MACHINE DESIGN:

Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical

information and imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical
system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency
Machine design is the creation of plans for a machine to perform the desired
functions. The machine may be entirely new in concept, performing a new type of
work, or it may more economically perform the work that can be done by an
existing machine. It may be an improvement or enlargement of an existing
machine for better economy and capability.

BASIC PROCEDURE OF MACHINE DESIGN

The basic procedure of machine design consists of a step-by-step approach from
given specifications about the functional requirements of a product to the complete
description in the form of drawings of the final product. A logical sequence of
steps. usually common to all design projects.
Classifications of Machine Design
The machine design may be classified as follows :
1. Adaptive design.
In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing
designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be
attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes
minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.

2. Development design.
This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability
in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material
or different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from
the existing design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the
original product.

3. New design.
This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high
order can take up the work of a new design. The designs, depending upon the
methods used, may be classified as follows :

(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.

(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based
on the practice and past experience.

(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.

(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.

(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor
car.

(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like
piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.

(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimisation of a
design.
MACHINE:
A machine consists of machine elements, each part of a machine which has
motion with respect to some pad. is called a machine element. It is important to
note that each machine element may consist of several parts.,which are
manufactured separately.

Machine element can be classified into two groups—general/ purpose

and special purpose machine elements.

General- purpose machine elements include shafts, couplings, clutches, bearings,

springs, gears and machine frames
Special-purpose machine elements include pistons, valves or spindles. Special-
pulses machine elements are used only in certain applications. On the contrary,
general-purpose machine elements are used in a large number of machines.

General Considerations in Machine Design

 Type of load and stresses caused by the load.

 Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
 Selection of materials.
 Form and size of the parts.
 Frictional resistance and lubrication.
 Convenient and economical features.
 Use of standard parts.
 Safety of operation.
 Workshop facilities.
 Number of machines to be manufactured.
 Cost of construction.
 Assembling.
Classification of Engineering Materials
The engineering materials are mainly classified as :
 Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
 Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as :

 Ferrous metals, and
 Non-ferrous metals.

FERROUS METALS are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such
as cast iron, wrought iron and steel.

NON-FERROUS METALS are those which have a metal other than iron as their
main constituent, such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the
ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical
properties of the metal include strength,
stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness,
resilience, creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:

Strength.
It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breakingor yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally
applied force is called *stress.

Stiffness.
 It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus
of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

Elasticity.
It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
whenthe external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used
in tools and machines.It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.

Plasticity.
It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under
loadpermanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in
stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.

Ductility.
It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.
The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper,
aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

Brittleness.
It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when
subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast
iron is a brittle material.

Malleability.
 It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing malleability) arelead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminium.

Toughness.
It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of thematerial has absorbed
after being stressed upto the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.

Machinability.
It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with
which a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a
number of ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or
thrust required to remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to
remove a unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily
machined than steel.
Resilience.
It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.

Creep.
When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
Fatigue.
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as
fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are
and of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts,
connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

Hardness.
It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal
to cut another metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are
dependent on the method of making the test. The hardness of a metal
may be determined by the following tests :
 Brinell hardness test,
 Rockwell hardness test,
 Vickers hardness