wide range of design options in a meters such as hydraulic roughness, the accuracy
short time; and of flow and level measurements or estimates and
· achieve, in most cases, greater accuracy and the variability of physical processes such as
confidence in the results. sediment movement, may all contribute to
modelling inaccuracy.
Increased use of computational modelling has
also introduced a number of concerns for the 6.3 Hydr ologic Modelling
project manager, including:
Hydrologic models include:
· appreciating the simplifications and
assumptions inherent in the methods; · statistical models, such as the methods
presented in the Flood Estimation
· selecting the appropriate model to use for a Handbook; and
project;
· river basin models, which vary greatly in
· understanding the results and their accuracy; complexity, but all include a rainfall/runoff
and simulator and flood routing along river
· management and budget control of modelling reaches.
specialists. Hydrologic models may be used to produce
The use of physical modelling avoids some of inflow hydrographs for a hydrodynamic model of
these concerns, but adds others, including: a river system. They may also be used in
isolation, for example to assess the effect of flood
· understanding the physical scaling laws detention basins in a catchment.
governing the design and operation of the
model;

6.4 River System Modelling The modellers should be either consulted or
responsible for deciding on the locations for the
The primary types of computational models for
cross sections.
river systems are:
The accuracy of data, even from gauging stations,
· ‘backwater’ models, used for modelling short should not be assumed. Data collection is
reaches of river, along which there is little considered in more detail in Chapter 5. Inflow
flow attenuation and flood storage; and hydrographs, usually determined from hydrol-
· fully dynamic models, used for modelling ogical studies, are also needed for model design
larger and more complex river systems. runs. In many cases, urban stormwater and sewer
flows also need to be included.
Such models are generally 1-D models, assuming
depth-averaged and width-averaged parameters Building, calibration and verification of a model
across a river section, or pseudo 1-D models, should follow directly from good design and data
which allow a representation of out-of-bank collection.
floodplain flow. Many models have facilities for Model reporting must include assessment of the
add-on modules to simulate parameters such as model accuracy, perhaps in the form of
water quality and sediment movement. sensitivity analyses.
The correct and early choice of model type and
software is a vital part of effective fluvial The national framework for Section 105 Flood
modelling. The choice of model must consider: Mapping has produced a number of standard
guidelines and record sheets for river modelling.
· the project aims; These represent best practice and should be
· the required accuracy of the model; considered for all work.
· the software available to the project team; 6.5 Estuar ine System Modelling
and
Computational modelling of estuaries is generally
· the budget. similar to river modelling, but with the addition
Early design of the model is also required to of a seaward boundary where the levels follow a
direct the data collection exercise properly. The tidal curve. Estuarine modelling may be required
design must consider the above points, together to provide a realistic downstream boundary
with: condition for a fluvial model. In other cases the
fluvial model may be extended into the estuary.
· the geographical extent of the model; Care must be exercised where an estuary is:
· the ‘scale’ (cross-section spacing) of the · wide, with significant flow variations across
model and the law of diminishing returns in its width; or
terms of increased data density;
· stratified, with significant stratification of
· the boundaries of the model, which may need saline and fluvial flows.
to coincide with gauging stations, weirs, or
other well defined fluvial features; and Additional model types are available for
estuarine modelling, for simulation of the above
· calibration and verification locations and conditions. These include 2-D models, either
accuracy. allowing horizontal or vertical variation of
Data required for the model includes: parameters through a cross section, and full 3-D
models, allowing variation in both planes. It
· topographic data for model definition; should be noted that such models are generally
· flow and level data for model calibration; more difficult and costly to build and calibrate,
and the data requirements being greater.
· other parameters (e.g. water quality).

6.6 Management of Modelling final modelling report. It may also be possible for
managing staff to be actively involved in the
Close liaison between management and
model tests.
modelling must be maintained, to integrate
engineering, environmental and specialist
modelling disciplines, and to prevent the
modelling from becoming an end - however
interesting - in itself.
Management concerns may be reduced by clear
terms of reference, with early preparation of a
detailed specification of the modelling tasks. This
formalises the model objectives, design,
software, calibration and verification, accuracy
and reporting.
Cost estimates for modelling projects are often
optimistic, overlooking the potential delays and
problems with data, model or computer hardware
that can occur. To some degree this may be
inevitable in a competitive tendering
environment, so should be taken into account in
drawing up briefs and reviewing tenders.
It should also be recognised that the investigatory
nature of computational modelling will often
result in genuine difficulty in assessing time and
cost budgets in advance.
Cost control may be improved by:
· detailed specification;
· ensuring the timely availability of all the data
required; and
· regular liaison.
In cases where cost over-runs are threatened, it
may be appropriate to re-examine and prioritise
the project requirements to suit the cost
constraints.
6.7 Physical Modelling
Physical modelling should be considered for the
detailed examination of local hydraulic effects,
such as at bridges, weirs, intakes and the like.
Physical models should be given to specialist
contractors, who have appropriate laboratory
facilities. These contractors include specialist
modelling companies and universities.
Physical modelling contracts should be written to
allow the management staff to visit the model
and interact with the modelling team. Such visits
can give them a better understanding of the
hydraulic features than they may gain from the
6.8 Refer ences Coefficients for Inbank and Outbank Flows
Water Maritime and Energy Journal, Volume
Topic Refer ences 136
Hydrologic modelling 1, 4
11. Environment Agency (1999) Specification
2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, for Section 105 Flood Risk Mapping,
River system modelling
10, 11 Contract Reference - Natcon 257.
Estuarine system
4, 5, 6, 7
modelling
Management of
6, 7, 8, 9
modelling
1. Abbot, M B (1997) Range of Tidal Flow

Modelling; One-Dimensional and Two-
Dimensional Models in Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, Vol. 123 No 4
2. Chartered Institute of Water and
Environmental Management (1987) Water
Practice Manuals 7 - River Engineering -
Part 1, Design Principles Chartered Institute
of Water and Environmental Management
3. Cunge, J A et al (1980) Practical Aspects of
Computational River Hydraulics Pitman,
London
4. Evans, G P (1993) Marine and Estuarine
Modelling: Current Practice in the UK
Report No FR 0356, Foundation for Water
Research
5. Evans, G P (1993) A Framework for Marine
and Estuarine Model Specification in the UK
Report No FR 0374, Foundation for Water
Research
6. Environment Agency (1998), Determining
the Freshwater Flow Needs of Estuaries,
R&D Technical Report W113.
7. Environment Agency (1998), Quality
Control Manual for Computational
Estuarine Modelling, R&D Technical Report
W113.
8. Gardiner, J L (1991) River Projects and
Conservation - A Manual for Holistic
Appraisal, J. Wiley & Sons Ltd; Chichester
9. Seed, D J (1978) Quality Assurance in
Computational River Modelling Hydraulics
Research Ltd Report SR 374, HR
Wallingford
10. Myers, W R C, Knight, D W, Lyness, J F,
Cassells, J B, Brown, F (1999) Resistance
PART 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

7. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION
7.1 Scope of the Chapter · construction methods - whether local con-

ditions or the design concept constrain the
This chapter sets out matters to be taken into
methods that can be adopted (and vice
account generally when designing fluvial works
versa);
for the Environment Agency. More detailed
comments related to specific types of work are · construction materials - what materials are
given in Chapters 8 to 12. available and acceptable, taking note of the
effect they may have on appearance function
The chapter assumes that a ‘project appraisal
and maintenance;
report’, defining the purpose and function of the
works in outline and supported by an · operation - what constraints are placed on the
‘environmental assessment’, has already been design, by the methods or circumstances of
prepared. For convenience, however, the chapter operation;
reference list includes guidance on both project
appraisal and environmental assessment. It also · maintenance - how the works will be
covers the legal background to land drainage and maintained and whether the design can be
flood defence responsibilities. improved to simplify maintenance;
· post-project monitoring - what monitoring
7.2 Design Pr ocess will be needed, how often it should be
Although all designs are different and every undertaken and how the results should be
designer has a different approach, there are a processed and recorded; and
number of common steps, given under the sub- · health and safety, which is discussed
headings below, which need to be carried out separately below.
whenever a design is undertaken.
7.2.3 Deter mine Data Requir ements
7.2.1 Review Pur pose and Function and Gaps
Circumstances may have changed since the In almost all circumstances additional
project appraisal report was prepared, or other information is required before the design can be
factors needing to be taken into account may be undertaken. This generally includes topographic
identified during detailed design. To ensure that survey and geotechnical investigations. Other
the works are as required, their purpose and information which may need to be collected
function need to be reviewed regularly, at least at could include water levels (high, low), local
the beginning and end of the design period. ecology/habitats, local archaeology and local
7.2.2 Identify Design Issues materials.
Operational and environmental issues should be 7.2.4 Establish Design Cr iter ia

identified in the project appraisal and Operational and environmental criteria again
environmental assessment reports, but again need should have been established for the project
to be reviewed. Issues requiring particular appraisal and environmental assessment reports,
attention, either because they may not have been but should be reviewed at this stage. Engineering
fully covered in earlier reports, or because they criteria to be established include:
may affect - or be affected by - design decisions,
include the following: · design events - the events or combinations of
events to be used to set the conditions to be
· the river bank or bed stability - whether the designed for;
banks or bed of the river are likely to move
and, if so, how this can be accommodated; · hydraulic performance - including how this
may vary under, for example, a range of
· access - during and after construction, by
Agency staff, contractors and the public;
conditions (such as water depth and scour 7.4 Risk Assessment
depth) likely to be encountered;
All works must be designed to avoid, reduce or
· stability - including normal and extreme control risks to health and safety as far as is
operating conditions (design events) and reasonably practicable. Risk assessments are an
abnormal combinations of circumstances; inherent part of safe design practice and are
required under current Health and Safety
· design life - how long the works are intended
legislation.
to last and the implications on the durability
of the materials to be used;
The Agency has recently produced a Risk
· buildability - not necessarily covered by Assessment report (1997) which is a useful
health and safety considerations. Ease of introduction to the subject.
construction is more likely to produce a
better end product. 7.5 Exper t Advice
· mode of failure - what will happen if the Specific recommendations on the need for expert
design criteria are exceeded. advice when designing different types of work
are given in Chapters 8 to 12. The safe design of
This last item needs to be considered in the
all works, however, requires a sound
context of the whole river system and
geotechnical understanding. It is therefore a
surrounding area, not just the works themselves.
general recommendation that a geotechnical
7.2.5 Under take Detailed Design adviser, with a minimum of eight years post-
charter experience, be appointed for all civil
Design is an iterative process; undertaking a design work. This accords with the ICE Site
detailed design entails revisiting and reviewing Investigation Steering Group proposals.
each of the above items on a number of
occasions, with the final review being the last
step in the design process.
7.3 Health and Safety Consider ations

Health and safety are prime considerations in the
design of all works. This is given legislative
backing in a number of directives, which arise
from the Health and Safety at Work Act (1974)
and the Management of Health and Safety at
Work Regulations (1992). The Construction
(Design and Management) Regulations 1994
apply to most construction works. The
Regulations require the client to appoint a
Planning Supervisor who has overall
responsibility for co-ordinating health and safety
aspects while the works are being designed. This
responsibility includes ensuring that Health and
Safety Plans and a Health and Safety File are
prepared and handed over to the Principal
Contractor when construction starts.
The CDM regulations apply to construction
projects and everyone associated with them. They
place duties on clients, planning supervisors and
contractors to plan, co-ordinate and manage
health and safety throughout all stages of a
project.

7.6 Refer ences 13. Health and Safety Commission (1996)
Guidelines to the safety, health & welfare at
Topic Refer ences work (construction) regulations 1996
Design process 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, HMSO; London
11, 16, 17, 18, 19,
14. Health and Safety Commission (1995)
20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
Managing construction for health and safety,
25, 26
approved code of practice HMSO; London
Health and safety 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15
considerations 15. Health and Safety Commission (1995)
Designing for Health and Safety in
Expert advice 3, 26, 27
construction; a guide for designers and the
Construction (Design and Management)
1. Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994, 1995 HMSO; London
Regulations 1994 16. Institution of Civil Engineers (1996) Land
2. Department of the Environment (1991) drainage and flood defence responsibilities
Policy appraisal and the environment The 3rd Edition, Institution of Civil Engineers
Stationery Office; London 17. McGeorge, D and Palmer, A (1997)
3. Department of the Environment (1995) Construction management: new directions
Preparation of environmental statements for Blackwell; Oxford
planning projects that require environmental 18. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
assessment The Stationery office; London (1992) Environmental Procedures for Inland
4. Engineering Council (1993) Guidelines on Flood Defence Works Report
Risk Issues The Engineering Council. PB1152,Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food
5. Engineering Council (1992) Engineers and
Risk Issues, Code of Professional Practice 19. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food/
The Engineering Council Department of the Environment /Welsh
Office Conservation guidelines for drainage
6. Environment Agency (1996) Project authorities Report PB0743 Ministry of
management in the Environment Agency Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
PM/PM/001Environment Agency, Bristol
20. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
7. Environment Agency (1996) Engineering (1999) Flood and coastal defence project
project management manual Environment appraisal guidance FCDPAG3, Economic
Agency, Bristol appraisal, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
8. Environment Agency (1997) Risk assessment and Food
and management guidance note 21. National Rivers Authority (1994) Guide to
Environment Agency, Bristol risk assessment methodologies, R&D Note
9. Environment Agency (1996) Contract design 371, National Rivers Authority, Bristol
manual Environment Agency 22. National Rivers Authority (1992)
10. Environment Agency (1996)CDM Environmental Assessment of NRA Projects
Regulations guidance note Environment R&D Note 52, National Rivers Authority
Agency (Bristol)
11. Gardiner, J L (1991) River projects and 23. National Rivers Authority (1995) Scoping
conservation, a manual for holistic appraisal Guidance for the Environmental Assessment
J Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester of Projects, National Rivers Authority,
Bristol
12. Hazards Forum (1996) An engineer’s
responsibility for safety; safety by design 24. National Rivers Authority (1995) Further
Hazards Forum Guidance for the Environmental Assessment

of Projects, National Rivers Authority,
Bristol
25. RSPB (1994) The new rivers and wildlife
handbook RSPB
26. Snell, M (1997) Cost benefit analysis for
engineers and planners Thomas Telford;
London
27. Williams, B P & Waite, D (1992) The design
and construction of sheet piled cofferdams
for temporary works CIRIA CP2

8. CHANNEL MODIFICATIONS
8.1 Scope of the Chapter main channel and at higher stages with overbank
flow. Research in recent years has shown that the
This chapter covers the design considerations
interaction between flow in the main channel and
involved in carrying out works to modify a river
that on the higher berm or floodplain is complex,
channel. These may involve works affecting the
particularly in meandering rivers. For major
river banks alone, works altering the cross
channel modifications with great complexity to
section of the entire channel, or - more rarely -
the flow patterns, recourse to physical modelling
the construction of a new channel, for example as
may be necessary.
a flood relief or cut-off channel.
8.2.2 River Mor phology
8.2 Basic Concepts and Common River channels, except where provided with a
Concer ns hard lining (generally in urban areas), have
Rivers and river channels may serve a number of erodible banks and bed. All natural river
functions, which include: channels are thus mobile, changing both their
plan form and their gradients, although the latter
· catchment drainage; may be of very long-term scale. The concept of
· conveyance of flow; channel stability must be considered in the
context of the scale of the life of the proposed
· conveyance of sediment; works.
· control of groundwater levels; Rivers vary considerably in their behaviour and
· habitat for flora and fauna; and characteristics, from steep, braided watercourses
transporting gravels, cobbles and even boulders,
· navigation and recreation. to meandering lowland rivers and estuaries,
8.2.1 Two-Stage Channels and carrying silts and clay-sized material. In certain
types of catchment, streams may be ephemeral. It
Floodplains
is important that both the nature and régime of
Rivers are commonly considered to comprise the length of river under consideration, within the
only the channel between defined banks. In the context of the overall catchment and the
UK, it is generally found that flows in excess of processes at work in the particular location, are
around the annual average flood (approximately understood. Many problems associated with
a two-year return period) exceed the natural bank channel modifications result from an incomplete
height and flow across the floodplain. In the consideration of their potential interaction with
design of any channel modifications, fluvial morphology. Further details are given in
consideration must be given to this out-of- Chapter 1.
channel flow.
8.2.3 Envir onmental Consider ations
Floodplain widths may be limited by man-made
obstructions; in particular, many rivers are Environment Agency policy is that, almost
constrained between flood embankments. Envir- without exception, all river channel modifications
onmental considerations may also favour the use must sustain, improve or re-establish the natural
of two-stage channels, with a defined low-flow habitats. Environment Agency policy actively
channel and berms, and areas adjacent to the discourages the culverting of sections of
channel which become inundated only under watercourses, although short lengths of culverts
moderate flood flows. may be unavoidable in certain circumstances.
Environmental and ecological considerations thus
The designer must give detailed consideration to dictate much of the design of river channel
the different flow conditions, both within the

modifications. Particular matters to be considered Vegetation roughness can be very difficult to
include: assess and depends on the time of year and
maintenance schedules, as well as the factors
· the use of natural river forms, such as
indicated above. Sensitivity analyses should be
meanders and associated varying channel
carried out to assess the effect of changes in
cross sections;
roughness on any predictions of water level and
· the maintenance or restoration of riffle-and- velocities.
pool low-flow features in gravel-bed rivers;
8.2.6 Other Matter s
· use of two stage shallow V cross sections to
Other matters, which may need to be considered,
promote the establishment of appropriate
include:
vegetation; and
· the effect of dredging on the channel régime;
· the use of appropriate ‘soft green’ measures
for bank protection, including traditional · the use of river training works, particularly
local methods. on steep, unstable rivers;
8.2.4 Design Flows · the effect of changes to structures, both
upstream and downstream; and
Within the context of a natural river in a
floodplain, there can be no single ‘design flow’. · loss of flood plain storage and flow capacity
The designer must consider the implications of by new works, for example, road
low flows, moderate flood flows at about bank- embankments.
full conditions, and high flood flows when the
8.2.7 Matter s Requir ing Specialist
flow will be over-bank. In many cases, however,
there will be flood defence considerations, when Inputs
the defined level of service dictates the flood Specialist advice should be sought in the
flow, which must not exceed the flood protection following areas:
level. Generally, modifications to a river channel
should be designed to be consistent with - or to · river morphology;
lower the stage-discharge characteristics of - the · sediment movement; and
existing watercourse.
· ecological and environmental matters.
A change in the flow régime, such as increasing
urbanisation of the catchment or changes in low
flow abstraction may also affect the régime and
characteristics of the watercourse.
8.2.5 Channel Roughness
The greatest uncertainty in estimating the
capacity of any new channel or modification to
an existing river lies in the assessment of the
channel roughness. This is a function of the
materials of the bed and banks, and the extent,
density and type of vegetation growth. The
roughness thus varies with depth and flow. It is
different in the main channel and on the
floodplain and, as noted above, is affected by the
interaction of flows between these elements. In
sand-bed and gravel-bed rivers, bed forms can
develop during a flood, and the roughness may
be different on the rising and falling stages of the
flood.

8.3 Refer ences 12. Hey, R D & Heritage, G L (1993) River
engineering works in gravel bed rivers; a
Topic Refer ence summary of results, conclusions and
Basic concepts 3, 4, 9, 10, 17 recommendations National Rivers Authority
Environmental 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, R & D Note 155
considerations 15, 18, 19 13. H R Wallingford (1992) Hydraulic
River morphology 11, 12 roughness of vegetated channels Report SR
Bank protection 1, 9, 10, 16 305 H R Wallingford
Channel roughness 1, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23 14. Institute of Hydrology (in press) Combining
hydraulic design and EIAs for flood defence
Specialist inputs 7, 11, 17, 22
schemes Report FD 0506 Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
1. Ashby-Crane, R et al (1993) River bed 15. National Rivers Authority (1993)
lining; state of the art review National Rivers Ecologically acceptable flows; assessment of
Authority R & D Note 184 instream flow incremental methodology
2. Bates, A D and Hooper, A G; (1997) Inland National Rivers Authority R&D Note 185
dredging - guidance on good practice CIRIA 16. National Rivers Authority (1993) Revetment
Report 169 systems and materials National Rivers
3. Brookes, A and Sear, D A (1996) River Authority R&D Digest No. 90
restoration: guiding principles for 17. Round, C E et al (1998) A regionally
sustainable projects, J Wiley & Sons Ltd, applicable model for estimating flow velocity
Chichester at ungauged river sites in the UK Journal
4. Chow, V T (1959) Open-channel hydraulics CIWEM
McGraw-Hill; Kogakusha 18. River Restoration Centre (1999) Manual of
5. CIRIA (1996) Guidance on the disposal of river restoration techniques River
dredged material to land CIRIA Report Restoration Centre
157; CIRIA 19. RSPB (1994) The new rivers and wildlife
6. Coppin, N and Richards, I G (1992) Use of handbook RSPB
vegetation in civil engineering CIRIA Report 20. Smailes, E L (1996) Hydraulic effects of
B10 vegetation management Report TR6 H R
7. Environment Agency (1996) NRA procedure Wallingford
for assessing river bank erosion problems 21. Wark, J B et al (1994) Design of straight and
and solutions Environment Agency R & D meandering compound channels; interim
Report 28 guidelines on hand calculation methodology
8. Environment Agency (1997) Rivers and for the National Rivers Authority; R&D
wetlands, best practice guidelines Report 13
Environment Agency 22. Ervine, D A, Macleod, A B (1999) Modelling
9. Escarameia, M (1998) Design manual on a River Channel With Distant Floodbanks,
river and channel revetments; Thomas Proc. Inst. Of Civil Engineers, Water
Telford Maritime and Energy Journal, Volume 136
10. Hemphill, R W and Bramley, M E (1990) 23. Rameshwaran, P, Willetts, B B (1999)
Protection of river and canal banks CIRIA Conveyance Predictions for Meandering
report B9 Two-Stage Channel Flows, Proc. Inst. Of
Civil Engineers Water Maritime and Energy
11. Hey R D and Heritage, G L (1993) Draft Journal, Volume 136
guidelines for the design and restoration of
flood alleviation schemes for the National
Rivers Authority R&D Note 154
9. FLOOD STORAGE ARRANGEMENTS
9.1 Scope of the Chapter be less than that caused if the impounding
structure were to fail in a rapid and uncontrolled
This chapter covers the design of works to store
manner. This assumption, however, needs to be
flood flows, with the objective of reducing
examined individually for each case.
flooding further downstream. It concentrates on
the hydraulic aspects of such works; the design of
9.4 Off-line Stor age Wor ks
individual components is covered in other
chapters. Off-line storage works generally comprise:
· an intake structure - diverting water to the
9.2 Oper ation storage area when the river flow or level
Flood storage works are either ‘on-line’, in which exceeds a pre-determined value;
the water is stored within the river channel and
· a storage area - a reservoir separated from the
its floodplain, or ‘off-line’, in which the water is
river, formed either by low ground levels
diverted from the river channel, stored in a
(natural or excavated) or by retaining
separate area and subsequently released back to
structures (embankments and/or walls); and
the river or another watercourse.
· an outlet structure - returning water from the
9.3 On-line Stor age Wor ks storage area to the river after the flood peak
is past.
The components of on-line storage works
include: A gravity rather than pumped intake arrangement
is normally adopted on economic grounds, as the
· an impounding structure - generally an earth
inflow rates required are generally high and
or concrete structure across the river and
operation relatively infrequent. Weirs can be
floodplain, behind which the water is stored;
used and have the advantage of beginning to
and
operate whenever river levels rise above a given
· a flow control structure - generally set in the value. They provide no control over water levels
impounding structure, to control the outflow in the storage area, however, and need to be long,
from the storage area. if a significant discharge is required for a limited
additional rise in river level. For this reason, a
The flow control structure can be a fixed throttle
gated arrangement is often used.
(such as a flume or orifice), sized to have little
effect on normal flows, but requiring a significant The storage reservoir generally lies within the
rise in upstream water level to discharge flood flood plain and is isolated from it by purpose-
flows. Such arrangements also require an built walls or embankments (the implications for
overflow weir or spillway to cater for extreme reservoir design through the Reservoirs Act
events, which would otherwise lead to the safe (1975) are raised later - in paragraph 9.5.5). The
water level upstream of the impounding structure volume available for storage in the reservoir
being exceeded. depends on the water depth that can be obtained,
which is controlled by existing ground and peak
Often, the control structure incorporates gates,
flood levels. This depth is often limited, making
which are normally left open, but are operated
it necessary for the reservoir to cover a large area.
during floods to ensure that downstream flows do
Choosing a site where the ground is low (either
not exceed the design flow of the downstream
naturally or as a result of excavations, for
flood defences. Again, the operation rules need to
example for gravel pits) increases the depth
cater for extreme events, which could overwhelm
available but may mean that pumps are needed to
the impounding structure. If this is likely to
empty the reservoir after the flood has passed.
occur, the normal response is to increase the
outflow and accept that some damage may be The outlet may be by gravity (generally using
caused downstream; this damage would generally gates), pumped or by a combination of the two
(with gravity discharge initially, then pumping to is filled during the first; the risk of such floods
drain the lowest sections). The outlet capacity occurring needs to form part of the hydrological
depends on the volume stored and the time analysis.
allowed for the system to be fully drained, noting
that the standard of protection is reduced
9.5.5 Reser voir s Act (1975)
whenever the reservoir contains water. Emer- If the storage reservoir is capable of restricting
gency overflow arrangements are needed to more than 25 000 m3 of water above the adjacent
protect the reservoir and these may form a major ground level, it is likely to come within the scope
part of the facility if the inlet is uncontrolled. of the Reservoirs Act (1975). This places an
obligation on the owner to have the reservoir
9.5 Key Design Consider ations inspected by a properly qualified person at
regular intervals.
Some of the factors needing consideration during
the design of a flood storage scheme are dis- 9.5.6 Impact on Local Flow Conditions
cussed below.
The scheme may cause rapid changes in flow
9.5.1 Flood Volume/Dur ation conditions locally (near the intake, outlet or any
overflow arrangements). This could cause
The design of the scheme is controlled by the
unexpected effects (water level changes,
assumed flood volume and flood hydrograph
scouring) upstream or downstream.
shape rather than the flood peak. It is essential
that the hydrological studies are carried out with 9.5.7 Public Safety
this in mind.
Public safety must be considered, particularly in
9.5.2 Timing of Inflow remote locations or where there is recreational
use of flood storage areas which are normally
The storage volume available is generally only a
kept empty, including the need for early warning.
small fraction of the total flood volume. It is
therefore important that the scheme does not 9.5.8 Public Health Consider ations
begin to operate too early, as the reservoir may
then be filled before the flood peak is reached. Local public health must be considered especially
in urban areas downstream of storm sewage
9.5.3 Contr ol Ar r angements overflows.
The scheme’s performance during a flood is 9.5.9 Planning Per mission
generally sensitive to the flood characteristics.
Optimising the performance requires a The need for planning permission can be an
sophisticated control system, which integrates important consideration.
level and flow data from the catchment upstream 9.5.10 Loss of Development Potential
with conditions at the area being defended. A
detailed understanding of the river system and its Loss of development potential may give rise to
response during floods is needed, to set operating substantial compensation claims.
rules which will not be compromised during 9.5.11 Statutor y Power s
normal, extreme or emergency conditions.
The Agency has no statutory powers to operate
The corollary is that the impact of the change in reservoirs. Consideration must be given to the
the overall behaviour of the river system needs to negotiation of resettlement or compensatory
be examined and that changes may be required to payments.
the flood warning systems.
9.5.12 Impact of River Maintenance
9.5.4 Consecutive Floods
Operation of the scheme is likely to be sensitive
If a flood occurs while the storage reservoir still to small changes in water level and may therefore
contains water from a preceding flood, the be affected if the river maintenance arrangements
standard of protection provided by the scheme are altered, affecting the channel roughness.
will be significantly reduced. This can also
happen if a flood has two peaks and the reservoir
9.5.13 Envir onmental Implications and
J oint Use
The development of a flood storage scheme
usually provides opportunities for environmental
enhancement. Opportunities for recreational
development are generally more limited, because
of potential conflict with the flood defence
functions.
Water quality needs to be considered where the
flood storage scheme involves the creation of a
permanent body of water.
9.5.14 Dr ainage of the Ar ea
Consideration must be given to how the area can
be drained, after the scheme has been
implemented.
9.5.15 Visual Impact
The visual impact of bunds and walls in urban
areas must be considered.

9.6 Refer ences 13. Sarginson, E J (1973) Flood control in
reservoirs and storage ponds Journal of
Topic Refer ence hydrology Vol. 19 351-59pp
Basic concepts 1, 7
Storage works 4, 5, 10, 13
Key design 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12
considerations
1. Chow, V T (1959) Open channel hydraulics

McGraw-Hill, New York
2. CIRIA (1992) Scope for control of urban
runoff Reports 123/124
3. Coulson, J C et al (1984) Land drainage
responsibilities; a practical code for
engineers Institution of Civil Engineers;
London
4. Ellis, J B et al (1990) The design and
operation of flood storage dams for
recreational uses in The Embankment Dam,
British Dam Society, Thomas Telford;
London 133-6pp
5. Hall, M J (1986) Design of flood storage
reservoirs CIRIA/ Butterworth-Heineman;
Oxford
6. Hemphill, R W & Bramley, M E (1989)
Protection of river and canal banks Report 9,
CIRIA; London
7. Henderson, F M (1966) Open channel flow
Macmillan; London
8. HMSO (1974) Control of pollution Act 1974
HMSO; London
9. Institution of Civil Engineers (1996) Floods
and reservoir safety 3rd edition Institution of
Civil Engineers
10. Knott, G E et al (1985) Use of detention
tanks for flow attenuation - a review of
current practice Water Research Centre;
Medmenham
11. McCuen, R C (1980) Water quality trap
efficiency of stormwater management basins
Water Resources Bulletin Vol 16 15-21pp
12. Owen, M (1978) Report on estimation of
wave heights in reservoirs H R Wallingford

10. FLOOD WALLS AND EMBANKMENTS
10.1 Scope of the Chapter · extreme low water levels in the river;
This chapter covers design considerations for · design flood conditions;
flood and earth retaining walls, flood banks and
· maximum credible flood conditions (floods
channel banks.
exceeding the design event may overtop the
structure but should not cause collapse);
Concer ns · reverse water loading, where this is possible
after overtopping or where flood water is
10.2.1 Pur pose and For m stored;
Flood walls and embankments may fulfil one or · maximum rate of drawdown and resulting
more of the following roles: maximum difference in water levels between
· excluding water from an area; one side of the structure and the other side;
· retaining water within an area; · extreme eroded bed levels at the toe of the
wall or bank in times of maximum flow;
· acting as part of a conveyance - as part of the
channel conveying water past the areas being · maximum current velocities; and
defended; · conditions during construction.
· retaining soil and water as part of:
10.2.3 Effects of Str uctur es on River
- a flood defence structure; Hydr aulics
- a channel bank; or New banks and walls should be designed to
- an ancillary structure, such as a bridge or minimise scour and sedimentation, both at the
road embankment; and site of the structure and elsewhere. Their effect
on the flow and flooding characteristics of the
· serve a secondary purpose, such as a wharf or river system should be assessed. The role of the
road. banks and walls as components in the flood
The choice of appropriate structural form in a defence system needs to be fully understood.
given case may be influenced by a number of 10.2.4 Geotechnical Consider ations
factors, including:
Flood banks and walls frequently have to be
· the purpose(s) of the wall or bank; constructed in areas where the soils are weak and
· aesthetics and the environmental setting - highly variable due to erosion and redeposition
landscape and townscape; when river channels have changed their course
and depth. Ground investigations need to be
· land availability and cost; particularly careful and thorough. Interpolation
between boreholes needs to be considered with
· geotechnical considerations;
great care. An allowance for anticipated
· access for construction; and settlement over the life of the structure may have
to be made.
· construction and maintenance costs.
10.2.5 Continuity
10.2.2 Per for mance and Loading
Cr iter ia Continuity of the flood defence needs to be
maintained, both during and after construction.
Performance and loading criteria are as listed in Details at each end of a new defence need to be
Chapters 4 and 5 of the NRA’s R&D Note 199. designed to avoid outflanking or creating points
Particular design conditions, which need to be of weakness.
considered, include:
10.2.6 Water Pr essur e Effects 10.2.8 Maintenance
Where there can be water level differences Access for, ease of and cost of maintenance need
between one side of the bank or wall and the to be considered at the design stage. Loads
other side, the effects of water pressure arising from maintenance equipment should be
transmitted to the lower side should be allowed for.
considered. Assessment of uplift should allow for
a range of assumptions, particularly where
10.2.9 Envir onmental and Community
cutoffs are used. For example the transmission of Effects
water pressure through sheet pile cutoffs may The effects of the structure on habitats,
range from 100% to virtually nil. Where it is conservation, landscape and townscape needs to
practicable, water pressure should be relieved by be considered from the earliest stages in the
drains. Where that is not possible, the design project.
should allow for the forces to be resisted.
The introduction of a flood bank or wall in an
10.2.7 Top Level urban area can cause problems for the adjacent
properties with regard to security and privacy. It
Economic, environmental and technical consid-
may also sever existing access routes, or
erations affect the choice of top level for a flood
introduce requirements for steps or ramps,
wall or embankment. In general, the top level
affecting use by people in wheelchairs or pushing
should be set at a figure, which allows for:
prams.
· the maximum stillwater level of the design
event during the life of the structure; 10.3 Par ticular Design Issues
· wave runup, which varies according to the Affecting Str uctur es
exposure, fetch, local winds, and the details 10.3.1 Sheet-Pile Walls
of the structure;
The following points should be considered in the
· maximum acceptable overtopping rate; design of sheet-pile walls:
· construction tolerances; · the design life, corrosion rates, areas of
· forecast local settlement before the structure accelerated corrosion and methods of red-
is refurbished; ucing corrosion;
· regional long term changes in ground and · the economics of using high-yield steel-sheet
water levels; piles;
· freeboard to allow for errors or variations in · if the pile section is sufficient to withstand
the above estimates and for wear and tear being driven;
until made good by maintenance; · abrasion by sand and gravel in fast-flowing
· the function of the structure; and rivers or where wave action is possible;
· risks associated with high structures · the dangers of using cantilever sheet-pile
designs for all but the smallest walls;
The function is also relevant to deciding on the
top level in some cases, such as if a flood bank · the safe design of tie-rods affected by settle-
acts also as a weir into a flood storage area, when ment of backfill (allow for rotation at each
the top level has to suit the operation of the flood end);
storage system. · the safe design of connection details of
Economic considerations can affect the choice of waling to sheet piles (allow for combination
design return period and hence the top level of a of tension and shear due to vertical loading
flood bank or wall. from soil and live loads on waling);
· the safe design of self-anchored corners
(diagonal tie-rods put high forces into the

walings, which must be transmitted through
the structure into the ground);
· the sensitivity of the wall to erosion of bed
levels in front of the wall, increase in backfill
levels and increase in water level differences;
· the acceptability of its appearance; and
· drainage on the ‘dry’ side of the wall.
10.3.2 Gr avity Walls
The following factors need to be considered in
the design of gravity walls:
· the design life and control of corrosion in
reinforced concrete walls;
· the need for and expense of cofferdams for
some types of wall construction;
· the vulnerability of gabions to vandalism and
corrosion;
· the need to prevent the passage of water
under the wall; and
10.3.3 Flood Banks
The following points should be considered in the
design of flood defence embankments.
· local availability of suitable material for the
construction of embankments;
· the control of erosion on the front face, crest
and back face (if liable to overtop);
· resistance to damage by burrowing animals;
· the control of seepage through and under the
bank;
· adequate crest width to allow for access by
vehicles;
· the need to restrict access to cows and other
animals which cause damage to banks;
· the need to specify suitable vegetation on
banks and to avoid growth of trees;
· the susceptibility of soil to cracking;
· the need to incorporate any public footpaths

or bridleways; and

10.4 Refer ences 14. Escarameia, M (1998) River and channel
revetments – a design manual, Thomas
Topic Refer ence Telford
2, 6, 9, 12, 16, 17, 19,
Basic concepts 15. Escarameia, M and May, R W P (1992)
26, 28, 29
Channel protection downstream of
1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, structures, Report SR313, HR Wallingford
Design issues 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20,
21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27 16. Escarameia, M and May, R W P (1995)
Stability of riprap and concrete blocks in
highly turbulent flows, Proceedings ICE,
1. Besley, P (1999) Overtopping of seawalls – Water, Maritime and Energy, September
Design and assessment manual, HR Walling- 1995
ford, Research and Development Technical
17. Hemphill, R W and Bramley, M E (1989)
Report W178 (for Environment Agency)
Protection of river and canal banks,
2. BS 8004: 1986, Code of practice for CIRIA/Butterworths, London
foundations
18. Hewlett, H W M et al (1987) Design of
3. BS 6349, Maritime structures reinforced grass waterways, R116, CIRIA,
Part 1: 2000: Code of practice for general London
criteria
19. Jewell, R A (1995) Soil reinforcement with
Part 2: 1984: Design of a quay walls, jetties
geotextiles, SP123, CIRIA, London
and dolphins
20. Kennard, M F, Hoskins C G and Fletcher, M
4. BS 6031: 1981 Code of practice for earth
(1996) Small embankment reservoirs, R161,
works
CIRIA, London
5. BS 8006: 1995 Code of practice for strength-
21. McConnel, K (1998) Revetment systems
ened/reinforced soils and other fills
against wave attack – a design manual,
6. BS 8002: 1994 Code of practice for earth Thomas Telford
retaining structures
22. National Rivers Authority (1993) Revetment
7. British Steel Corporation (1997), BSC Piling systems and materials, National Rivers
Handbook, 7th edition, BSC Authority R&D Note 116, R&D Digest 90
8. Coppin, N J and Richards, I G (1990) Use of 23. PIANC (1987) Guidelines for the design and
vegetation in civil engineering, CIRIA, construction of flexible revetments,
London incorporating geotextiles for inland
waterways, WG4 Supplement to Bulletin 57,
9. CUR (1995) Manual on the use of rock in
PIANC, Brussels
hydraulic engineering, CUR/RWS Report
169, Balkema, Rotterdam 24. PIANC (1992) Guidelines for the design and
construction of flexible revetments
10. Environment Agency (1997) Earth
incorporating geotextiles in the marine
embankment fissuring manual, Environment
environment PTCII Supplement to Bulletin
Agency Technical Report W41
78/79, PIANC, Brussels
11. Kerby, A, (1999) Freeboard for fluvial flood
25. PIANC (1996) Reinforced vegetative bank
defences, 34th MAFF Conference of River
protections utilising geotextiles, WG12
and Coastal Engineers, 1999
Supplement to Bulletin 91, PIANC, Brussels
12. Environment Agency (1999) Waterway bank
26. PIANC Conference (1997) Geotextiles and
protection – a guide to erosion assessment
geomembranes in river and maritime works,
and management, R&D Publication 11
PIANC, Brussels
13. Escarameia, M (1995), Channel protection:
gabion, mattresses and concrete blocks,
Report SR427, HR Wallingford
27. Pilarczyk, K W (Ed) (1998) Dikes and
revetments: design, maintenance and safety
assessment, Balkema, Rotterdam
28. Tatham, P F B et al (1993) Asset
Management Planning for Flood Defences,
National Rivers Authority; R&D Note 199
29. Tatham, P F B (1996) Flood defence
freeboard, Proceedings 31st MAFF
Conference for River and Coastal Engineers,
pp 3.5.1–3.5.5

11. RIVER & CANAL STRUCTURES (CIVIL ASPECTS)
11.1 Scope of the Chapter 11.2.3 Afflux

This chapter covers design considerations for the Under even modest flow conditions, most
civil engineering aspects of the following control structures raise water levels upstream, which may
structures in rivers: reduce the standard of flood protection provided.
Any afflux, which is defined as the difference in
· weirs and flumes;
water level across the structure, should therefore
· gated structures (including barrages); be minimised, consistent with the purpose of the
structure. The effect of an afflux is to increase
· intakes;
flow velocities through the structure.
· bridges and culverts;
11.2.4 River Tr aining
· siphons;
River training works are often associated with
· locks and fish passes; and structures. Training works may be required
· drop structures. upstream (for example, to avoid outflanking) and
downstream (for example, to lessen the impact of
Trash is mentioned but trash screens are dealt the structure on flow conditions).
with in Chapter 12.
11.2.5 Tr ansitions
Concer ns Specific works are required at most structures to
provide a transition between the engineered and
11.2.1 Pur pose natural waterway. The objectives are usually to
The purpose of the structure must be defined at achieve smooth flow conditions, minimise afflux
the outset of the design. A structure may fulfil and reduce the risk of scour.
one or more of the following roles and impacts
must be identified at an early stage: 11.2.6 Safety
Safety is a key requirement, and all designs must
· flow measurement (e.g. weirs and flumes); consider all possible safety issues. Access
· flow conveyance (e.g. bridges, culverts and arrangements, by land and water, are particularly
gated structures); important, including access for operation and
maintenance and access by the public whether
· sediment control (e.g. intakes); intended, accidental or even illegal.
· navigation (e.g. weirs and locks); and
11.2.7 Tr ash
· water level control (e.g. weirs and siphons).
The risk of blockage of the waterway and
11.2.2 Design Flows damage to the structure must be minimised,
The magnitude/return period of the design flood possibly with the use of floating booms and
depends on the importance of the structure and screens (see Chapter 12).
what would happen if the flow were exceeded.
Other criteria may apply to particular structures.
An economic appraisal may be needed to identify
the optimum design flows. In all cases, the
structure’s behaviour under a range of flows,
from very low to very high, must be considered.

11.3 Types of Str uctur e of sediment or floating material and maintaining
‘compensation’ flows downstream.
The main types of river control structure are
described briefly below and design Siphons are strictly devices in which sub-
considerations are set out in Table 1. atmospheric pressures are generated to increase
discharge. The full hydrostatic head between
Weir s are generally used to control levels for
upstream water level and downstream tailwater
navigation or abstraction, to measure flows or to
level is utilised to increase discharge; flow
limit saline intrusion. They usually comprise an
velocities inside the siphon can therefore be quite
approach transition, a structure for the water to
high. Typically, they are provided in place of
flow across, an apron or stilling basin, abutments
simple weirs. Modern designs provide close
and a downstream transition. The crest level and
control on the upstream water levels over a wide
shape depend on the purpose of the structure.
range of flows by automatic regulation of the
quantity of air allowed to enter the barrel. The
Flumes are generally used for flow measurement,
hydraulic design requires considerable care to
having some advantages over weirs, particularly
ensure correct performance, and there are
if sediment loads are high. They are not suitable
structural complications and costs associated with
for large flows or on wide, shallow rivers.
the necessary curved internal profile of the barrel.
Gated control str uctures (including barr ages)
‘Inverted siphons’ (a misnomer, as the flow
provide greater control of river levels over a
behaviour is not siphonic) are culverts which run
wider range of flows than fixed weirs. They are,
full and in which the invert level drops below the
however, more expensive, generally require a
bed level at both ends. This type of structure is
power supply, have greater operation,
occasionally necessary where a drainage channel
maintenance and control needs and involve
has to pass under another low-lying watercourse,
greater risks. In the UK, the term ‘barrage’ would
road or other service.
usually be applied to a structure controlling tidal
flows in an estuary.
Locks are used to transfer boats and shipping
from one navigable reach to another at higher or
Br idges comprise abutments at each side of the
lower level. The components of a lock are the
waterway, intermediate piers, if present, and the
upstream and downstream gates, with supporting
deck. Bridges require significant structural and
structures, the lock chamber and any transitions
geotechnical inputs to the design.
to the river or canal section. Locks in rivers are
linked to a river control structure, which is
Culver ts are covered channels or pipes. They
generally a weir.
have three components; an inlet transition, the
culvert barrel itself and an outlet transition.
Fish passes may be required to facilitate the
Several flow conditions can occur depending on
passage of fish past obstructing river structures
culvert slope, tailwater level, flow and inlet
such as weirs or barrages. The objective of their
details.
design is to provide a ladder or cascade of pools,
with tumbling flow between them, that fish are
Culverts can sometimes be difficult to
able to climb without undue stress. Their design
differentiate from bridges. In general, culverts are
depends not only on the physical parameters of
longer in relation to their width and height, have
the site and river, but also on the type of fish for
lined inverts and do not have any intermediate
which they are intended.
supporting piers.
Drop structur es are similar to weirs in that they
Intakes are used to abstract water from a river or
provide a location for energy dissipation, with
other channel for public water supply, for
some control over upstream water levels. A
industrial purposes, including cooling, or
typical use would be on a river diversion, where
irrigation. An intake needs to be capable of
excess energy from a reduction of the length of
abstracting the required quantity of water under
the natural channel must be dissipated in a
all flow conditions, while minimising the intake
controlled way.
Table 1: RIVER & CANAL STRUCTURES –CIVIL DESIGN ISSUES
Flumes
Fixed Weirs
Siphons
Culverts
Intakes
Bridges
Locks
Gated structures
Fish passes
Drop structures
Key
· Generally relevant
o Relevant – some cases
KEY ISSUES
Location, alignment & layout · · · · · · · · · ·

Nature & characteristics of water course · · · · · o ·
Design flows: High · · · · · · · · · ·
Design flows: Low · · · · · · ·
Waterway size · · · · · · · ·
Afflux/upstream water levels · · · · · · ·
Channel stability & river training · · · · · o ·
Transitions · · · · · · · · · ·
Trash/screening · · · · · · ·
Access for operation · · · ·
Access for maintenance · · · · · · · · · ·
Public access · · · · · · · · · ·
Navigation · · o · · · ·
Visual impact · · ·
Passage of sediment · · · · · ·
Channel regrading · · ·
Scour & protection works · · · · · · ·
Gates · o · o
Discharge relationship/flow measurement · · · · · · · ·
Seepage & piping · · · · ·
Uplift · · · ·
Stability · · · · · · ·
Energy dissipation · · · · · · ·
Tailwater level · · · · · · ·
MATTERS REQUIRING EXPERT ADVICE
River morphology · · · · · ·
Assessment of design flows · · · · · · · · · ·
Navigation requirement · · ·
Passage of fish · · · · · · ·
Gate design · o ·
Ecological & environmental impacts of structure · · · · · · · ·
Ecological & environmental impacts of construction · · · · · · · · · ·

11.4 Refer ences 12. Miller, D S (Ed) (1994) Discharge
characteristics, IAHR Hydraulic Structures
Topic Refer ence Design Manual No 8, AA Balkema,
Basic concepts 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, Rotterdam.
14 13. Neill, C R (Ed) (1973) Guide to bridge
Types of structures 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, hydraulics Roads & Transportation
Association of Canada, University of
14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
Toronto Press.
14. Novak, P et al (1996) Hydraulic structures E
1. Ackers, P et al (1978) Weirs and flumes for & F N Spon; London
flow measurement J. Wiley & Sons;
15. Ramsbottom, D et al (1997) Culvert design
Chichester
manual CIRIA Report 168, CIRIA; London
2. Avery, P (Ed), (1989), Sediment control at
16. Raudkivi, A J (1993), Sedimentation:
intakes BHR Group, Cranfield.
exclusion and removal of sediment from
3. Bos MG (Ed), (1990), Discharge diverted water, IAHR Hydraulic Structures
measurement structures International Design Manual No 6, AA Balkema,
Institute for Land Reclamation & Rotterdam.
Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The
17. Technical Advisory Committee on Water
Netherlands.
Defences Guide for the design of river dikes:
4. Bouvard, M (1992) Mobile barrages and vol 1 - upper river area, (1991), Technical
intakes on sediment transporting rivers Advisory Committee on Water Defences,
IAHR Monograph, AA Balkema; Rotterdam Centre for Civil Engineering Research &
Codes, (CUR), Gouda, The Netherlands.
5. Brandon, T W (Ed), (1989), River
engineering part I, design principles, Water 18. USBR (1978) Design of small canal
Practice Manual No 7, The Institution of structures US Department of the Interior,
Water & Environmental Management, Bureau of Reclamation
London
6. Brandon, T W (Ed), (1989), River
engineering part II, structures and coastal
defence works, Water Practice Manual No 8,
The Institution of Water & Environmental
Management, London
7. Breusers, H N C and Raudkivi, A J, (1994),
Scouring, IAHR Hydraulic Structures
Design Manual No 2, AA Balkema,
Rotterdam.
8. Chow, V T (1959) Open-channel hydraulics,
McGraw-Hill; Kogakusha
9. Farraday, R V and Charlton, F G, (1983),
Hydraulic factors in bridge design, Thomas
Telford Ltd, London
10.Henderson, F M (1966) Open-channel flow
Macmillan; New York
11. Lewin, J (1995) Hydraulic gates and valves
Thomas Telford Ltd; London

12. RIVER & CANAL STRUCTURES (M&E ASPECTS)
12.1 Scope of Chapter More sophisticated monitoring of equipment

performance is also available.
There are a number of types of river and canal
installations and structures that involve plant and Consideration should be given to:
other mechanical, electrical and instrumentation · the security of installations;
equipment. This chapter covers such plant which
includes: · accuracy and reliability requirements;
· gates and gate operating equipment; · lightning protection;
· pumping equipment; · the risks of flooding; and
· inflatable weirs; · back-up systems for critical installations.
· trash screens and booms; and Consideration should also be given to the method
of communication and its compatibility with
· fish deterrent devices. existing facilities, including maintenance and
In many cases such equipment involves the spares arrangements. Methods include hardwired
provision of electrical power, with either local or links, telephone and (increasingly) radio. The
remote control and instrumentation. costs of optical fibre links are unlikely to be
justified.
Generally, specialist advice should be sought
with regard to the design specification and choice 12.4 Types of Installation
of all such equipment, but it is important that the
potential problems and requirements of the plant
12.4.1 Gates
are recognised. Gates are an essential part of many installations
and range from major one-off designs,
12.2 Power Supplies specifically tailored to the particular requirements
Many installations require electrical power for of a site, to small penstocks, sluice gates and flap
operation, monitoring and control, auxiliary valves, that can be purchased as standard items.
services, lighting etc. Generally this requires a
In the fluvial environment, gates are used for:
link to the supply system, for which suitable
expertise and advice must be sought. In some · river level control;
cases, emergency standby generation may be
· flood release and storage control;
required, or direct diesel-powered operation of
the installation. · drainage releases;
For remote monitoring stations, solar-powered · tidal back-flow control; and
instrumentation should be considered.
· navigation lockage.
12.3 Contr ol and Instr umentation
There are many different types of gates, and the
Many installations now have partial or full best choice for a site depends on its particular
automation, with telemetry and Supervisory requirements with regard to:
Control and Data System (SCADA) systems
· flow control requirements;
giving remote control, monitoring of operation
and notification of failures. Flood control systems · operation and control (e.g. whether manual,
may include automatic operation, controlled remote or automatic, frequency, accuracy
remotely from a central logic unit. etc);
Instrumentation would typically cover monitoring · maintenance considerations;
of flows, water levels, gate positions, pump
operating pressures and power consumption. · visual impact;

· passage of fish; · the passage of sediment and trash;
· navigation requirements; and · cost (both capital and recurring);
· cost. · reliability;
Other matters that must be considered in the · ease of maintenance and replacement; and
design of the gate and its installation may
include: · the need or otherwise for variable speed
motors.
· safety to the public and to operation and
Particular matters to be considered in the design
maintenance staff;
of a pumping installation include:
· materials (strength, durability, impact on the
· the hydraulics of the sump and approach to
environment, etc);
the pump;
· methods of lifting and control;
· the avoidance of swirl at the pump inlets;
· power supplies under both normal and
· inlet screening both for trash and fish;
emergency operation;
· access for operation and maintenance and
· ease of handling and maintenance;
possible provision of lifting equipment;
· repair and maintenance of protective coat-
· flammable gases;
ings;
· ventilation;
· sealing requirements;
· power supply (electrical, diesel or diesel-
· suppression of flow-induced vibration;
electric) including standby provision;
· instrumentation and control; and
· control and instrumentation requirements;
· traditional local types of gate and river
· visual impact; and
control (e.g. the use of paddle and rymer
gates on the upper Thames). · safety and security for both the public and
operations staff.
12.4.2 Pumping Plant
Pumping plant is most commonly required in this 12.4.3 Inflatable weir s
context for drainage control, but may also be Inflatable weirs have not been widely used in the
used for flood alleviation and for water transfers. UK to date, but are increasingly found elsewhere.
Most installations have plant permanently in They may be used in place of a gated barrage
place, but in some installations, mobile plant may where there is a need to minimise afflux during
be brought in and installed for a temporary floods. They require a compressed air or pumped
purpose. water system to inflate. Advice should be sought
There are many different types and designs of from the manufacturers regarding security and
pump and the choice must be determined with control requirements.
regard to: 12.4.4 Tr ash Scr eens and Booms
· the pumping requirements - the ranges of Trash screens are used to prevent the passage of
head and flow, frequency of operation and floating and semi-buoyant debris into locations,
duration; such as culverts, intakes and pumping stations,
where it could cause a blockage or damage
· whether the installation is to be manned or
equipment. Similar structures are also used for
automatic;
other applications, including the control of fish
· the use or otherwise of submersible pumps; movement from reach to reach and as security
and safety grilles across culverts, siphons, intakes
· the use of weather-proofed pumps or the
and outfalls.
need for a building;

Mechanically-raked screens are not common, but
there are some occasions where they may be
required to protect critical downstream culverts,
bridges or waterways in sensitive locations from
high trash loads. Generally, the raking
mechanism would be a proprietary installation
and advice should be sought from the
manufacturers.
Considerations affecting trash screens and
mechanically-raked screens include:
· vulnerability to blockage, particularly during
times of weed cutting;
· frequency of clearing required;
· safety of operatives carrying out manual
raking;
· security and public safety, including
unauthorised access;
· access for vehicles to mechanically-raked
screens, the size of skip employed and noise
nuisance in residential areas;
· the proven efficacy of the selected design;
and
· the risks of mechanical plant breakdown,
hydraulic fluid spills etc.
In some locations a possible alternative to a trash
screen, whether manually or mechanically raked,
is a floating boom, which uses the water flow
past it to direct the floating debris to one side of
the watercourse, from where it can be collected
and removed.
12.4.5 Fish Scr eens and Deter r ents
The need for deterrents to fish entering intakes
and their direction towards fish passes has
encouraged the development of a number of
types of device for use in the fluvial
environment. These include:
· air bubble screens;
· acoustic devices;
· lighting; and
· current deflection devices.
The choice of type and its detailed design and
siting requires specialist advice and is a function
not only of the site geometry and flow régimes
but also of the species of fish to be deterred.
12.5 Refer ences 10. Prosser, M J (1977) The hydraulic design of
pump sumps and intakes CIRIA; London
Topic Refer ence
11. Prosser, M J (1992) Design of low-lift
Basic concepts 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 pumping stations for CIRIA
Type of installation 1,2,4,5,6,7,10,11, 12 12. Sanks, R L (Ed) (1989) Pumping station
design, Butterworths; USA
Note: No references for control and

instrumentation are included in the list
below. The technology is changing
rapidly and any standard text presented
now would be very quickly out of date.
1. Carling, P A & Dobson, J H (1992) Fish
pass design and evaluation; phase 1 initial
review National Rivers Authority, R&D
Note 110
2. Lewin, J (1995) Hydraulic gates and valves
(in free surface flow and submerged outlets),
Thomas Telford; London
3. MAFF (1984) Fish pass design - criteria for
the design and approval of fish passes and
other structures to facilitate the passage of
migratory fish in rivers fisheries Research
Technical Report No 78
4. National Rivers Authority (1992) Diversion
and entrapment of fish at water intakes and
outfalls Report 1 National Rivers Authority
5. National Rivers Authority (1995) Pumping
stations - efficiency of operation and cost for
a design life span - survey of pumping
stations and design philosophy R&D Project
363
stations - efficiency of operation and cost for
a design life span - maintenance practices,
organisation and energy saving initiatives
R&D Project 363/2/NW
station design manual - final report R&D
Note 471
8. National Rivers Authority (1992) Design and
operation of trash screens R&D project
300/2/T,
9. Naudascher, E et al (1994) Flow induced
vibrations: an engineering Guide A A
Balkema, Rotterdam

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R&D Technical Report W109 (W5-027 Version 11/01)

Binnie Black & Veatch

Binnie Black & Veatch

Tel: 01454 624400 Fax: 01454 624409

R&D TECHNICAL REPORT W109 W5-027 Version 11/01

Chapter 1 RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY 5

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PART 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 39

Chapter 7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 41

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1.1 Scope of the chapter 1.4 Geomor phology and the

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2.1 Scope of the chapter · the MORECS estimates of actual evapo-

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3.1 Scope of the chapter coefficient which depends on the velocity

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4.1 Scope of the chapter 4.2 Basic concepts

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5.1 Scope of the Chapter · observations by flood defence staff

· identify the need for data as early as possible;

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· historic land use · archiving of data in open locations for future

Ordnance Survey When storing data it is important to include

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5.8 Geomor phology and Sediment

5.9 Asset Condition Sur veys

5.10 Envir onmental Baseline

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1. British Standard (1999) Code of practice for

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· other parameters (e.g. water quality).

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1. Abbot, M B (1997) Range of Tidal Flow

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7.1 Scope of the Chapter · construction methods - whether local con-

Operational and environmental issues should be 7.2.4 Establish Design Cr iter ia

7.3 Health and Safety Consider ations

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1. Chow, V T (1959) Open channel hydraulics

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